.'"Otf-" NEWFQm:IDwID I

>, ~" I

I

fORAGING Eq>t.OGY~f,HUMPBACKWHALES

.' " Otf- "NEWFQm:IDwID

.'

'.::-,

,

'(""'::'=' : j',

·'r.:'

"". :

..

, '1\

"

P~ge11"

"_~.;

.

_:,

~'i',~,~;:::,/,

;,

..

^'

"': 'j . . .

.

;.

"'

..

^:

..

...

^; _':~:

..

."

':/"'."..

.

:- / ( ::

~':~^.'.

>....;

<•

. ...

.', ";.

""i . ..:. ..'

.~.

...•

^: .: '

.

.~' ,.." ". ^'"

.... . ...

"':

. . - .

8r~~n

^{fo r.}

he~' lD;llllea$U~eabl,e ~nt::Ol,.lr'a~elBent. My ~~ "

^{I.',. " :-}

4 ~:~~;:r~,::.) ·;~i~L:::i;~:~~;~a~W;::~:~·:ot;c: ¥i~~+: . : ... : -.: . ... ;.: .~:

\....• . .F~ll~.w,!lHl~-,!~O~.~mOr1a,l:':"~ 1v.~r:$~t~:~.~d:.,.bY,,,the:,~~J:.~U!~rt .<,,:~

"::::-: '.:

"'':-''!.,

,~

^.'

·;· ·:, ·~;.~.·~l~~e~l~~·:,·a'~~:~~;~h~·~.,ci.an;~ ;'.~~: . . tf:.:·· · : Lle~'; "

^{.','..} :.,.}

~" "

^{".'.,....:'.:.}

JC;o:·:,~':iti,,;:'S£'~,f!'fci;;~~;,}1{AJk,~;tjJ&~

~~"~',,'

\.

' 3~ 3

SehavlourBl,des

Ccrlpt!on

",. 1

:3:4BShavlouralanalysi.is' ',:"" ','.', 4 1RINITr,BAY, ,. .'.....~.. .•• •• •.;; ••'.•';.

, { ~ ~~ ! ~ j;.,.~ "-,;,:.:" , :" ~ ." ,\ " ,;" ,,. ;,,

'6'

s6t.rnIEB.N·

SHORE

' 6. ~' Bai~-'schools '" " , :,-" , ;:, ~,

6.-2_C~nsus,data, '.

6'.3'BehavJ.oural·descr"!pt:ion'

"'~:'4 ~h~'~~?U~~1'~ml1ysls,

"7CAPE BROYLE HARBOUR

,;':,

~;-2·,:StmSu,~,·.~~~,~ ,~ '-."

^{, ,}

7.3Be~av~~ur'al"d~scr'ipti~~

,7 . 4'Beh"av'l,?~ral'analys1s'...

:-8,~IL{F·E~n~.·

" . : ::..'.;.. ..- - ,. ,': .

-.J

_I

,e:.'

_','

i

_'.

'Ba1~

_{' .,}

' ~chciol~

_. ^{..•.' ..':.•.}

,~.2,'-C;;en5us ·data

'45 '. . 47

85

95, ' ,9S

97 100 10 3"

110','

ll.'?

113 115

'". '

\\

/

•;" -160

...."164

9 ErE-Ecrs

.

OF CATEGORl'CAL VARIABLES

^.

13'

9.1'!'troduct1~n ... " ... . 139 9.2MANOVA .. .. • •..''':'~. •.•.•'. ••• •• •. •139

I"~~';1¥,S,2·

_{10 .2}Time variables .. .. ,',.~..,

. . · .: <... . _{~' i.} ^{: .: . . : : .:: . . . ••.:.•} ._ _{·II~i ':4 ~ 6 :}

lq.3

~i)1~~c'tiOn81,va:~ ~able9',.;..-.: :....

\ lOA'~ateqorical-varlabl~B' .', .

~\,~ _~I~'?JSSION

^{.-. •...:}

.~ ;_~~.~ : : ~ .

^{','',1 '.,. , :'.,• • •:; •••'.;-15 9}

\11,,0.In~troduction ..• ,'.'•... .'.',', 15 9

. _'1.;1.1 Humpback. wha l es as:eft1cientpreearere

.11.1.1 Bait schools .•.... . .. .".;, .. 160

~, 1l·~,1.2_

Prey

'~holce 1~, ~~back

·wna l e s

"IJ.~.3·,P~~ch;~l:101ce.l~'humpb~Ck_^whales'

"

.'

.

;\

11.1.4"Prey~e:hool'Chara~teristlcs

-.' .- Imp'o,rtanttoW'ha~es ....".'....', ' . '.','.•... 166

. i1':2

D1st~'lltution'a nd:ab undanc e , .'o f','whaJes 'I!i"-.~pr e y.,,'.,: .,sr:»:.'••• •.,•. :

u;2 ;i~nc1th~',~'f

^{'s t a y}

i~' feed~ing

^{,a r eas, .}

~l"~.,

^:2'

,~,~.f~rr,_~: ~.~~Pin~~ :

^{..-. '':'....'.'..}

1'1.,2;3

,'Fun~tlo~~~:~~:f ii~~~Ck

"hale''fe ed inggroups ..•.".. ' 1~2. 11.2 .'4

'~a~', d~:t'~~;;i~e~::'h~b·~C~ "~hal~

. ,f oragi n g groups1~es ~.. ,...' .

:~l;3^F9ra.qing~hav-1our-'.st;adqios'". ;' ' :.,188

!

'11:3.1Se.~chS'tY'ateqies .~^{.: , :}18e i1L3..~ ExpIC:»itatlo'n',strate~les ~ ^191-~,

I .

/

^...;....

.

-

_{.Page vB1}

11.4Pr e d icting whalefor ag 1ngbehavlc9ur .200 200 203 . 205 205 207 :-218"

225 ....... 229·

"

11.4.1Deep capelln ..

11.4 .2 Shallow capelln 11.4:3Krill ...'.._~;\...

1'1:5Iq;'l1c~_~lons,^(or.f.urth~.rresear~h LITERATURE'crTED ...

t;..

APPENDIX'J?'.;..:

APPENDIX2" •

\.

