Norms on the gender perception of role nouns in Czech,
English, French, German, Italian, Norwegian, and Slovak
Julia Misersky
&Pascal M. Gygax
&Paolo Canal
&Ute Gabriel
&Alan Garnham
&Friederike Braun
&Tania Chiarini
&Kjellrun Englund
&Adriana Hanulikova
&Anton Öttl
&Jana Valdrova
&Lisa Von Stockhausen
&Sabine Sczesny
Published online: 26 October 2013 # Psychonomic Society, Inc. 2013
Abstract We collected norms on the gender stereotypicality
of an extensive list of role nouns in Czech, English, French,
German, Italian, Norwegian, and Slovak, to be used as a basis
for the selection of stimulus materials in future studies. We
present a Web-based tool (available at
https://www.unifr.ch/
lcg/
) that we developed to collect these norms and that we
expect to be useful for other researchers, as well. In essence,
we provide (a) gender stereotypicality norms across a number
of languages and (b) a tool to facilitate cross-language as well
as cross-cultural comparisons when researchers are interested
in the investigation of the impact of stereotypicality on the
processing of role nouns.
Keywords Gender stereotypes . Norms . Role nouns .
Occupations . Language
Thoughts and conceptual categorizations, as well as their
relation to language, have long been studied and debated in
cognitive psychology (e.g., Phillips & Boroditsky,
2003
;
Slobin,
1996
). Within this domain, the mental representation
of gender has been of particular interest, since research has
revealed its reliance on both properties of the language, such
as grammatical gender, and perceivers’ concepts, such as
stereotypes (e.g., Carreiras, Garnham, Oakhill, & Cain,
1996
;
Gygax, Gabriel, Sarrasin, Oakhill, & Garnham,
2008
; Stahlberg,
Braun, Irmen, & Sczesny,
2007
). Research that aims at
disentangling the impacts of these sources can greatly profit
from cross-linguistic and/or cross-cultural comparisons. To
facilitate such research, in the present study we had two
objectives:
First, we provide norms on the gender stereotypicality (or
conceptual gender) of an extensive number of role nouns in
seven European languages. These norms will enable
researchers to take gender associations into account when
selecting stimulus materials, especially for cross-linguistic or
cross-cultural studies. Second, we present a Web-based tool that
we developed for the collection of these norms in different
languages. This tool takes into account cross-linguistic
J. Misersky:
P. M. Gygax (*)Department of Psychology, University of Fribourg, Rue de Faucigny 2, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
e-mail: pascal.gygax@unifr.ch P. Canal
:
A. GarnhamUniversity of Sussex, Brighton, England, UK U. Gabriel
:
K. Englund:
A. ÖttlNorwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
F. Braun
University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany T. Chiarini
:
J. ValdrovaUniversity of Budweis, Budweis, Czech Republic A. Hanulikova
University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany L. Von Stockhausen
University of Duisburg-Essen, Duisburg-Essen, Germany S. Sczesny
variations in with the way that the gender of nouns with human
referents is grammatically encoded, so that equivalent
procedures can be used with each language. More specifically,
a questionnaire design was created that can be used despite such
variations. As we outline below, the existence of grammatical
gender in some languages, but not others, had implications for
the questionnaire format used in this study. As a side effect, the
tool can easily be extended for use with further languages. We
believe that this tool will, therefore, be a valuable resource for
researchers in various psychological disciplines who wish to
systematically collect norms for different languages and/or
from specific populations, for future studies.
Grammatical gender refers to a type of noun
classification. In relation to this classification, most
European languages can be assigned to one of the following
four categories (Braun, Oakhill, & Garnham,
2011
):
grammatical gender (e.g., French), combination of
grammatical and natural gender (e.g., Norwegian), natural
gender (e.g., English), and genderless (e.g., Finnish). In
grammatical-gender languages, nouns are classified for
gender. For inanimate nouns, the assignment of a
grammatical gender is arbitrary. However, for nouns that refer
to humans, grammatical gender agrees to a large extent with
the referents’ biological gender (e.g., “la musicienne” f vs.
“le musicien” m). In natural-gender languages, there is no
classification of nouns, but a distinction appears in personal
pronouns (e.g.,
“the musician . . . she” vs. “the musician . . .
he
”), and in genderless languages (e.g., Finnish “muusikko . .
. hän”), neither nouns nor pronouns are marked to indicate a
human referent’s biological gender.
Although grammatical gender is a device that can reflect
the gender of a human noun referent, it does not always do so.
More specifically, since some grammatical-gender languages
do not have a word class of
“both genders” or “irrelevant
gender,” one grammatical gender typically serves this function
(e.g., masculine, or less frequently feminine, forms are used
generically). This twofold use of one grammatical word class
(masculine nouns referring to males vs. masculine nouns
referring to a person whose sex is unknown or irrelevant or
to a group composed of both sexes) results in semantic
ambiguity, which in turn is typically resolved to the
disadvantage of women (Gygax et al.,
2012
; Gygax,
Gabriel, Sarrasin, Garnham, & Oakhill,
2009
). Using only
the masculine form in grammatical-gender languages when
assessing the conceptual properties of role nouns, such as their
gender stereotypicality, is therefore misleading, since it may
increase the representation of men in the examined
occupations or social activities (Gabriel, Gygax, Sarrasin,
Garnham, & Oakhill,
2008
). As a consequence, in our
questionnaire all role nouns are presented in both the
masculine and feminine forms in grammatical-gender
languages and are lexically specified for gender in
natural-gender and natural-genderless languages.
Gender stereotypicality refers to generalized beliefs or
expectations about whether a specific (social or occupational)
role is more likely to be held by one gender or the other. The
relatively automatic reliance on stereotypes when reading role
nouns has been shown in many studies, in social psychology
(e.g., Banaji & Hardin,
1996
) as well as psycholinguistics
(e.g., Oakhill, Garnham, & Reynolds,
2005
). However,
although stereotype information has strong implications for
the mental representation of role nouns in natural-gender or
genderless languages (such as English), its role is under debate
in the literature on grammatical-gender languages (e.g.,
Carreiras et al.,
1996
; Gygax et al.,
2008
; Irmen &
Kurovskaja,
2010
). In fact, though the sequence of activation
of grammatical cues and stereotype information is still not
clear (see Irmen,
2007
, for an interesting proposition), it is
generally agreed that stereotype information is always
activated. Therefore, any investigation of the mental
representation of gender, regardless of the language’s
grammatical gender status, requires that stereotype norms be
collected.
Regrettably, procedures have varied considerably across
languages and studies, thus rendering it difficult to compare
the results of the studies and their interpretations. For
example, Carreiras et al. (
1996
) collected norms by asking
participants to indicate the likelihood that a man or a woman
would carry out the role presented. A total of 120
occupational nouns were rated by 30 English-speaking
participants on an 11-point Likert scale (1 = strongly male to
11 = strongly female). A total of 16 Spanish speakers were
asked to rate a total of 200 nouns. The Spanish role nouns
were also rated on an 11-point scale, albeit one presented in
the reverse direction (0 = strongly female to 10 = strongly
male ). In a pretest to their reading study investigating
grammatical gender and gender representation, Irmen and
Kurovskaja (
2010
) asked 30 German-speaking participants
to rate role nouns according to their typicality on a 7-point
Likert scale (1 = typically female to 7 = typically male ). Their
list included 63 occupational role nouns, which were
presented in the masculine and feminine forms. In Finnish,
Pyykkönen, Hyönä, and van Gompel (
2010
) asked 20
participants to rate 124 occupational nouns in terms of
masculinity and femininity on a 7-point Likert scale (1 =
extremely masculine to 7 = extremely feminine). Kennison
and Trofe (
2003
) collected data to establish a set of stereotype
norms for 405 role nouns. They presented the list of role nouns
to their 80 English-speaking participants and asked them to
estimate the likelihood that these would represent a woman,
man, or both. It was further stressed that participants should
give their own opinions. Scale direction was manipulated, and
participants were presented with a version of the questionnaire
either with 1 corresponding to mostly female and 7 to mostly
male (Version 1), or with the reversed order in Version 2 (i.e.,
1 = mostly male to 7 = mostly female). Although no order
effect was apparent in this study, more recently, Gabriel et al.
(
2008
), using a similar design, did find an order effect by
reversing scale direction. In their study, Gabriel et al. collected
role noun norms for 126 nouns (most of which were from
Kennison & Trofe,
2003
) in English, French, and German.
They presented the nouns along with an 11-point scale (from
0 % women and 100 % men to 100 % women and 0 % men ,
with 10 % incremental increases), and the participants had to
respond by rating the extent to which the presented social and
occupational groups actually consisted of women and men .
An additional aspect of the Gabriel et al. study was the use of
four versions of the questionnaire: the role noun in the
feminine form on the left and the role noun in the masculine
form on the right (Version I); the role noun in the masculine
form on the left and the role noun in the feminine form on
the right (Version II); the role noun only in the masculine
form (i.e., generic) on the left (Version III); or the role
noun only in the masculine form (i.e., generic) on the right
(Version IV). Participants given Version I estimated that
more women filled the roles, relative to those who saw
Version II. Importantly, the effect was stable across all the
languages in terms of reading direction (i.e., we read from
left to right in all three languages tested) and an anchoring
effect on the first role noun read.