I

, I

I

.

. /

~,";-:'/ .

. . /

'.:,::

-:

' '\./ ' : '

^,

··" ···· 1

.-f

Pa g e1x LIST OFTABLES

' .

28 33

41 19

44

.3

.35

5,2'·Me'~.:valu~s"-~t'Vh&le ~h~vloural

v~rlehlell ~romGre_&t',~sland' :....,:.~... 86 2. 1.Humpback.wh alebeh~vlour!!l • •

~.ref e r r e d tol n the text ....',-.:.' ...

. ", " .2- : 2 ya~i~l~~' .u~e~.~~.n':~ti,: a~~i~~i~ ,

^,".

'"·c'

-'

, ,:: .·.':. . ,. :.;·; . ."..

I'

..

2:.3:ob s e rva t' i on

Sbes ~'of _,d~ta

:f0:r'.'9ach'-:s t^-

se~s>a~~ :~our

u'cly--l

~

oc a tion

,ot-'" ^{. -}

',4.

. ' _l· l:~·.::~:Y::~~~ _{J'. :}

_d~~p-~.r~.

:~~~~:~tf~]j;~dL

_~C~PQ·l.:QC~_~~~~~. ·_^..:~.

:~"

^'.'

·

3-,3.,Ce nsus,data fromn rket Channel

.3-,'4:'iep e'a t8d.S19htln9~'_c:iJ'T~oqr;al~ed

."~~.;;.; ~hales,1nVa rket Ch",:nnel-:.. ...,..

> .

^{r. 46 \.}

-.~- :~.". r3_';'"~"Meanvall,l~oCvhale:behavloural

;1il;l\ i ::~~~: . : j~(

' ;' ;'.:;:>v}

",:8 _~~~:r;:r~:~l~i::l~~l~eC~::~;~l~;~n~l\

,. .' , .'..

. : ':-~ r:~~1

^.

~::~[~:~d:::~.f:::~;~:l·~'·.~~~· : : :. :.~~~~.: :r~ ^{. :' : _: : ':' : ' :: . : ::}

,..;;;': '.';':'4'-2Mean

~alues

^of

~b~le b~h'av'io'~ral

-, I.'::' '~;.','.-'Var labl~8 tr? r4Trl!'11~Bay. 68'

.-....!.,l ::;l._i

'

,.·.,·•.,:..·,,·,·[·.·,' ;

.

.·:- .'..

~.:

..•.:.•.::..'..

~

...•;...':...'...:•..-..,.'!..,:'.. .'•.

':; 14 ~ ~.' -~: 4s:' ^{. ..:} ~~~r~~~;~,r~~ ~~;1~!ni~n:;'0~ _~i~1~1~.:f /~~~~;~ ^{: - ' .} :... ^.... ~. .

⁷²

^{7 0 "}

Fir~t'; o~d.r co;rel~~lon:c~ef~lC1'l!Ints

^{'i n.}

~he Trln~lev:~!.dl~_e^byd~ve_~a7~.set..'." 74.

>

5.:1 Census,data,·f r om Great;,Island ."., .•-,..

• - I·

... . .

,

^.

~agex

'", 93'.

99' 89 90

109 ;.

114' - 106

118 101.

131"·

"

104

126 128. ."1 21.

. -

8.4.

~_~;lg;:a~e~!:~~on .~~~~~~~ . ~ ..,... _..

",Fi r s t order' correlationcoefficients 1n

the oreee Island dive~ydive'dataset;• Me~nValu'e~'^0'(ba~t^variabies

1n .

.sha~lo\(pr.eY/school .t e e e m e n e . Census data,.fromthe Southern Shore . :Mea""

,V~l~es~~' f:~~~le beha~10~ral

variab-les,...lN:lm the -Southern,Shore

. ~~~r~~;e~r~~ '~h;e~~~~h:;n

^Shor91

Mult1ple r'gr"esslon'resul ts) from the SqlJ.thern Shore ... . Firstordereor-r-ej ec rcn coefficients from theSout~ernShorediv~ve'da:asee .... Census data fromCape Broyle Harbour Mean values ofwhalebehavioural

va r-lables from,Cape Broyle Harbour .

rr~quenCles '

^of

ca~~90rlcal'

va ri ab l e s .from,~~p,~. ,rr'OYle^{Harbour :'•....}. '-:.'':''':(:.' '

Mu~tlple.'regression.results""

from.Cap~Broyle Harbour

"F i r s t order correlat,ion"coefHcients from the Cape Broyle Harbour "

dive,bydive data-set ,,".,._..

Cens~s

^{da"ta frOID}

~ea~

^{·o f St.}

Maj.oy'~ ""~ay

'flo, '- • .' ;'"_ . ' ,"

Mean values of whale"behaVioural varl,~~'!.s from krfll feedJ,ng'data.,... ,.

Fre~encles^of~"ategOr1cal ^,

variables',f r olll,kr i ll"(e8d"~9~at~ ,134 Mul't1e18r8gTessionresu1ts, ....

(rom r~l~"f~ed.ing_data "..: / .'

t: : .

"S.5.

~:8~r~t~~~e~d~;ld.f;:n~~~dr~;~~:~;8~~~OID,;:

^{.._.•. ,'i38}

.'5.3 .Fre~~"ncies^ofca~egOrleal variables froID Great Island

5 .'

5.5 6.1.

6;2 6.'3

6.4 6."

6.6 7.1 7.2 7:3

7.4 7".5

.~..

8.1 8:2 8.2

:~':

.~

"

.... ... .. ,." ..

LIST'OF FIGURES

tower'·p,art.,at^TrinityBay.

Loc ations otprey'schoolson dif!erent~aysin Trinity Bay 4.1

.

.

'

3.1 Varkel; 'Channel~tUdY.area .

3;2 'Loc a t i onsof prey schoo-Is en

q,i!terentdays in VarketChannel

3;;"3 Depth sounder.printoutstrom

,.,'verk e t ~~nnel a~dTrinity Bay

~:4.var-Latdcnin bait vt.riables '. with datein Varket Channel'

""3.5 var:;at'ionin'

wha1·~;ij.lable~·

,

wi t h dat e inVi!!..ket Channel ).;1 Map c'f Ne';;'found land

,"'",;.~ .~sh~wln?study:1;C~t10n,s. . .

2.2 'Sch e ma t i c'r ep re s e n t a t i on of a bait trace ..2.s-

SCl1ema~ic dep~sounder pr~ntout

.'- llIust:ratingbait.v ar i ab l e s .

...

_.'-

"...;

..4.3"..Variation in_bai~vart"ables';. wl-th date.i,n '1'r1r'lityBay ., ....

4.4 Variatl~~

in

wh~levariable s .

.,;" .;...W~th dal~e.}~Tr:ln it;yBay ...;:..·....,..,..·.

5.1

;..~~st cou~~t,~~,J):.Vll lPr,Penin~~l~ .:.., .

...5.2·f.,oe"at ipns,'of concentrationsof'whales'and

.~.... .p r e y ondi!!erent:~daysottGreat Island ..: ..

•'.t"•.'C·

s:'a ~ Depth ~ou~~.er p~rntout~

^{'f r om}

I · .

the.Gr e a t Island.st udy area,_ ; . .;.;:':....s,»5.4

V~rla1:iPn

^{in'-balt'var i able s}wi t h dat:e 0

in the'Gre a t Isla n d'studyarea , ..

:;~:"

^{or 5":5 '}

Va~ iati~n'

^1"n

~ha;e

^{'v a;iabl e s}

w i~h

^date

in,theqrea~ Island,s t udyarea ;.:.. .:.. :....'., .

·6.'1. South?rn'Sliore'at:udy'are~

61 .;

60 71 '78

80

er

87 96

"", "

98

111

151

15 2 112

~~~:~~~e~ohrt~t:~:- f~~~,"

Cap e Broyle Harl::?ourshowlnq lO,c:atlon~ o,l.prey.schoo ls "

i.~'

":'. :

",.,

10.3'M~an'

ratios

~11vefor,_each~tudy.\im~· ta>~~r'face'locatIo nt'~m~

iO.4Mean.'·t otal'~ur'fa'ce'dlre ;: tl ort8 1 t:hangeand rat e,ofd1recti9nal .cha n ge for e~chst~dy,lo.c::~t~on """

10.5_P~.rcej,tof fo·~agir-g-and·.~on-foraqln9 dives1neach study reeeeren...."."""".. .""

.6 . 2

.

^{'" - . ' .'- '}

10:6

;i;~el~~~2~d;{~~;~~;c~~~~ ,

^{.:,.':,' "..}""".".. lO~7Fre~ency6f:d'.-fferent.dollil .

behaviours,

in

etch8~udy.location -:... . 11.1 Depth sounder pr i n toUt s of.-•

whales entering~t.ey,8ch':l,~ ls.

. ·.. ;7.2

~~~\;~n;f~~~iHi~b~~r:" .. ,... . . , " ":'. ""...

~Chim9i.Jn pre~-SChb~]'s":a:fter: ": ,::,: .., -.. ·,a.ar k "in

ca~e·:7Y~,~)~rb.o:u.t~~

^__;"

~,

^....•""....

> :

^{117. . .,}

,:>;:

':~,:1

^.

·~~c;:ations:·~f",Vh~ie~,~,~d-.k;'i"i.l

':Oh,,"'::"""

'::'~

^......,

. > . '.' :

^,I.

~ :\'),~'~':r _ . ' ,:

. • t;:r~~ ~!, ;Ci;"; , ,~, ::: ; ; ; (t

for..e.ac,hstu dy..1C?cat~ on .,;•.','"

OlAPTER 1.~l:NTRODUci'ION 1.1Populations~~~I9tocks·ofhumpback"'~a'les

'._'.,:;

.-La~~~c.: '~~NeW.~~~ndiandand" .Labr,a~O,r:, .

^3),

, we.a~ ~e:e'nland'

^"tid

,:4)

,I~~~a~'~, .(~.l~,~'e~~ et '~',L ': ~9~1; Kai~~a, ~t: ~'l.."

^J983';.·

~.

Ma~t1~

. ec· ,

a~.;,'.J.~4j.

.1'be,h umpba c k vha l e s ot1:h~N~rthweat Atl~nticareene :'; ::::,.:

0,~~,1.~ ^ee , ei9ht 'dist~~Cc' ~.Ocl<:u"i~ ,or. 'S"".:i>~PU1~tio~e

^'0,'"

" ,f '

';/~ .<illrll

^{.~~er~,they,$pen~,th~'s~e~},!eed.inq~,l~ackl..n~08h:1.9:2•.,D8\1bl n

f ;;:iP

' "._ '196 4).:'

Th~ ,si~ so.~tn

'p a c.; u c:

p~ptil~au~~'~: 0-(hi.uD.t?b~~k8·

^-

'~~~gle

^on

~

^the

~three 'p~inCIPal ~;nt~rcti6 ' fe~d.i.~9·9rOU~d8 ~~t

;~a~~:eir." t~:,s~~eg~·te. 'i~t'o, ~lX.',:,~·r , se~~n':b~~,e~'lryf'~~it'ii

^:',:

(~~~)Cin/,

^{" :}

, i97.6) ,.. , ·'Th~. s~~p~p~lat~on~hlc~ ,f~~d9~

ⁱⁿ

~~~', N~~tl\, p'a,cl~ic,

also

consi.~tio1' :th~·e"~ 'sep~r~t'e br~~din9 P~P;;J..ti~ '~$·

^.:

~.;h :: .

.

,""':~lth'''~il!ltin:c~ .~a~v~ng/b;~~dlng:· ijroU:n~~:':{J:ie'rma~

^..

:~~, Mt~~~j~'

.

.... ",' ,,'--','", ·",:,t·~.',·".',',~''. .;." ,.-"".:".' ,: '~: ,':" ,':::",:,: . -.~.,

1977}..Mosto(theNort:hve,~t.,Atlan~.lcpQpul~tlon,howev~r:-.

·br~~d'a~d·.c~l~~'~![,':th; #~~t' .£ndie~"~'I1t:":'s~;r~9~~~'''1n't'o.

.tour

i:':"': ""'-,'

:. t~e~'lnq,'S~~8i:OCk'li th~t~ :.u~e'"',io~~" d,1.ffer~~~·"fee(hn9,~ound;i - , :' .:;:,:: " ,,'

<

1) : ~l~'

^of

Ma{~e" ;" :~~U~h: ~~at,~~v~ ,-~c~tia ,·:;)::~it . O!;:St..: .', ; , . ~~

.::.,

.

•• -',~<'•..,

..• .. .

". . ':

~

^..

~)(t~nsl~prO.9ram · o.t nuke ,F~~;~~'PhY~ h.~;>.

^{' .}

.eiucidatedthe..'feedln'1'~$Ub-'stocJcs: 'Phot0Qt::a plis.8.r ;'.~aken·.

0" the'ventr:. l~.ur'.c:eofth.

'tlwce s

~d'·otiier:.d1Bt1nCt1v·e.

'. '

• . r.ea.

of. the-animal.'IndlYldual;_-.r:~.~ta.lo9Uedand·.slCJht"in~

~

.c-:'.__-' . \....

:;i ~C~t"'iI~~ 't. ~· ~.e·';~i.riq;:a.ri~ '~~~~in9 ,~e~s~~~'

^{' -.}

II~~!

':': ."s.•:',',.;,;:' ••::

,.,.J.,

•

. . _{' ,~}

':.:.

_, •. ^{· ·,lj}

i" ': ~':::, .dv.~:~;:~:!\f~:::d:~:~~;:~~~~:;i:i~: ::~,:f~:"I~':.::', - . . ., . "

.' ar,eas:.ofh:9~.·produ,:,:lvlW·.:(NemOto ~957.;''1?6~;;~ckintosh.'· ~.:. . •....•

..' .: :. l~~~r~a~d t.o '. ~~r:' ~:I:~Ve~.'l.~·· ~a~ .~~~lt:e.".~, ~~t~.~.~:.~. :~~V.in~~'. ~

, ;'I n,trop1 c:al.W"ater.'~s pr~ably". d,ap tl'!. e.rer..t",oreaso.n~:,1)' '.

~;;ih· ~J·::r::~;~:::;~z.:;:~f!';r~::::~:~~::;;:.~;:;:i

_{.:.;~..: . . - .:and-,~o.re}198 2.). ·.2}"calvS'u y.require s he l t e r from

~~~~d:>:·::·Y.(;'

~eavy. .ft ~7-"~

.' -. . .: , ; ~.~ ^{. •· is.l. :} ~f;e~~~~: (;~.'!~):.;·f _·~d . . :~ ~:~·~,~~,le~,, ~\;.~~.:·~~~i'~~s >~~~ : "" ^,··.-S·.

~ ~^-.p~~.~~C~ed.

a re ,a . .

a~·~~.~rc;:or.~ .r~b:^.....~~·~iqra~oq,~.C~.~.'i~ ^.:~.\:^{. •}~:.:.,~

'l"." 'j ~~~~ ~~~'~~~~; ^• ~ ^•.

t",,: ',"':

:1"

^H,

:;['C'

Humpback \ihdesdO.no t

uSuall y'

_to~.ge

during '

th~ w"l'nte~

.. o' n

th"

bre~ln9

^{qrounds'probabl y}

~.Ull~ ~d~~~e ' .

. .;...'

c~ncen~ratlo~~

^{ofpr ey.•}

~~ n~t ·:.vallab],·e · eDaW~ln

^196.6;

B.k~r .. · .' \.::,

:.19 ; 8;Herman-'19 79;

;'Whl~~head -~nd Hoor~ ,

^1982).'The:

fll~lng ,

^{'., .•}

.-: ~ ;

",.·.;:~season_.i~.n·or~.~n~.a~e;~-1~ th'us:~it.Lto,N~'r:th:"e~t: ..-., ;.:.: ..

..'1.·.:...

· .<

.... ...

'1

..

['.

,';','" J•. :_ .;. .',. .". .

~on(~nea

.

toth~''In.tfll:ln~ gT''ciunas.. The!,~edto.'forage.. .~".~.

I~,' ^{· · • •} · \, ~~~t!!: ~:~~;~ '~~!~

f ' <' : . . ' ; :.

^'.h..

~b

^..

,~~k.s .".'a

^{.. r.}

~~O~~ld

^.•..•

r..~.,,~ . ,~.o .~,"?~n~

^{..r.•:l •.}

;~': ,

^,e..

:~~o . ~.~ t .n.~.,

^.•..'.,

',:<,.'~~.<1 . . :~ .. <._:,~:.

_I . . ':'W'l d e

varj.ety

of~food.'t ype s:"(Nemot o'1957.,1970::Slij~r.,..-, .," " ',,,;~,

j'

~":' ~·i.9:6~ )·~ S~;~'f1,~~t:_ ~( p~e; '.~~~1:~ .. ~~~. ~~~nd;:p~~j ~il~ " 'o n,

^{, 'r,:':' : , -_}

I . . -. ^, .Val.'",,-l:' : ~~~~' ~~'f~~.9. ,~~1~~._;.lth~U~h :17\ l~k."~ ...: ' :. -<

1

(. '.:. . :;:;.) _{, '} . . /.:.··. _{_,} .: ,·-·::· .:'~

_>'~"

:;~". ^{. .;.. ...} _.,; ^, ,".'~ :,""•.':. :;-~.~::.~:': _\.

_~.

~,.:, ^{:.::. '. ' .'} ·z ';.,:~~<./;:.:<j.;:;·.:;·

0 •••• •r . . . .•~··i:^{.. _,'} /-.~^..~" ^:.:;:;.;:,--. ...·:>;·;~,t.·;_~~

',, ;.",

'.','

"',',!

...^'...,.

,. ,:..^{' '}

..

^{,: '}

.'!:.>

.•. ..

~\"

t->. ..

that pre:pr.terence~:do eX.lst.,.I n,.the.\southe~,nhellli,'~her'i'.

• .. . ::K::~::i:.::::::t:::2~:::~::!::~::~:t:::::~:~~S~:~~:'

"\::'.,. 1

~~;.) '

^...::.

~~',th~ ~O'~fh~

^{Pa,cl '!lCthe}

'h~b~' w~e~'

^•.

fe~d.ln;

^0"

~.:;~:,.^:

•. ..