Though all of the procedures presented above have
provided researchers with legitimate data on which to base
their subsequent experiments, the diversity of these
procedures (i.e., questionnaires and rating scales of various
types) forces us to consider cross-linguistic studies and
comparisons of the languages tested with caution. This is not
to say that such comparisons are unreasonable, or cannot
provide useful insights, but we believe that a standardized
procedure for collecting stereotype norms across languages
and research teams is central to extending and interpreting
results appropriately across studies.
In this article, we offer a possible solution to this issue, by
providing (a) recent norms on up to 422 role nouns
(depending on the language), collected across seven
languages, using a standard procedure based on those
discussed above; as well as (b) a Web-based platform for
researchers to use when collecting norms for use in future
studies on all matters related to the representation of gender
and stereotypes.
Method
Participants
Overall sample A total of 1,663 participants contributed to
this study. The data of 255 participants were removed because
they were not native speakers of the target languages (N =
107), were not students (N = 126), or did not comply with the
instructions (N = 22). The remaining 1,408 participants’ data
were used for further analysis.
Czech-speaking sample The data from 72 participants (six
male, 66 female) with an age range from 19 to 30 years (M
= 21.57, SD = 2.05) were collected at the University of
Budweis (Czech Republic). All participants were offered an
entry in a prize draw for filling in the questionnaire.
English-speaking sample The data from 281 participants (42
male, 238 female, and one not specified) were collected at the
University of Sussex (Brighton, UK). Participants’ ages
ranged from 18 to 51 years old (M = 20.37, SD = 4.39).
The students received course credits for participation.
French-speaking sample A group of 65 French-speaking
participants from Switzerland (17 male, 48 female) with an
age range from 18 to 44 years (M = 21.11, SD = 3.28) were
recruited at the University of Fribourg (French-speaking part
of Switzerland). The students received course credit for
participation.
German-speaking sample A group of 70 German-speaking
participants from Germany (ten male, 58 female, and two
other/not specified) were recruited, mainly
1at the Free
University of Berlin (N = 44), and the University of
Duisburg-Essen (N = 15). Students participated without
compensation at both universities. Participants
’ ages ranged
from 21 to 34 years old (M = 24.23, SD = 2.95).
Italian-speaking sample A group of 800 Italian participants
(247 male, 553 female) were recruited at the Universities of
Padova and Modena (Italy). Participants’ ages ranged from 18
to 64 years old (M = 22.86, SD = 4.15); they received no
compensation.
Norwegian-speaking sample A group of 60 participants (14
male, 46 female) were recruited at the Norwegian University
of Science and Technology in Trondheim and participated
without compensation. Participants’ ages ranged from 19 to
52 years old (M = 24, SD = 6.56).
Slovak-speaking sample A group of 60 participants (nine
male, 51 female) were recruited at Constantine the
Philosopher University in Nitra (Slovakia) and participated
voluntarily. The participants’ ages ranged from 18 to 41 years
old (M = 22.48, SD = 3.23).
1Two of the German students were from the University of Fribourg
(Switzerland), one from the University of Düsseldorf (Germany), one from the Hochschule Zittau (Germany), one from the Technische Universität Dresden (Germany), one from Humboldt-Universität (Germany), and five students did not specify their affiliations.
Questionnaire and design
On the basis of previous norming studies (Gabriel et al.,
2008
;
Kennison & Trofe,
2003
) and of brainstorming sessions and
trawls of dictionaries, 422 English role nouns were selected
that were likely to have equivalent words across all or most of
the tested languages. The questionnaire was administered in
seven languages: Czech (grammatical gender), English
(natural gender), French (grammatical gender), German
(grammatical gender), Italian (grammatical gender),
Norwegian (combination of grammatical and natural gender),
and Slovak (grammatical gender). Translations were carried
out by the authors and double-checked by SMG UK
Translations Limited, a professional translation company.
Because of different-sized vocabularies, the number of role
nouns differed across the languages, ranging from the full set
of 422 role nouns in English to 398 role nouns in Norwegian
(see
Appendix A
for a complete list of the role nouns). The
choice of languages was determined by the composition of the
Marie Curie Initial Training Network (
www.itn-lcg.eu
),
Language, Cognition, and Gender, and by whether the
academic partners had ready access to student populations
from which to collect data.
As in Gabriel et al. (
2008
), participants had to estimate the
extent to which the presented social and occupational groups
actually consisted of women and men (i.e., the ratio) on an
11-point rating scale ranging from 0 % women and 100 % men to
100 % women and 0 % men , with 10 % incremental increases.
The scale was provided in terms of two scale directions: one
version with 100 % women and 0 % men on the right of the
scale (Version 1), and another with 100 % women and 0 %
men on the left (Version 2).
For the grammatical-gender languages (i.e., Czech, French,
German, Italian, and Slovak), role nouns were presented in
both masculine and feminine plural forms (as in Versions I and
II of Gabriel et al.,
2008
). For role nouns with no distinctive
masculine or feminine markings in grammatical-gender
languages (e.g., in Italian, insegnante [teachers]) and for role
nouns in the natural-gender languages (i.e., English and
Norwegian ), the words women and men were added at the
end of the role nouns in brackets—for example, firefighters
(women) versus firefighters (men) .
Since the number of role nouns to be evaluated was high,
each participant evaluated only half of the role nouns (up to
211, depending on the language). For each participant, we
wanted those role nouns to be randomly chosen from the full
set of role nouns. To our knowledge, most existing online
questionnaire systems (e.g., survey systems) have not allowed
for random stimulus allocation. Adding to this specific
procedural constraint were the facts that two scale directions
were possible, which might produce different results (Gabriel
et al.,
2008
), and that overall, we wanted all role nouns to be
responded to equally often (i.e., equal sample sizes).
Therefore, we could not rely on existing resources and had
to spefically program our own Web-based system.
The role noun allocation was as follows: For the first
participant (and a given language), the system randomly
selected half of the role nouns from the full list and
presented them in a random order in a randomly selected
scale direction. The remaining half of the role nouns were
presented in a random order to the second participant. The
third participant evaluated the same role nouns in the same
order as the first participant, though in the other scale
direction, and the fourth participant evaluated the same role
nouns in the same order as the second participant, though in
the other scale direction. The system then started the
procedure again for the following four participants. In other
words, a particular random seed was associated with four
participants. Note that within a group of four participants,
uncompleted questionnaires were saved separately (and, in
the present study, not analyzed). Another participant would
then be allocated the questionnaire that was incomplete and
would complete it independently. This process was iterated
until complete versions of all four related questionnaires had
been collected.
Procedure
The questionnaire was administered online via a webpage
created for the sole purpose of this project (
https://www.
unifr.ch/lcg
). On a first screen, participants stipulated their
native language, on which the following questionnaire was
going to be based. They then read the instructions and a
consent form in that language. By clicking Enter, they
agreed to the conditions of participation, and a screen asking
for demographics (age, gender, and profession) followed.
Once the demographic data were entered, participants were
asked to estimate, on an 11-point scale, the extent to which the
presented social and occupational groups actually consisted
of women and men (i.e., the ratio) (see Fig.
1
). Participants
were instructed to estimate the extent to which the groups
depicted by the role nouns are actually made up of women
and men, rather than being influenced by any thoughts of how
these proportions ought to be. Role nouns were presented in
sets of a maximum of 20 role nouns per page.
Results
All questionnaires were coded such that high values on the
11-point scale reflected a higher proportion of women. The data
were transformed into proportions, such that
“100 % women
and 0 % men,” for example was recoded as 1, “50 % women
By-participants analyses
For each language, by-participants analyses were carried out
on the mean ratings for each person tested, averaged across
(classes of) items. These analyses investigated (1) the mean
bias of all of the items tested for each language, (2) whether
the people completing different versions of the questionnaire
judged, on average, that the same proportions of females and
males filled various roles (i.e., did the format of the
questionnaire affect the resulting norms? ), and (3) whether
male and female participants differed, on average, in the
proportions of females and males that they judged to fill
various roles.
Czech For each participant, the mean rating across the role
nouns was calculated (M = .43, SD = .05; scale midpoint =
.50). These normally distributed scores, Kolmogorov–
Smirnov’s D(72) = .10, p = .18, ranged from .31 to .54. The
mean rating for Version 1 (100 % feminine–right) was .42 (SD
= .04), whereas the mean for Version 2 (100 % feminine–left)
was .43 (SD = .05). A t test revealed that the difference
between the two scales was nonsignificant, t(70) = 0.52, p =
.606. Overall, female respondents rated the proportion of
women as being slightly higher (M = .43, SD = .05) than did
male participants (M = .41, SD = .07), t (70) = 0.71, p = .48.