^;

... ..

-";

.;-'.. ~.

."..',.."'.' ':,"::::;,'(~'·C~,A~'G~qr~~.):~el1~,~~~.l:.lr ',,(,~:'DclP~~n'~e.rs. ^{': .}

·

"'·· " ~~ ~ ~~~ ~E~~.> ^.

:! '", .: ·~··i~;,the ' i:li.fr~rent:1 fe"eding

·. t ocl!;

~r.egicn.s·,'of,' th~' :~or,thvest; .~:, ',.;~:/;

. ... .. .." . .' ' ~~::::~ ::~:t,:::~::~::i:~~~;:r:~::~~::::~'::~~:< " ; ~ . . '.

",'7'J"::-'·,-,,;.-: .."',

'\.~~~~ .

^>Olf the CU{f.Of'

Maln~·.,pr1l1la~ ~rey

^..

pecl~S ~re

^sand.

:~!,:,:-'''~ ..:,: ' . ,

; ',,: .:::,"_{":. ~.'}.'.; , .'_....'_". ; ' :;.' .'.r .. ,.;." ,':...:. ';. '. '::.'"" .•;.'.'•.

i'

1

.':. ~'

~;.",'~.".-~

" ..;..:

~;\

',,'".' .. "-:' .,

':<~',""" ~,':I',~,^{'":':l .',} ~'^../,..:.';:,:'.:':'~,~".;... ^{..,;., ',}

.. ~;'<:' ~:''''''~l

'S.:~··':': ~

' . "

"~

:'. ... . ., ' ;':

^{'\:' ->}

-.. ' , ./; : .' :

"::";';

..

'

.. .

^'

... .

' . ' \ '."

".;.

.

-.

...

l~~ce :'i~'~ ~~d

^herrlnq

(O\;e;hoi:'~nd Nl~rila8 . 1979~· "italn".~t ^"at;, , '·19~·:a.) , an:~ h:~b~~kS

^{may,'. .-}

·'oc c as.l ol1&.UY_

tak~ p~l1l:JCk (~,,'X1rJmA) '(watkins" ar'~'

Schevl11

·,~79)~., . r.Al,th~uqb·~:*~pell~ ' '~.~

^{th'u·:me,s't;'}

~~e~t~~~ ',..

::,'",':-,;

16ca~io~'~'- ~a~{n9' occuta 'pro<y~~s,~ye'lY," , iater, ~.rom '~~uther~

^.'.

.'

t~-"no~~et'n;'reglons'~1tl1 ·.th~·~~rtbva·~d . . ~r~9re'S~lnq··~lse:;n . .

.

~a~'~;.'~~~r~~~~~ (J,n9a~r~ ":i9;4)' ~, '::_ Spawni~q ~lt~liy-'

^{cccur-a '". -,}

i';c~.".~·" ' B ~ ~~T~f~.~; " ~!

~ •.. . _"

";','; ';"

_" ";~J~;~~~~~

: ..>~.(~i~~.~r.,197~)'^.•,

: .Less

infor:matiP~.,.is,:r~~~i,lY^..av~i~~le,on':' ·,':'

~ ';" ;"

i~,,;··

.", '; 1':',;.':

ci'~~~~~~~~t~~ls~

.,':Con~entr.at~on8at,1~t!Jr~fish,Q:lay'~ls.o.move·Ins~or~:'t o

" . .:.:: ~;:: .):;:J:r;:.:~~~.;r~s::~:::r~vty ;~tl::!;~~::~:~t ^{. ;?.}

",

.

...

.1,4~B~i,~~n w~~e::teedl!1~^{__' :, ' ,, " .. .}

Baleen "h~i"es^have·be.e~dividedint~skimers.those

.

^",

.

^{', - '} : / , ', "

,tha..t.,~wim.,th1"ough;;urf~~ c~mcentlr,~i9nsoJ prey.wi t h th_o

·_<t '

^mOI.lt:h-

.ope~·.~ ·p.~ss1vely. ~i~tin9 o·r9~nis~. :a~.d, S~~ll~~ers

^.

,

'r.~~\': ':··(~em~ti ~9S7

^...:

';970~ . p~~o;una~, 197~r

^{-.· .}

Pi~r~~S'" (~9'?91.

^puts

.' . \ .' , : . ' .:_ ' : ' :' '<~>.. ~~.,~·f~~'qh~ ,~h~~e:~. ',.~~ ~S?~.~, 'l~'}hr' ~l<~~~.,.-c,at~?~~,','

^"

....'.> J,.',. . . :','"'W:.bJ,J~,~e~to".(~9S7~;,19701·Jtncludes··:5e~"\I~ale_s'·(,BB ~UDbRtft·ra'

';;;;t"~"$~~~~~?~4':~ ... ; .

~empora.t'llY,h~ld'in'thela~ge ~ucca~..cavity f,or~ed'

b .y

1:he -.'.~d~th^and:'O~and~d'·v~ri~ra·l,'gi-o~~es . T~i,gu~'p~s~ure'^ai,d

..-c.?ntra~tlon··^Of~e^ventral'gro~~es f~rceswater^{'o u t} t~rough

. th~ :'baleen; ¥rawed

'pr e y

.~,~e

^{'t h en}

S~j3.11oW~

^.

(~O:'1970; "

"'Iuy,~run~s'·~9?~ ).

''11le

·dl~Cerent'>fe~d.rn9'::me~hanis'ms·

ⁱⁿ

skl1mn~rs,: ~Jld

:,.

s~al i.~;~!!n;s,; ar~ ~~~rel~~witJ:' ~r~~bi,?~'l~~l 'di!r~~e~c~s,,:

~<Ski mme r sha.v~,ve'i-y.f1n'e l y.,'fri ng e'd,long'n~x~Dl~d:~alee~

,',

" Pl~'t~s.': d~~P poc~;'~s:~t~~e~~ the~~~:~iirid'la;'~';'-lower ~iP

or' .·b.i~~r: r.lil~

^{.'t o·}

acc,o~o~ate ~he ~r:d'~.

^{ot.t he}

b.:ale~n "',~en

··..

·:t~e

^{,mo l.l:th,}

;~~ 'op~~ , ~~~ "l;'n::e:l"eh~d'

^{ros t r um}

'~.o. ~r~it:

^'s

,~ide

.:

9'~p4«Ne~o:,D, ~957; 'Sl1p jer

196.2;

p-iv~,run~S,,1,97.~: , ~.9?9j

^..

-.

rhl~ 'ana~,~~~c~'; ~';~i~ 'P~~Dllts 'con.tin.u~~::s,~ ~t~~~· lfhll~

.:

~. s~J.mm.t.n~ thr9~gh."lesade~S:e~Y~rs~~t .·sma~i·. ~ sl%e~. Pf<~

. _li~~ ~·:.~,~Va.l:lo~e.r:~ h~ve.,8h~r,te~ more"r1~~~ '

^.( t o-preV8l),t

d~f~r~.tibri ' uD~'r-:~w~i~,r:"~r:es~~~}:.c:g~rIl8l; ·trlP9~··balee~.

r;'"

.. '

vent,ral t:.hroat qrooves;t~ latta;" two structures~rlliitt1ng extensive expansion of tJ:1ebuccc~1 cavity (Sl1pjer19~.2;

Nemoto 1970; Lel!lthe!"woodet:. al. 1976;KatonJl~tal, 1977;

Pivor~pas^1919; Wa~son.:98~). ^{The lower-}ja~^{has,aredu.ced} surtace~i !':~tldula~J,on w~'~the upper~avso thati tcan..-,

I~rop.for war'd and~v~den$~'U',whd e.'·!" qape"(Pivorunall,I 976;

·We i nr i ch 19si)"."s~~li;~~r~or gulpars"a t:-e thus

1

~orphoio91i:;ai'1y' ,ada~'~~~ t~

^..

~l~klY 'e~gui"f" ~ia;"ge vol~,s

^{'o f}

..' v'" . ·· ·j ~:\::~:·:;:i:.":~;:;::~::.;~s~h~~~:L:~:s::::: . . out

..ttl:e.yare·adap:ted:.t,o~~nqulfrather~anto~itthrough'pr e y.

swall~vers=-;equ.1re~enl!Jer'p a t che s'o.~p~eytnen.do s.kimmers (Nemot~.195 7....1:970 ;.Pivorunas.1979 ).~

.'Th.~ .-dia~~t~r'or / inenassof..the.i nne r· frin.ges,on the b'aleenplatesd.1~fersamongsW~llowin9',typeWhales:and .va r:i e!iV~ltJ:lthe,size of prey'items

in

the,diet.. St!!i whales"

ha.";"very 'tinebaleen:fringes.and1:ypica,lly.utll1z~s:m~ll

;s i z e d

· pr' . y

sU~has·'~o.pepods·. ~spp .•-and.~mP~l~ods'"

'(Ne mot C? 1 96 2; i963;'Ka~a:mura

1974.

"1978).',

They

_~y feed in'

a'~m~imer,s ...-m,il a r'to'skimmers,-Sifting,through surface prey.' cr-.may,engul.fprey from.d~nSer·::sCh,;ol~ (Ka.",a~ra1F4';

.

~ Katon~ ~et ::al :

^i919r.

: SpeC;le~ th~t ~.at 'pr:lm~rUY

·euph~uslida"(bl u ean~ fi~~haies)·.hay~^coarser~ai~en

,).'pr e l cn

9,·.i.sWhile''the:~oar8e';at b·.l~e~,^{isfound in} l~thyo:pha9'OUS

(minke--

and

'humpback )' WelDoto'i9S7~ ^1970):

1.5Humpb.ack f~edln9'behaviour

In6UIIIIDary'then:~~back~are swallowers.yith . .rel~tivelY

""?"

ba~'~tl)iploitin~^a wlde var.letyof.p~e:^...

types. many'o f whichar,Bsch09 1 .1ng Ush.·'AsIIepectee't:hey

al~o

^{possess a}

~~eme.ndo~Sly,.dl,!,er~e

^{repertoire·9.,f'}

feed1n'~ ~

^.

beh~V.1oU:r and~

some'-u ni que'

'morph~19qlcal Char~ct~rlstlc'iI'

^{that .:,} b~th'^{enable'th d}',to~e~l~lt~any'~~s^'of

p"':'eY : and.

t~--:-

conc.e.nt:r'at~ '(~~d ·~~~~'.-~ore,~.~,flclent,~y" e~9U.l f)

^{pr'ey,fr om..}

m.ore;'.d.is;er~~·d :~~u;c~i: : :D~~'fereri~ ~pu·iat~~.ris 'a.l"I~

^.

: ~: '

sUb·stocks;bf huD!pb~ck'~ha leiexploit::·dlfferEn1t"p:rey'species a

.

nd

. there't~re 'exhibl~ di ffer~nt 'fo~~~~nq-','~trate~i~s', "

Humpback foraging bepav'lour'

in

the CuU',o'fA).aska has

been·e xt ens ! v.e l y

st~dled

^anddescribed but

quant1t~t1ve'-

^data'

are scarce. Jl,lr as z and Jurasz.(1979) ld~nt1.tythree'bas"~~c feedingmodes: lUnge"f~e,dlnCJ" bubblene"tfe~dlnq^andn~q<

feeding,wlth"variatlonswithineach type.':,When l unqe -, ,. "

Ifeedi'ng

~h~.

it:"f!qle 0f

7.h~ . saq~t ^{ta l} ~lane 9 t' _{th~ whal~}

tb

~~e ~

water'sur fa~ewas observedtotak~three pet.'tons=,':, "'"

., ' .,ve;t1c al.",,*a t,er al-'a n d"1nv ert ed.

EUPhausU~ h~t;'ri~q ~d

^,"

• . . : :. _ ',' . ' " , 0 , '. . " '. ."

.":. ,~~. ~ca~e l1n:wereexploi.tedu~ 7n?l~n,qe, .~~':"~1~q.a'(ld1ung~~~.l!I~eed'..

~

---:-- . 'lnereasedwith the swimming. speed of the prey'species

. ··...