English For each participant, the mean rating across the role
nouns was calculated (M = .44, SD = .04; scale midpoint =
.50). Though the overall distribution of scores was nonnormal,
D (281) = .06, p = .007, ranging from .33 to .54, only the
distribution of Version 1 was nonnormal, D (141) = .09, p =
.007. The mean rating for Version 1 (100 % feminine–right)
was .43 (SD = .04), whereas the mean for Version 2 (100 %
feminine
–left) was .45 (SD = .03). A t test revealed a
significant difference between the two scales, t (279) = 3.25,
p = 001, meaning that the feminine form on the left resulted in
significantly more women being estimated to carry out the
role presented. Overall, female (M = .44, SD = .04) and male
(M = .44, SD = .04) respondents rated the proportions of
women as being equally high, t (278) =
−0.56, p = .57.
French For each participant, the mean rating across the role
nouns was calculated (M = .42, SD = .04; scale midpoint =
.50). These normally distributed scores, D (65) = .06, p > .20,
ranged from .32 to .50. The mean rating for Version 1 (100 %
feminine
–right) was .42 (SD = .04), and an identical mean and
variance were found for Version 2 (100 % feminine–left),
t (63) = 0.09, p = .93. Overall, female (M = .42, SD = .03)
and male (M = .42, SD = .05) participants rated the
proportions of women similarly, t (63) = 0.25, p = .81.
German For each participant, the mean rating across the role
nouns was calculated (M = .44, SD = .04; scale midpoint =
.50). Though the overall distribution of scores was nonnormal,
D (70) = .11, p = .045, ranging from .35 to .50, the
distributions of both Version 1 and Version 2 were normal.
The mean ratings for Version 1 (100 % feminine–right: M =
.44, SD = .03) and Version 2 (100 % feminine–left: M = .44,
SD = .04) did not differ, t (68) = 0.71, p = .48. Overall, female
participants rated the proportion of women as being slightly
higher (M = .45, SD = .03) than did male participants (M =
.42, SD = .04), t (66) = 1.87, p = .066, yet this difference needs
to be considered with caution, due to the unequal sample sizes
(i.e., ten male, 58 female).
Italian For each participant, the mean rating across the role
nouns was calculated (M = .43, SD = .04; scale midpoint =
.50). Though the overall distribution of scores was nonnormal,
Fig. 1 Example of the rating scale in EnglishD (800) = .04, p = .009, ranging from .26 to .55, only the
distribution of Version 1 was nonnormal, D (141) = .05, p =
.04. The mean rating for Version 1 (100 % feminine
–right)
was .42 (SD = .04), whereas the mean for Version 2 (100 %
feminine–left) was .44 (SD = .04). A t test revealed a
significant difference between the two scales, t (798) = 5.59,
p < 001. Overall, the female participants (M = .43, SD = .04)
and male participants (M = .43, SD = .04) rated the
proportions of women similarly, t (798) = 0.48, p = .630.
Norwegian For each participant, the mean rating across the
role nouns was calculated (M = .44, SD = .03; scale midpoint
= .50). These normally distributed scores, D (60) = .08, p >
.20, ranged from .36 to .50. The mean rating for Version 1
(100 % feminine–right) was .43 (SD = .04), whereas the mean
for Version 2 (100 % feminine–left) was .45 (SD = .03). A t
test revealed a significant difference between the two scales,
t (58) = 2.62, p = .011, meaning that the feminine-on-the-left
version resulted in significantly more women being
estimated to carry out the role presented. Overall, female
(M = .44, SD = .04) and male (M = .44, SD = .02)
participants rated the proportions of women similarly,
t (58) =
−0.29, p = .771.
Slovak For each participant, the mean rating across the role
nouns was calculated (M = .42, SD = .05; scale midpoint =
.50). These normally distributed scores, D (60) = .11, p = .084,
ranged from .27 to .50. The mean rating for Version 1 (100 %
feminine–right) was .41 (SD = .05), whereas the mean for
Version 2 (100 % feminine–left) was .43 (SD = .04). A t test
revealed that the difference between the two scales was
nonsignificant, t (58) = 1.66, p = .103. Overall, female
participants rated the proportion of women as being slightly
higher (M = .42, SD = .05) than did male participants (M =
.41, SD = .05), t (58) = 0.97, p = .339, though, as with the
German sample, this difference needs to be considered with
caution because of unequal sample sizes (i.e., nine male, 51
female).
By-items analyses
For each language, the mean proportions of females and males
judged to fill each role were calculated. These proportions (see
Appendix B
), together with the standard deviations and the
number of responses for each item, can be used to assess
whether the terms are stereotyped. To be more precise, the
standard deviations indicate the level of consensus across
participants in our samples, but a measure such as the standard
error of the mean or a confidence interval around the mean
would be needed to show whether we had evidence that the
mean for a particular item in a particular language was
different from .5 (the midpoint on the scales, corresponding
to 50 % females and 50 % males).
These proportions also allow the computation of
correlations, both for the scores on cognate items in different
languages and for scores on the same items in different
versions of the questionnaire within a language. As is shown
in Table
1
(the N s of the role nouns differ due to
different-sized vocabularies), the mean ratings per role noun were
highly reliable across all languages, all p s < .01, indicating a
high consensus across languages. Similarly, the mean ratings
per role noun were highly reliable across scale directions, with
an overall correlation of r
s= .99 (p < .001).
Discussion
The aim of this article was twofold. First, we wanted to
provide norms for a large number of role nouns and from a
large number of respondents (i.e., many more than have been
included in previous norming studies) across several
languages, using one fixed methodology. Second, we wanted
to offer a Web-based platform for collecting norms for use in
future studies on all matters surrounding the representation of
gender and gender stereotypes.
With reference to the primary aim, several aspects of our
data deserve comment. First, and mimicking the results found
by Gabriel et al. in
2008
, the rankings of the role nouns were
very similar across languages, as is attested by the high
correlations between languages and the similarity in the
overall proportion means. Second, and related to the first
aspect, the overall proportion of women in the role nouns
ranged from .42 to .45 across languages, signaling globally
stronger male stereotypes than female, which is also consistent
with the previous norms (e.g., Gabriel et al.,
2008
). Third,
though women participants indicated overall that they thought
slightly higher proportions of women filled the roles (as
compared to the male participants, the greatest difference
being in German), these differences were never significant,
so we have no evidence of a sex-of-respondent effect. Fourth,
and finally, scale direction is a factor that should be taken into
consideration, inasmuch as proportions of women are
generally higher (significantly so in English, Italian, and
Norwegian) when 100 % feminine is displayed on the left of
the screen, rather than the right. However, since this effect is
numerically small and has little effect on the relative ordering
of the role names for stereotypicality, it may only be important
in some circumstances (e.g., when looking at role nouns
individually).
Concerning the second aim of the study, we suggest that
use of the same norming methodology across all research
teams interested in research on gender and stereotyping might
prove beneficial in several ways. First, it will enable relatively
unproblematic cross-experiment comparisons, especially
when addressing issues related to stereotypes. Second, and
more specifically, it will facilitate cross-linguistic comparisons
and longitudinal comparisons that can investigate the
evolution of role nouns
’ gender stereotypicality. As in the
present article, cross-language comparisons will still require
some caution: In some cases, though words are grounded on
the same cognates (e.g., vice chancellor in English vs.
Vizekanzler in German), they do not necessarily refer to the
exact same role, and in some cases, an occupation may be
referred to by several names in a given language (at some level
of specificity), whereas it might only be referred to with one
name in another language. Though this seems like an obvious
point, it still needs to be addressed when examining
stereotypicality cross-linguistically.
In addition to the limitations mentioned above, we would
add those naturally associated with the use of the Internet for
gathering data. The primary source of these limitations is the
lack of control over the participants’ true behaviors when
completing the questionnaire (i.e., responding randomly or
dishonestly, or misrepresenting themselves in terms of
language competences). Researchers concerned about these
issues can decide to collect data in their own computer-based
seminars or in other contexts, usually within their own
institution, that will allow for better control over the testing
phase. Additional information pertaining to specific research
questions may then also be collected (e.g., language
competences or social background). With these possibilities
in mind, we believe that the possible limitations of the use of a
computer-based questionnaire for norming role nouns are
outweighed by its advantages. One of these advantages is
the possibility of (much more easily) testing a wide range of
population samples, across ages, cultures, and countries. In
essence, considering that the Internet has now become a
relatively common medium, we believe that having a
Web-based questionnaire to evaluate role noun stereotypicality can
potentially address a wider range of issues than could
traditional paper-based questionnaires.
One important issue that the present study has not
addressed, and that may be considered in future studies, is
the extent to which the ratings obtained, which can be
considered as being relatively good estimates of people’s
beliefs, are close to real gender distributions in the
occupations or other social roles. Though for several role
nouns real-world information may be difficult to obtain, for
many it should be relatively easily available (e.g., from
national statistics). Similarities as well as dissimilarities
between beliefs and the actual distributions could be of great
interest. For example, such information may shed light on the
difference between typicality and stereotypicality.
As a final important note, the Web-based questionnaire
currently has matched sets of role nouns for Basque, Czech,
English, Farsi, French, German, Italian, Mandarin, Norwegian,
Slovak, and Spanish. Researchers interested in collecting
norms in any of these languages can contact the second author
of this article. Data collection will be run at the institution of the
research team interested in these norms by providing participant
access to the Web address mentioned in the
Method
section.
Data can be sent to the research team in Excel format once the
data collection is completed. For those interested in adding
languages, some development fees may have to be applied.
Author note The research reported in this article was funded by the European Community’s Seventh Framework Program (FP7/2007-2013) under Grant Agreement nº 237907 (Marie Curie ITN, Language, Cognition, and Gender). We thank Maurizio Rigamonti for his invaluable help on setting up the questionnaire website.
Table 1 Correlation coefficients between mean role noun ratings of all seven languages
Czech English French German Italian Norwegian
English rs .865* N 399 French rs .889* .928* N 388 409 German rs .915* .917* .930* N 393 412 401 Italian rs .870* .893* .923* .896* N 390 410 399 402 Norwegian rs .880* .919* .902* .930* .870* N 380 398 388 391 389 Slovak rs .960* .856* .889* .913* .876* .864* N 397 405 393 398 395 384 *
Appendix
A
Ta b le 2 R o le nouns acros s all languages Role nouns (in E nglish) Cz ec h F re nch G er man Ita lian N orwegian Slovak 1 A ccountants see “Bookkeepers ” Co mpta ble s see “Bookkeepers ” R agionieri R egnskapsførere see “Bookkeepers ” 2 A crobats Akrobati Acrobates A kr obaten A crobati Akrobater A krobati 3 A cupuncturis ts A kup unkturisti Acupuncteurs A kupunkteure Agopunturisti A kupunktører Akupunkturisti 4 A dmini str ati v e wor k er s se e “Of fi ce wor k er s” Employés d e l’ administration V erwaltungsangestellte Imp iegati amministrativi see “S ecr et ar ies ” see “Of fi ce work ers ” 5 A dmirals A dmirálové Amirau x A dmir ale A mmir agl i A d mi ra ler A dmir áli 6 A erobics instructors Instrukto ři aerobiku P rofesseurs d’ aérobic A erobicleh rer Istruttori d i aero b ica A erobicinstruktører In štruktori aerobiku 7 A ir tr af fi c contr o ll er s L et eč tí di spe če ři C o n trôleurs aérien F luglotsen C ontrollori di volo F lyveledere Pracovn íci riadenia letovej p revádzky 8 A lcoholics A lkoholici A lcooliques A lkoh o liker Alcolizzati A lkoholikere A lko holici 9 A nglers R ybá ři P êche u rs Fisc her P esc ator i F isker e R ybár i 10 Animators O rg anizáto ři volno čas ových aktivit N/A A nimateure A nimato ri Animatører Animátori v oľ ného čas u 1 1 Antique dealers S taro žit níci A n tiqua ir es Anti quitä ten h ändle r A n tiq uar i A n tikvi tet sfor h and ler e S ta ro žitní ci 12 Apprentices U čň ové Apprentis Lehrlinge A pprendisti L ærlinger U čni 13 Ar chi tec ts Ar chi tekt i A rc h ite cte s Ar chit ekte n A rc hite tti A rki tekt er Ar chit ekti 14 Ar chi v ists Ar chi v ář i A rc hivist es Ar chiva re A rc hivis ti A rki v ar er Ar chivá ri 15 Ar tis ts Um ělc i A rt is te s K üns tl er Ar ti st i K uns tn er e U me lc i 16 Ass ista n ts As iste nti A ssist ant s Assi ste n ten A ssis tent i Assist ent er A si sten ti 17 Ass istant chefs As istenti šéfkucha ře C h efs de partie Assisten zköche Assis tenti cuoc hi Hjelpekokker A sisten ti šéfkuchára 18 Astrologists A st rologové As trologues A strolog en A strol ogi Astrologer A stroló govia 19 Astronauts A st ronauti/kosmona uti A stronautes Astronauten Astr onauti A stronauter Astronauti 20 Astronomers A st rono mové Astronomes As tronomen Astronomi A stronomer Astronómovia 21 Athletes Atleti Athlètes Spor tle r A tle ti Id re tts utøver e Š portovci 22 Au pairs A u-pair Jeunes g arçons au pair A upa irs R agaz zi alla pa ri A u -pa ir er A u-pair 23 Auctioneers D ra žite lé Co mmissa ir es-p ri se urs A uktionäre B anditori d’ asta Auksjonarier Dra žit el ia 24 Authors A uto ři A uteurs Autoren A utori F orfattere A uto ri 25 Babies Miminka Bébé s S äuglinge Neonati S p edbarn Bábätká 26 Baby sitters see “Child-minders ” Ba bysit ter s Babys itte r B abysi tte r se e “Chi ld -m inde rs ” Opa trov ate lia de tí 27 Bakers Peka ři B o u langers Bäcker F o rnai Bakere Pekári 28 Ballet dancers B aletní tane čníci Danseurs class iques B alletttänzer se e “Da nce rs ” Ba lle ttda n se re Bal etní ci 29 Bank clerks see “Bankers ” Employés d e b anque Bankangestel lte Impiegati di banca B ankkas serere B ankov í ú rad n íci 30 Bank ers B ankovní úř edníci Banquiers B ankkauf leute B anch ieri Bankfu nksjonærer B ankáriTa b le 2 (continued) Role nouns (in E nglish) Cz ec h F re nch G er man Ita lian N orwegian Slovak 31 Barbers H oli či B arbiers H errenfriseur e B ar bier i B ar be re re Holi či 32 Bar te nder s Ba rmani T en anci er s d e b ar Bar k ee per B ar isti Ba rt ende re Bar m an i 33 Bas eball play ers H rá či b ase b alu Jo u eur s de base ball Base bal lspie ler G ioc ator i di base bal l Ba seba lls pill ere B ej zbal ist i 34 Bas k etball players B asketb alisti Jo ueurs d e b aske tbal l B aske tba llspi ele r G ioc ator i d i p al lac ane stro Ba sket bal lspil ler e Bas k etba list i 35 Bas s p laye rs B as kyta ris ti Ba ssis tes Bass iste n B assi sti B assis ter Bas g ita ris ti 36 Bea u tic ia ns Kos m etic i E sthé tic iens Kosmet iker E ste tis ti K o sme tik ere K oz me tic i 37 Bikers see “Cyc list s” Motards M otorradfahrer M otoc iclisti M otorsyklister see “Cycl ists ” 38 Bingo players H rá či b inga Jo ueurs d e b ingo Bingosp ieler Giocatori d i b ingo Bingospillere H rá či b inga 39 Biologists B io logové Biologistes Bi olo g en B iologi Biologer B iológovia 40 Birth attendants P orodníci Assistan ts maternels G eb urts helfer Ostetric i F ødselshjelpere P ôrodní asisten ti 41 Blacksmiths K ová ři F or gerons Schmiede F abbri S meder K ová či 42 Bookkeepers Ú četn í se e “A cco untant s” Buchhalter C ontabili B o kholdere Ú čtovníci 43 Bosse s Š éfové P atrons Chefs C api S jefer Š éfovia 44 Boutique owners Majitelé butik ů P ropriétaires de boutique Bouti que-Inhaber P ropietari d i n egoz io Bu tikkeiere Majitelia butiku 45 Boxers Boxe ři B o x eurs Boxer P ugili Bo ksere B oxeri 46 Bricklayers Z edníci Maçons M aur er Mura to ri Mur er e M u rá ri 47 Building contractors S tavitelé Entrepreneu rs en bâ ti m en t Bauunternehmer Impresari edili By ggentreprenører Stavitelia 48 Bus d rivers Ř id ič i autobusu C o nducteurs d e bus Busfahrer A utis ti di autobus Bu ssjåfører V odi či autobu sov 49 Butchers Ř ezníci Bo uchers Metzger M ac ell ai S lakt er e M äs ia ri 50 Butl er s N /A M aît re s d’ hôtel Dienstboten Maggiordom i H ovme ste re Kom o rní ci 51 Cabinet m inis ters Minist ři M inis tre s Min iste r M ini str i M inis ter e M in istr i 52 Cake decorators see “Pa stry ch efs ” D éco rat eur s d e g âte au N /A D ec o ra tori di to rt e N /A see “Pas try ch efs ” 53 Cam er a ope rat o rs Ka me ra ma ni Ca mé ra mans Kameraleute O perato ri cinemato graf ic i F ilmfot ogr af er K am er ama ni 54 Camper s T ábor níci Ca mp eurs Camper C ampeggiatori C amp ingt urister T áborníci 55 Canteen assis tants Pomocníci/pomocné sí ly Aides d e cantine Küchenhilfen Inservient i d i m ensa Kjøkkenhjelpere Asisten ti jed álne 56 C ar m ec ha ni cs A u tom ec h ani ci see “Me cha n ic s” Automec h ani k er se e “Me cha n ic s” Bi lmekan iker e A uto m ec hani ci 57 Card players H rá či k ar et Jo ueur s d e car te s K ar te nspie ler G ioc ator i d i ca rte K o rt spill er e H rá čik ar ie t 58 Care workers O patrovníci T ravailleu rs sociaux B etreu ungspersonen O perato ri sociali S osionomer Opatrov n íci 59 Caregivers see “H ea lth vi si tor s” S o ignants P fleger B adan ti O msor gsytere O patrov atelia 60 Caretakers Domovníci see “Ja n ito rs ” V erwalter C ustodi see “S upervisors ” Domovníci 61 Ca rpe n te rs T esa ři C h arpe n ti ers S chr ei n er se e “W ood workers ” S n ekkere Stolári 62 Cartoonists K arikaturisti Dessinateurs d e B D C omiczeic hner D isegnatori di cartoni animat i T egneserieskapere Karikaturisti