~herri:nq being ~,e

^{-:hst e s t.}

~uPhauailds"tli~· ~lo~estl ,

^.:

~O~f;;S'of whales,f'requentJycC?ord1n8~.e~·lung.eswh1.le sVlllllli~nq'abrea~~.Ln adi~9.onal·Lme :C,,:chelonei:SI~. . ..Wha les'make",b ubb len e t ll.by-e xha l1n q.qra~uallyatd~pt:h

, whll~ .S~'1mminq in'·~n ,~r:c ,. 'Ibe , r1s~n9 bUbb'le~

form a:rlnq.or. '

, s: cl oBing: ~Pl~ii. 'th~ bubbl~~ · dec:re~Slnq

1';.

lIi~alJ

the ,',":'.:

. . . , I ...

.whale<:ontlnuestoexhale. Thelarg er-and more"mobilethe preyI.•the iarger eheini tial b4bb l es intb"e rtru;J(J urasz and.

Jur . a x1979). Pr eyiscondensed and contained'a,s it.l s

·drlvEnl

u;~aTd.·by- ~.e·-.bubblenet

^{'(Ea1"l e}

~979)

^{•. The}

~hale

,

. 1~nge~ , th:OU~h ' t~- ~~nte1"'" o'(~E!ne~

^as

It'rea~es ,

^the.

1I_~rrp.c:e .~r enqul.t~-

^the

~~gYegat~d ~r.ey '_jUs_t_¥l~" ~ th~

..

·su~ iace.:

j u"rall%'and''N r a a; (1979).;'eFort

th;: use ~

^{of .}

,;.