Ta b le 2 (continued) Role nouns (in E nglish) Cz ec h F re nch G er man Ita lian N orwegian Slovak 63 Cas h iers Pokladníci Caissiers K as sie rer C assi eri K asse re re Pokla dníc i 64 Cat o w n er s M ajit elé k oč ek P ropriétaires de chat Katzenbesitzer P ropr ie tar i di gat ti K att eei er e M ajit eli a ma čie k 65 Caterers Dodavatelé jídla T raiteurs Betrei ber eines P artyservice R istorator i S elskapsarrangører Zásobovatelia 66 Celebrities Celebrity Cé lébrités Pro m inente C ele brità K jendiser O sobno sti 67 Chair p ersons Př edsedové P rés idents (entreprise) V o rsitze nde P residenti S tyreledere P redsedovia 68 Chamber -maids P okoj ští H o mmes de ch ambre Z immer p er sonal C amer ier i d’ al ber g o S tuepi k er Chy žní 69 Chee rl ead ers R oz tle skáva či P ompom boys Cheerleader R agazzi ponpo n C h eerleadere R oztlieskava či 70 Chefs Š éfkucha ři C h efs Chefköche C apocuochi Kjøkkensjefer Š éfkuch ári 71 Chemis ts Che m ic i C h imi ste s Chem ike r C h imici K jemike re Chemic i 72 Children D ěti se e “Ki ds ” see “Kids ” Ba mbi n i B ar n D et i 73 Child educators V ychov atelé É ducateurs d’ enf ant s se e “Nur ser y tea cher s” Educatori d’ infanzia P edago ger V ychovávatelia 74 Child-minders Opatrovatelé dě tí G ar d iens d’ enf ant s T ages väte r B ali e Ba rne v akt er D et skí opa trova te lia 75 Chiropractors C hiroprakti ci Ch iropracteurs C hiropraktiker C h iro terapeuti Kiro praktorer C hiropraktici 76 Chocolate lovers Milovníci čokolády A mateurs d e chocolat Schok ol adenliebhaber A manti d el ciocco lato S jokoladeelskere Milovníci čokolády 77 Choreographers Choreografové Ch orég raph es Choreografen C o re ografi K oreograf er Choreografi 78 Cinema g o ers N áv števníci k ina S p ectateurs de cinéma Kinob esuche r F requentatori d i cin ema K inogjengere Náv štev n íci k in a 79 Clairvoyants Jasnovidci V oyants H ells eher C h iaroveggenti S ynske Jas novidci 80 Cleaners Uklíze či T echniciens d e surface Reinigungskräfte Addett i alle pulizie Rengjøringspers onale Upratov ač i 81 Clerks Ú ředníci Employés A ngestellte Im piegati A nsatte Úradníci 82 C lie nt s K li en ti se e “Cu stomers ” Klienten C lienti K lienter Klienti 83 Climbers see “Mountain climber s” G rimpe urs K le tte re r A rr ampic ator i K lat re re see “Mountain climbers ” 84 Clinical psychologists Kl ini čtí psychologové P sychologues cliniciens K li nische Psychologen P sicologi clinici K liniske psykologer K linick í p sychológovia 85 Clowns Klauni Clowns Cl owns C lown K lovner K launi 86 Colon els Plukovníci Co lonels Obersten C o lonnelli Oberster Pluko vníci 87 Comedians K omici C o m édiens Ko miker C omici K omikere K omici 88 Company d ir ec tors Ř ed ite lé spol eč nos ti see “G ene ral m ana g er s” Bet rie bsle ite r D ir igent i d’ im pre sa see “E x ec utive s” Ria d ite lia sp olo čnos ti 89 Composers S kladatelé C o m positeurs Komponi sten C o mpos itori Komponister Skladatelia 90 Computer programmers P rogr am át oř i P rogrammateurs P ro grammierer P rogr amma tor i P rogr amme rere Programátori 91 Computer specialists IT odborníci Informat iciens Computerspezia listen S pecialisti d’ informatica D atae ksperter IT odborníci 92 Co mputer technicians IT technici T ec hniciens informatique Computertechnike r T ec ni ci in for m at ic i D at at ek ni ke re P oč ít ač oví technici 93 Conquerors Doby vatelé Co nquérants E roberer C onquistatori E robrere D obyvatelia 94 Conservationists O chránci př írody see “Cu rat o rs ” N atur sc hüt ze r A m b ie nta lis ti M iljøvernere O chrancovia p rírody
Ta b le 2 (continued) Role nouns (in E nglish) Cz ec h F re nch G er man Ita lian N orwegian Slovak 95 Construction workers S tavebn í dě lníci O uvriers du bâtiment B auarbeiter O pera i edili By gningsarbeid ere S tavební robotníci 96 Cooks Kucha ři C u isiniers K öche C uochi Kokker K uchári 97 Coordinators Koordináto ři C o o rdinateurs Koordinatore n C oordinatori N/A K oordinátori 98 Counseling psychologists Psy chologov é P sychologues con seille rs Psychotherapeuten C onsulenti psicologici Rådgi ver P sychológovia 99 Counsellors Odbo rní poradci Co nseillers professionnels Pro fes sionelle Berater C onsul enti professionali Yrkesrå dgivere Odborní poradcovia 100 Couriers Kurý ři C our sie rs K u ri er e C or ri er i K ur er er K u ri ér i 101 Court reporters Soudní zapisovatelé S ténographes G erichtsschrei ber C ancellieri R etts sten ografer Súdni stenografi 102 Craft w orkers Ř emeslníci A rtisans H an dwerker A rtigiani Håndverkere R emeselníci 103 Crane operators Je řáb níci G rut ier s Kr anf ühre r O p er ato ri d i g ru K ra n før er e Ž er ia vní ci 104 Cr imi n als K ri miná lníc i C ri mine ls Kr imi n el le C rimina li K rimine lle Zl oč inc i 105 Cult members Č lenové kultu Membres d’ une sect e S ekt enmitgl iede r S eguaci S ektmedlemmer Č lenovia kultu 106 Cura to rs K u rá to ři C onse rva teur s K u ra to re n C ur at or i K ur at ore r K u rá to ri 107 Customers see “Shopp ers ” Clients K unden C onsumatori K under see “Shoppers ” 108 Customs ins pectors C elní inspekto ři Inspecteurs des douanes Z ollinspektoren Ispettori di dogana T o llinspektører C olní in špektori 109 Customs o ff icers C elní ci Douaniers Z ollbeamte D oganieri T ollere Colníci 1 1 0 C ycl ist s C ykl isti Cy clis tes R adf ahr er C icl isti S yklist er C ykli sti 1 1 1 D an ce in str u ctor s T ane ční ins truk to ři P rofesseurs d e d anse T anzlehrer Istr uttori di ballo Danseinstruktører T ane ční in štruktori 11 2 D an ce rs T an eč níc i D anse u rs Tä nzer B all er ini D anse re T ane čníci 1 1 3 D ata p roces sors Zp racovatelé úd aj ů T raiteurs d e données Datenvera rbeiter E laboratori d i d ati N /A Spracov ávatelia údajov 1 1 4 D at ab as e ad m inist ra to rs Adm ini str áto ři d at abáz í A dmi n istr at eur s d e base s d e données Datenbankverwalter A mministratori d i database N/ A D at ab áz oví ad mi nist rá to ri 1 1 5 D eaco ns Jáhni Diacres D ia kone Diaconi Diakon er Diakoni 1 1 6 D ental hyg ienists Z u bní hygien ici H ygién istes d entaire D en talhygien iker Igienisti d entali T annpl eiere D entálni hygien ici 1 1 7 D en tal tech nici ans Z u b ař i T echniciens d entaire Z ahntechniker O dont otecnici T annteknikere Zubní tech nici 1 1 8 D entists Zu bní technici Dentistes Z ahnärzte Dentisti T annleger Zubári 1 1 9 D eputies Z ástupci D éputés Stellvertr et er D eput ati V ar am ed lemmer Zástupcovia 120 Designers Návrhá ři D esigners Des igner D esi gners Designere Návrhári 121 Detectives Detek tivové Détectives Dete ktive Inves tigatori D etektiver Detektívi 122 Dieticians Dietetici D iété ticiens E rnährungsberater D ie tologi Kostholdseksp erter V ýž ivoví poradco via 123 Diplomats D iplomati Diplomates Diplom at en D iplo m atic i D iplomat er D ipl o ma ti 124 Doctors o f Philosophy se e “Phys icians ” se e “Medical doctors ” Dokto ren der P hilosophie D otto ri F ilosofidoktorer see “Physicians ” 125 Dog o wn ers M ajit elé p sů P ropriétaires de chien H undehalter P roprie tari di cani Hundeeiere M ajitelia psov
Ta b le 2 (continued) Role nouns (in E nglish) Cz ec h F re nch G er man Ita lian N orwegian Slovak 126 Door keepers V rátní P ortiers P fö rtner P ortinai D ørvakter V rátnici 127 Dr ess m ak ers se e “Ta il o rs ” Co uturiers N/A see “T ailor s” se e “T ailor s” see “Ta il o rs ” 128 Drivers Ř id ič i A utomobilistes Fahrer Automobilisti S jåfører V odi či 129 Dr iving instr uctor s U čite lé v aut oš kole M oniteurs d’ aut o -é cole Fahr le hre r Is tr ut tori di guida Kjørelærere In štruktori auto škôl 130 Drug addicts N arkomani T oxicomanes D rogena bhängig e T o ss icodipendenti N arkomane N arkomani 131 Drug dealers D eale ři d rog D ealeurs de drogue Drogenhändler S p acciatori L angere Drogoví díleri 132 Drummers Bubeníci Batteurs S chlagze uger B atteristi T rommeslag ere Bubeníci 133 Economists Ek onomové Économistes W irtschafts wissenschaftler Econo mis ti Ø konomer Ekonómovia 134 Editors E d ito řis ee “P ublish ers ” Heraus geber R edattori Redaktører Editori 135 Educational psychologists Pedagogi čtí psychologové Éducateurs spécialisés Pädagogi sche Psychologen P sicologi dell ’educazione S koleps ykologer V zdelávací psychológovia 136 Electricians E lektriká ři É lec tr ici ens E le ktr iker E le ttr ici sti E lek tri k er e E le ktr iká ri 137 Embezzlers Defraudanti E scrocs V eruntre uer M alversato ri U nderslagere Defraudan ti 138 Engine-drivers Strojvedouc í M écaniciens de train L okführer Macchin isti L okomotivførere Ru šnovodi či 139 Engineers In žený ři Ingénieurs Ingenieu re Ingeg n eri Ingeniører In žinie ri 140 Entertainers Konferencié ři A muse urs E nt ert aine r In tr at teni tori A rti ste r Konf er enc ier i 141 Environmentalists E k o logové Éc ologistes Umweltschützer E col ogisti M iljøaktivister E kológovia 142 Es tate agen ts Realitní maklé ři A gents immobil ier s Immob ilie nma k le r A gent i immobil iar i E ien domsmegl er e Rea lit ní ma klér i 143 Executives V edoucí p rac ovníci Cadres Führungskräfte Impiegati es ecutivi Direktører V edúci p racovníci 144 Executors E x ekuto ři E xéc u teur s tes tament air e Nac h la ssver wa lte r E se cuto ri te stament ar i T estamen tfullbyrdere Exekútori 145 Exercise instructors Instrukto řic v ič ení P rofesseurs d e fitn ess Ü bungsleiter Istrut tori di palestra T ren ingsins truktører In štruktori cvi čeni a 146 Exotic dancers T ane čníci exotických ta nc ů Danseurs exotiques exotische T änzer D anzato ri eso tici E ksotiske dans ere E xotickí tane čníci 147 Explorers B adatelé E xplorateurs Entd ecker Esplo ratori O ppdagere Bádatelia 148 Fa ctor y m an ager s Ř editelé závodu Directeurs d’ usin e W erksleiter Dirett ori d i stabilimento F abri kkbes tyrere R iaditelia závodu 149 Fans see “Groupies ” F ans Fans Ammiratori F ans see “Groupies ” 150 Farmers Z em ěd ělc i A gr ic ul te urs B au er n A gricoltori Bø nder P oľ nohospodári 151 Fashion m o d els M anekýni/mode lo vé Mannequins Mannequin s se e “Models ” Mannekenger M anekýni 152 Fencers Š er mí ři E scrimeurs F echter S chermitori F ektere Š er miar i 153 Fig . skaters K raso brusla ři P atineurs artistiques E is kunstläufer P attinatori artistic i K unstløpere Krasokor čuliari 154 Film directors F ilmo ví re žisé ři R éa li sat eur s F il mr egis seur e R egis ti F ilmre gissør er F il moví re žisér i 155 Film stars F ilmo vé hv ězdy V ede tte s d e ciné m a F il m sta rs St ar de l cine m a F il m st je rn er F ilm ové hvi ezdy 156 Fin ancial adv isers F inan ční po ra d ci C on se il le rs fi n an ciers Finanzberater C onsulenti finanziari Revisorer F inan ční poradcovia 157 Fin ancial analysts F inan čn í an al ytic i A nalys tes fi nan cie rs Ana lyste n A nal isti fina n zia ri F inans anal y tike re F ina nč ní analytici
Ta b le 2 (continued) Role nouns (in E nglish) Cz ec h F re nch G er man Ita lian N orwegian Slovak 158 Firefighters H asi či P ompiers F euerwehrleute V ig ili d el fu oco B rannk onstabler Po žia rni ci 159 Flight attendants S tevardi S te wards F lugbegleiter A ssis tenti di volo K abinp ers onale Stewardi 160 Flo rists Kv ětiná ři F leur ist es F lor ist en F ior is ti Bloms terhandlere K vetinári 161 Flu te p la yer s Fl étni sti F lûti stes Flöt enspi ele r F laut ist i F løyti ster F la utis ti 162 Football coaches T rené ři fotbalu Entraîneurs d e foot Fussba llt ra iner A lle nat o ri di ca lc io F o tbal ltr ene re F utba loví tr éne ri 163 Football players F otba li sti F ootbal leur s Fussba lls piel er C alc iat o ri F o tbal lspil ler e F utba lis ti 164 Forensic psychologists Soudní p sychologové P sychologues criminologues Forensis che P sy cholo g en P sicologi fo rensi R etts psykiatere S údni psychológovia 165 Forest rangers My slivci Gardes-forestiers F ör ster Guardie forestali S kogsforvaltere Lesníci 166 Fortune tellers V ěš tci D iseurs de bonne ave n tur e W ahrsager Indovin i see “T ar o t car d re ad er s” Ve štc i 167 Funeral d irecto rs Majitelé poh řebního ústavu Directeurs de pompes funèb res Bestattungsunternehmer Impr esari d i pompe funeb ri see “Undertakers ” Majitelia pohrebného ústavu 168 Game wardens R evírníci Gardes-chasse s W ildhüter Guardacaccia S kogvoktere H orári 169 G ar d ene rs see “Groundkeepers ” Jar d ini ers G ärt ner G ia rd in ie ri Ga rt ne re se e “Groundkeepers ” 170 Generals Generálov é Généraux Gen erä le G ene ra li G ene ral er G en er áli 171 Ge ner al m anage rs G en er ální ředi tel é D ire ct eur s g én ér aux G es chäf tsf ühr er D ir ett ori g en er ali D agli ge le dere Ge ner álni riadi tel ia 172 Geologis ts G eologové Géolog ues G eo logen G eologi Geolog er Geológovia 173 Goalkeepers B ranká ři G ar diens d e foot T o rwa rt e P o rt ier i di ca lci o K eep ere B ra nkár i 174 Goldsmiths Zlatn íci Orfèvres Golds chmiede O re fi ci G ullsmed er Z la tní ci 175 Golfers G olfisté G olfeurs G olfspi el er G o lf isti G o lf spill er e G olf ist i 176 Government of ficials S tátní úř edníci F onctionnaires Regi erungsbeamte F unzionari governativi E mbetsmenn Š tá tni ú ra dníc i 177 Governors G uverné ři G ouverneurs Gouverneure Govern atori G uvernører Guvernéri 178 Graphic d esigners Graf ici G raphistes Grafikdesi gner G rafici Grafis ke desi gnere Grafickí dizajnéri 179 Groundkeepers Z ahradníci N/A P latzwarte C ustodi di giardini pubblici N /A Záhradníci 180 Groupies Fanou šci Groupies Groupies Group ies G roupier Fanú šici 181 Guards Strá žci S u rve illa nts W äc ht er G u ar die V ak ter S tr áž covia 182 Gui tar p laye rs K yt ar isté G u ita ri stes Git ar ren spiel er C hita rr isti G ita rspi lle re Git ar isti 183 Gymnas ts Gymnas té Gymnastes T urner G innasti T u rnere Gymnasti 184 Gynaecologists G ynekologov é G ynécologues F ra uenärzte Ginecologi Gynekologer G ynekológovia 185 Haird res sers Kade řníci Co if fe urs F ri seur e P ar ruc chie ri F ris ø re r K ad er níci 186 Heads o f d epartment V edoucí odd ělení Ch efs d e d épartemen t Abteilu n g sleiter C api d ipartimento A vdelingsledere V edúci oddelenia 187 Head teachers Ř ed ite lé školy D irecteurs d’ éc ole S chul lei ter P re sidi R ek tor er R ia dite lia škô l 188 Health visito rs Pe čovatelé Infirmiers itinéra nts G es undheitsberater se e “S o ci al wor k er s” H els ear bei d er e O še tr ovate lia 189 Baumaschinenführer Maskinister O peráto ri ťa žkej techniky
Ta b le 2 (continued) Role nouns (in E nglish) Cz ec h F re nch G er man Ita lian N orwegian Slovak Heavy equipment ope rat o rs O p er át oř it ěž ké techniky O p ér ate u rs d’ équipement lourd O p er ato ri d i m acc hine pesanti 190 Hi stor ians Hi stor ici H istor ie n s H is tori ker S tor ici H istor ike re H is tori ci 191 History p rofessors Profeso ři h istor ie P rof esse urs d’ histoire Ges chichtsprofessoren P rofess ori d i stor ia H is to ri epr o fe ss or er P rof es or i h is tó ri e 192 Hitchhikers Stopa ři A uto-stoppeurs A nhalter A ut ostoppisti H aikere Stopári 193 Homeless persons Bezdomovci S ans-abri O bdachlos e S enzatetto Hjemløse Bezdomov ci 194 Horse riders Jezdci n a koních Cavaliers R eiter C avallerizzi R yttere Jazdci na ko ňoc h 195 H o rse tra ine rs T re né ři koní Dresseurs d e chevaux Pfer detrainer A ddes tatori d i cav alli Ridelæ rere T réneri koní 196 Hosp ita l o rde rli es Zd rav o tníc i A ides -soi gnants N /A In se rvie nti o spe d al ie ri P o rtører Zdravotníci 197 Hotel gues ts H otelov í h osté Client d’ hôte l Hote lgä ste O spit i d’ alber g o H otellgjester Hoteloví hos tia 198 Hot el m anage rs Ř ed ite lé hote lu G ér ants d’ hôte l Hote lmana g er D ir ett ori d’ albe rg o H otel ldir ekt ø re r R ia dite lia hot elov 199 Hous ekeepers Hos podá ři G ouvernant H au shälter D omestici Husholdere Gazdovia 200 Humanitarians H umanitární pomocníci Hu manitaires Menschenfreunde B enefattor i M enneskevenner H umanitárni pomo cníci 201 Humanities professors Profe so ři h uma n itní ch obor ů P rofesseurs d e lettres Pro fes soren für Ge iste swi ssens chaf te n P rofess o ri di lettere P rofessorer i humanoria Profes ori humanitných odborov 202 Hunters L o v ci Ch asseurs Jäg er C acciatori Jegere Lovci 203 Ice skaters Brusla ři P atineurs su r g lace Eis läufer P atti natori su l ghiaccio S køyteløpere Kor čuliari 204 Infant teachers see “Nur se ry tea che rs ” Enseignants d’ éc ole pr im ai re Kinder g artenpädagogen see “N u rs er y teac her s” N/ A U čite lia v škôlk e 205 In form ant s Inf o rm át oř i Informateurs Informanten Inform atori Informanter Spravodajcovia 206 Inmates C hovanci D étenus Häftli nge Detenuti Innsatte Spolu bývajúci 207 Inn k eepers H os tin ští Aube rg is te s G as tw ir te Al be rg atori V erts husinnehavere Kr čmári 208 Interior decorators Byt oví ar chit ekti D éco rat eur s d’ intérieur Innenauss tatter D ecoratori d’ int er n i Inte riør ar k ite kte r Bytoví ar ch ite kti 209 Interpreters Tlumo čníc i In te rpr ète s D olmet sche r In te rpr eti T o lk er Tl mo čníci 210 Inv entors V ynálezci Inventeurs Erfi nder Inven tori O ppfinnere V ynálezcovia 21 1 IT cons ultants IT konzultanti C o n sultants in for m atiq ues IT -Berater C onsulenti informat ici IT -kons ulenter IT k onzultanti 212 Jailors D ozorci Geôliers Ge fä ngn iswä rt er C er cer ie ri F angev oktere D ozorci vo väzení 213 Jan itors Š kol níci Co ncie rg es Hau sme iste r B idel li V aktmeste re Š koln íci 214 Jewelers Klenotn íci Bijoutiers Juwe lie re G ioie lli er i Ju v el er er K lenot níc i 215 Job seekers Uchaze čioz am ěstnání Ch ercheurs d’ emploi Arbeitssuchende Diso ccupati Jo bbsøkere Uchádza či o zamestnanie 216 Joggers see “Runners ” Jo ggeurs Jogger M aratoneti Jo ggere see “Runners ” 217 Journalists N oviná řis ee “Reporters ” Journ alisten Giornalist i Jo u rnalister N ovinári 218 Judges S oudci Ju g es Richte r G iudici Dommere S udcovia 219 Jugglers Ž o nglé ři Jo ngleurs Jongleure Giocolieri S jonglører Ž ongléri
Ta b le 2 (continued) Role nouns (in E nglish) Cz ec h F re nch G er man Ita lian N orwegian Slovak 220 Jur o rs Por o tc i Ju rés Jurymit g lie de r G iurati Ju rymedlemmer P orotcovia 221 Karaoke singers Zp ěváci karaoke Ch anteurs d e k araoké Karaokesän g er C antanti di karao k e K araokes angere Spev áci karaoke 222 Kids D ěti (h oš i) Enfants K inder R agazzi Unger N /A 223 Killers see “Mur d er er s” T u eurs T o tschläger S icari D rapsmenn see “Mur d er er s” 224 Kinder g arten teachers see “Nur se ry tea che rs ” Enseignants d e la p etite enf anc e K inder g är tn er Ma es tr i d’ as il o B ar n eha g ea ns at te se e “Nur ser y tea cher s” 225 Knitters Pleta ři T ri co teur s S tr ick er M agl iai N /A P le tia ri 226 Lab technicians L abor anti T echnic iens d e laborato ire Labortechniker T ecnici di laboratorio Laborator ie tek n iker e L abora n ti 227 Landscape gardeners Z ahradní architekti P ays ag iste s L andscha ft sgär tner A rc hite tti pe r g ia rdini A nlegg sgartnere Záhradní architekti 228 Law clerks A dvo kátní koncipienti G ref fiers Rechtsanwaltsgeh ilfen Assis tenti giudiziari A dvokats ekretæ rer A dvokátski koncipienti 229 Law p rofes sors P rofeso ři p ráva P rofesseurs d e d roit Rechtsprofessoren P ro fe ss ori d i d ir it to Ju spro fess orer Profesori p ráva 230 Lawyers P rávníci A vocats A nw älte A vvocati A dvokater P rávnici 231 L ea d er s see “Supervisors ” Dirigeants Anführer Leader Ledere see “Supervis ors ” 232 Librarians Knihovníci Biblioth écaires B ibliothekare B ibliote cari Bibliotekarer K nih ovníci 233 Lieutenants P oru číci L ieu tenants Leutnants L uogotenenti Løytnanter Poru číc i 234 Lifeguards P lav číci S auveteurs R ettungsschwi mmer B agnini Badevakter Plav číc i 235 Lighthouse k eepers S trá žci majáku Gardiens de phare Leuchtturmwä rter Guardiani d el faro F y rvoktere S trá žcovia m ajákov 236 Lodg ers N ájemníci Locataires Mi eter Inquilini Leieboere Nájomn íci 237 Lorry d rivers Ř id ič ik am io nů Camionneurs L KW -Fahrer C ami onisti L astebil sjåfører V odi či k amiónov 238 Magicians K ouzelníci Magiciens Z aubere r P restigiato ri T ryllekunstnere K úzelníci 239 Magician ’s assis tants As istenti kouzelník ů Assist ant s de mag ici en Assi ste n ten ei n er Zaubershow Assis tenti di prestigiato re N/A A sisten ti kúzelníkov 240 Make up artists Maské ři M aqui lle urs V isa g ist en T ruc cat ori N /A Ma skér i 241 Managers Mana že ři M ana g er s M an ager M ana ger M ana g er e M an až ér i 242 Manicuris ts M aniké ři M anucures Nag elpfleg er Mani cur e M ani kyris ter M an ikér i 243 Ma the m at ici ans Ma te ma tic i M ath ématic ie ns Ma themat iker M at emati ci M ate ma tike re M at emat ici 244 Mayors S taro stové Maires Bür g ermeis ter S indaci Ordførere S tarostovia 245 Mechanics M echanici Mécaniciens M echa niker M eccanici Meka nikere Mechan ici 246 Medical doctors Dokto ři D octeurs D okto ren Medici see “P hysicians ” Doktori 247 Members o f the ar med for ce s Opr avá ři M ili tai re s Ar me eange höri g e M il ita ri di le va se e “S o ldie rs ” Opr avá ri 248 Members o f parliament Č lenové parlamentu P arlementaires Parlamentsab geordnete P arlam entari P arlamentsmedlemmer Č lenovia p arlamentu 249 Me tal lur gi sts H ut níci M éta llu rg iste s M et al lur g en M et almec can ici M eta llu rg er Hutn íci
Ta b le 2 (continued) Role nouns (in E nglish) Cz ec h F re nch G er man Ita lian N orwegian Slovak 250 Meteo rologists M eteorolo gové Météorologues M eteo rologen M etereologi Mete orologer M eteorológovia 251 Millionaires Milioná ři M illionnaires homme Millionäre Mi lionari Millionærer M ilionári 252 Miners Horníci M ineurs Ber g arbeite r M inatori G ruvearbeidere B aníci 253 Models Mo delové Modèles M odels Modelli M odeller Modeli 254 Moun tai n climber s Hor o le zci A lpini ste s Ber g st ei ger A lpin isti F jel lkla tre re H or olez ci 255 Murderers V rahové Meurtriers Mö rder Assassini Mordere V rahovia 256 Mus ici ans M u zika n ti M u sic iens M usi k er M u sic ist i M usike re M uz ikan ti 257 Nannies N/A N /A N/A N /A Barnepass ere Pes tún 258 Neighbours S ous edé V oisins Nachba rn V icini di cas a N aboer S usedia 259 Neurologists N eurologové Ne urologues N eu rologen N eurologi Nevrologer N euroló govia 260 Neurosu rgeons Neurochirur gové Neuroc hirur g iens Neu roch irur g en Neurochiru rghi Nevrokirur g er Neurochirur govia 261 Ne ws re ade rs H la sa tel é P rés enta teu rs d es in for m atio ns Nachrichtensprech er Annuncia tori televisivi Nyhets opples ere H lásatelia televíznych novín 262 Novelis ts Prozaici Ro manciers Romanautoren R o manzieri Skjønn li tt erære for fa tt ere Proz ai ci 263 Nurses Zd rav o tní ses try Infirmiers K ranken p fl eger Infermieri S ykepleiere Z dravotní bratia 264 Nur ser y tea che rs U čite lé ve ško lce É ducateurs de la petite enf anc e Er zie h er M ae str i d’ asilo nid o F ø rskolelæ rere U čite lia v m ate rske j škôlke 265 Nutritionis ts N utri ční spe cia list i Nutrition n iste s E rnährungswi ssen sch af tl er Nutrizi onist i E rnæ rings fysi ologe r V ýž ivoví špe cia lis ti 266 Occupational th er api sts Er goterapeuti Er gothérapeutes Er gotherapeu ten T era pisti o ccupazion ali E rgoterapeuter E rgoterapeu ti 267 Ocean ographers Oceánograf ové Océanographes M eeresf orscher O ceanografi O se anografer Oceánografovia 268 Of fice workers A dministrativní pracovníci Employés d e bureau B üroa nges tellte Impiegati d’ uf ficio K ontormedarbei dere Adminis tratívn i pracovníci 269 Orchestra conductors Dirig enti C h efs d’ orc h est re D ir ige n ten D ir ett o ri d’ orc h est ra D iri g ent er D ir ige n ti 270 Orthodontists Odbo rníci v ortodo ncii Orth odontis tes K ieferorthopä den O rtodontis ti Regulerin gstann leger O rtodontisti 271 Palm readers V ěš tc i z dlan ě C h ir oma n ci ens H an dl es er Chi rom ant i Hå ndl es er e V eš tc i z dl ane 272 Parachutists Para šutis té P arachutistes F al lschirmspringer P aracadut isti F allskjermhoppere Para šutist i 273 Paren ts R odi če P are n ts Elt er n G eni tori F o re ldre Rodi čia 274 Pastry chefs C ukrá ři P âtissiers K onditoren P as ticceri K onditorer C ukrári 275 Patients P acienti P atients P atie nt en P az ient i P asie n te r P ac ie nti 276 Pawnbrokers Zástavárníci P rêteurs sur g age P fandleiher P restatori su p egno P antelånere P racovn íci zálo žne 277 Pedestrians C hodci P iétons F ußgänger P edoni F o tgjengere Chodci 278 Pediatrician s P ediat ři P édia tr es Kinde rä rz te P edia tr i Ba rne le g er Pedi atr i 279 Pensioners Senio ři R etraités Rentner P ensiona ti P ensjo nister Dôchodcovia 280 Persons Mu žské o so by P ers onnes P ersonen P ersone P ers oner O soby
Ta b le 2 (continued) Role nouns (in E nglish) Cz ec h F re nch G er man Ita lian N orwegian Slovak 281 Personal trainers O sobní trené ři E ntraîneurs privés Fitnesstrainer P ersona l trainer P ers onlige trenere Osobní tréneri 282 P h ar ma ci st s F ar ma ce ut i P ha rm ac ie ns A poth eker F ar ma cis ti A potek ere F ar mace uti 283 Philanthropists F ilantropové P h ilanthropes P hi lanthropen F ilantropi F ilantrop er F ilantropi 284 Photographers Fotografové P hotographes F otografen F o tografi F otografer Fotog rafi 285 Physicians Dokto ři /lé ka ři M éde cins M ed izi n er M edi ci spe cia lis ti L ege r L ek ár i 286 Physicis ts Fyzici P hysiciens Physi k er F isi ci F y sike re Fyzi ci 287 Physics stu dents S tudenti fyziky É tudiants en phys ique Physikstudenten S tudenti d i fisica F ysikkstudenter Š tudenti fyziky 288 Physiotherap ists Fyzioterapeuti P hys iot h éra p eut es P hysi o ther ape u ten F isi o ter api sti F ysiote ra peut er Fyzi ote rap euti 289 Pia n o p laye rs Kl avír ist é Jo ueur s d e p iano Kla v ie rspi ele r P iani sti P iani ster K la vir isti 290 Pil o ts Pi loti P ilot es P il oten P ilot i P ilot er P il oti 291 Playgro u p leaders V edoucí dě tského krou žku Directeurs de gard erie Krabbelgrupp en le ite r C apis quadr a N /A V edúc i d etsk ého k rú žku 292 Plu m bers Instalaté ři P lombiers Klempner Idraulici Rø rleggere In štal até ri 293 Poets B ásníci P o ètes Dichter P oeti Diktere B ás nici 294 Poli ce Inspe ct o rs Inspe k to ři Inspe ct eur s K o mm issa re Ispet to ri Inspe k tø re r In špektori 295 Pol ice of fi ce rs Pol ici sté P olic ier s Poli zist en P o liz iott i P olit ime n n P oli caj ti 296 Police ser g eants S er žanti S er g en ts de police P olizeiobermeist er S er g en ti di poli zia O v er betj ente r S er žant i 297 Pol itic al ac ti vists P ol iti čtí ak tivi sté A cti viste s polit ique s P oli tisc h e A kt ivist en A tti vist i polit ici A ktivi ste r P oli tic kí akti vist i 298 Pol itic ian s Pol iti ci P o lit icie ns Poli tike r P o lit ici P olit iker e P oli tic i 299 Porters P ortý ři B agagistes G ep äckträger F acchini P ikkoloer V rátnici/n osi či 300 Postal workers P racovníci po šty Employés d e pos te Postanges tellte Im piegati d elle poste P o stbetjenter Po štoví pracovníci 301 Postmen P ošť ác i F act eur s Postb o ten P osti ni P o stbud Po štoví doru čovatelia 302 Pr esi d ents Pr ez ident i P rés ident s Prä side n te n P re side nti P res ident er Pr ezi denti 303 P ri est s K az at el é P rê tr es P rie st er N/ A P re st er K ňaz i 304 Primary school te ac her s U čitelé na základní škole M aîtres d’ école p rimaire G rundschulle hrer Maestri d i scuola eleme ntare B arneskolelærere U čitelia základných škôl 305 Prison guards V ěze nš tí dozorci Gardiens de prison N/A S econdini F engselsbetjenter Väzens k í dozorcovia 306 Prisoners V ězni P ris onniers G efangene C arcerati F anger V äzni 307 Pr ivat e d et ect ives N/ A D éte cti ves p ri vés P ri vat d ete k tive Inves tigatori p rivati P rivatde tektiver Súkromní detek tívi 308 Probation of ficers Sociální kuráto ři A gents d e p robation B ewährungshe lfer S o rveglianti d i p ersone in libe rtà vigil ata T ilsyns førere Sociáln i kurátori 309 Professional ath letes P rofesionální sportovci A thlètes p ro fe ssion nels Pro fi-Spor tle r A tle ti professionist i P rofesjonelle idretts utøvere Profesionálni športovci 310 Professors Profeso ři P rof esse urs P ro fes sore n P rof ess o ri P rof essor er P ro fe sori 31 1 P ro jec tion ists P ro mí ta či P rojectionnistes Filmvor führer P roiezionisti K inomaskinister Premieta či