~~ieriet c~~ding to,- ~xplo'1t· hetr~n~~'~~~:'e~pha~~i'~~~' b~t ', not. :'

~~~enn. In·:.~11:~_i~e~_·lri9•.0bserVe d.;·-OnlY<m..41:~Ph~U81~d':": : ",.._

~::;~;~y;:!l~h:l::~:;;::r;::~;:~·i~f:~:~:~ . ~::s:~;:s . ~:'" .

·,spl a s h:and an·l nte!"nalwave." The....avemoveis_·forward'"and

:th~~ _.~f~,a 'fe'ol se~onds

^'the

~h~ie ~urfaces,

^-

~ou~ ~pen ,

amidst{he wave(J~as%'andJ,uras~'1979), The"hal~s 'W~re 'highly

flex~le 1~

^{their.c:hof_c e of}

' ~xP.lo~ta·tibn

^{strateqy .}

,int e r mix in g all-these"f e e di ng"modesafldthe i r var iat1on~

. "

.' ^'

.'

"(Jur a s z and Jurasz',1979) .,

I?~lPh~~.

^{. ,}

:~?s~eeny": 'i~981: 19'~?) h~ve

^{al so}

studie~'

hump~~e1c.whal~sforag1'ngClffAla~ka'andhavft _foun~^.•

"~orr:e~atio~s-between.~othte~cl1ng,s~rategy,a n dre s pirati o n

"rate~ ~nd ""~~ -d~ptlt ~o; ~reY·'i~hOoi8: "' .

In

a~dltionthBY

report.th~·~~~e'of~bar~J.erS-~~~h^as~od(^{.ree e e,}Qubble"

CU1"t~1~8. , .t~e ~~te~' 'sl;l~fae~ '~~,ci,-int~~ faees' -f~~~d

^.by'

ab~ilpt

..

t~r.turl!lf ·'. de~8~1~; siiini.~ ·"·and

v,e lodty

~ha~'ge8, a9ains~

·

;~hi~}i:~~~Ck.·~~~i pr~y" (Doiphln 'and '~Sweeny

^{1981), .}

\.

_ Paqe 11 Thev'ariousstrategiesUsed by humpbackwhal~sto • exploit sand lance,and,h e r r i n g In,t h e Cult of Maine have' bee~ ~escribed by Haln et a1. (1979. ,t~~)-and WatkinsalJd Schevlll (1979). Someaf,th e s esuch asecheloned lunge

feed~nq. ni~k .fee~inq

^(vith

th~.~~ntrlll ·~14~,Of

^theflUkes

~ere :howeVe~'):.'~d ·-bUbbl~~~~s - :J.n .the ··t~UIl ,~!. ~o-;t·

^{erreaee -.}

~nd·,~;~:,~lS .•

^;e,

Sll1\11~F: t~, tho~e-rePor,~e~"from .~he

^{'Cul f'o f}

:; ~:~:::J~E~;:eL:~:'~1::;;~:~;~}~:1:;~::~:e; '.

mi y'surfa~e .l..fl~the'c ent e r' o,f'o r.beside.the cioUd and,dl-pud.~

Dia~~·b~'-pr6~~C:~d ·.~n. ·~·e~~e~ ~r: i~, imlltl~les .

Off.N.~....fcund):an~'huinpb~Ckwhale fe~dini3 behaviou.rl:l~s

~e.en .irivest~9a·ted·,'by Da.~les

and Ha;rrison (19Si}·an;d:., . whitehead_( 1981).

Whl~ehead (19al)'-discerned th~"ee'

^{t.yPes of'}

. .. .

^. ' . ." .

,.

, .e.e . . " . . ^In.~

^b.eh..

^{';~ ."}

^..••

r ^{~hlCh w~r.e._.} d~terminedbY

^th.

e

^{.t YJ,..}

^{e .O . "V'rf .,}

the,~hales:'wer :explo~:tlng , -These ....':'re.1) s.haqo.... water .~iow prey.~-{pr~'. ~y c~Pel1n). ²⁾.hal~OIl^vaeer,~a}t' prey ^,

·(p~rhaps·squid) and 3).deep.prey--(eapellnor'pianktcn).. 1he

.~hales ' basic'~e~Ji'our~l ~trategles

^vere

simil.~

^{in all}

th~ee. Sit~at10~s ~: ~~alO~ .'

^{, '" ~, dove-:"}Int o the eub ..surface

. . p~ey

sC,h~ols:and ll~tl~surt'aceactivity vasseen: Lunqlnq oc:eU1"~ed9'0 shailow water slo\l prey (capel1n).·only_ Aspo<:tl!l cf ~e bas~c'seque:n~eo,fbehaviour that vat- iecl"v1:th prey

typ";

_~ere: spoe~~:.C:/(m~vement ^at'thesurface (fas'terwlth

,fast.J,~eY).dkve dura~10n'~ongerwithdeep p,isy),and

re s u r face'dur~tlon ~nrelation to dive location·(vhalea travelled~rizo~tall~~der:^....ater·w'l th fa's..'pr eybut

.~"

..

^,...

,

_ .. P~q..:·12 ·.

. . . . ·· . i . .

.c.> . ... • '. ' , '

re~~r!a9~c~CI.e_·.to<~e,d~Ve~eawith deep-prey)_.CJ:>aVi eS.

:.nd..~ri"~~on.VBl;:Whl;I!l~~d1981)'.:tb~se.s~les-~ere··"

&IIlOng

~e:.ilr.t .tha;_._~t.~_~. ^to ~~l~t~ -~.n~itJ~l~

^...:

••pectsof wha le teedln9-~~llvlour:to ~asu.,:,~~le,ban.

paraizleters. : ."

· l i11111

^{highlymob,ilepr~y,( fl s h.squ id).and:for}perfo!,ml nq

1

..the:

1[ >., 1 ::

....c,,;::,

CO~l~)( .~eecsi~9· ~trat;egles _-hlth~~~:·'de;~lb~d"

^'The';',may

'/{:';~

, ':::b~':1t:~lt~~r~[i1!:ii:::::~:Z= '~.y ,. .~ : ;

Ip~u~e'_ '~~~~:.~~~~'a~~<n ~~r, :~~. '~r-o~~l " ~~d: ~~ the' !~'lpPer~

^:."," .:

~

^..

~~

I to _{aV~ id'} th

^j',

:li~h\·~~'.i'~rid ~~et~~·.~J;'· ~~!'-:' d ark__ :.~h~ ~in~o - , . ·'''}f1 :

".:'

;::-.: ^{. .}

~.)

.~'}' '~:

!

"

/'

-"

'·,f. : ; .".'

..

~,

.

..

,::,'-'

';;"".

Pa'ge 13

n~tl~latelYapj:lilre1'l.t " There have been no unequ"ivoca!

':'ep or t a

ot"t~e ' elaboT"at~ buhb~i~g

beh1t.v1our observed 11'1

.~th~~' ~~.eas : 'V;t"tli:ai' ~nd

^{obllqu.elungingup through}

">'ca~~li~'. s~.hools (DaVieS -a~d Ha~rUon

^{1981;Whitehead.1981)}

".

-~n~·."i~~e1~( 1~~gln9i O, ~ill

^..

~ers . _obs.)

^{·B.r e theonly types}

':: : <... -;

^;:.o,t:'sUrt ae:8·tcl\"-a 'gbohavlour ' d"acumentedt9 date .' Wl}ales

',<: ~ ~, ' , .: t!~~~~:,~;:e;:O~; ,;~:~~:t~;:~~.d'Y ~nt~ '~." wh.re p rey

A~:,:,·.,;·';j;1l:;'i~~;~~;;~f,~;t!;t;j,i.~~~~i;i,~~;~i;:'::;;,:, ::~;::::~ . . :,

...r.~~ ~~:,~:d\a.'::~~~~;iJ?"'~llt.e,:" ~~,r:~,g,+~g,:,:~.~t,~~:~';~~ ~lt~,',~,!,~he 8bs!~ge ^..

/ ;i>

'!('. :;.:~~::::/!::l::n::::,:~rj 'r~~:~ ::~::~:: .::r.~~:~:::~:rlY

,

..' :l~d~,~at-i<m. :tha.t^a,~oca'l1Z~d

p rey

~~h;Ol'v~~.·.pre~~nt.·

':.'_ . .- ·. "~~~~i~~s,:~r:~'se ~s'·

^ec

'h~W.~,th~ "'~h~:~es.''~e?e r~'~'p~n~iln~ ' to the

.t,

;lt~,~~_de'pth>extent;"lJo,Sidon ..s~ape.~nd':Ill:~~eme~tot..the

\ :: _~, .:~~:il>1·:b:f:e:t7o:e::h:~~:~~~.e~~~:t~L:~~i:::~~~e.

^9,

'" )

\

. .

;."

,

,

feat~reiswhllle,swererespon!dinq to~l!I tS'tTon.qly "

'~1sstudy was initi,atedin 1979 end mos t ~atawere collected.rn1980 and 1991. before manyof the previously desGribed'f or a q in"q·beh". v l ou r (indingl!lwere available. .

~oMp~etiofl'

o't' "this·wor.k

'~as

^tilpart

~or.roborated th~

fin:~lnq~^{of"cit b e r}·i.nve.~t~gato~8·. '.l0tab~y.^Whitehead, 1983).andDolp~in'an~,Mc;:Sve~J:lY'(1983).'

I" ~

v

','

:'''.:-.,'

P1l.9f!' 15 OlAPTER 2. MEnIOOS

Boa t -based cb eervee .rcn e

~ f h~back Wh ~I'S

^{;'er e}

."d~

off-.theco'!s t of Ne~ foundlandduring,thesUDllDJ,rsoC-197 9,.

, 1.~eO an·d·:.i.9~1 . ,W~rk ,1~ _i979. s.e~Ved ~a:;;

_.'Pi.l ot;·

~t~dY :" tO

'p~r te:~t-o~~,8r'(.~.ti_~nar.'tec.h~~~e~~..,,~~.le.".-group~' _W~T_.e-.

• _',' i:i::~::,,.t::i~:gl::,: }:~i~;r:"ri9~v,q:~t: .. :~:.~~::)~~,' , " ~:;~:;; ,

-:::~ ^_ .~,:, O~}.9?~::~e~hOd~" "':.'..t.h:,,:,th~_:iu:t.dIt;'~fln·:·O f,b~lt:.s~hool In'f(u~mation

:-:>i;

'~-'-7-~

~.>::::'-:-:"~<., "pr~V:~d~d~~;-~.'depth·:~~~e~>:.":·f-.'.':-'":: .- .:'.'"'," .' ;'.:'.-<.~ :-::'~~" .

' ;- '. :':~<:

2.1 Equip ment

~~up~

^of

w~ales

^ve!:'8

·t~ll.o,:,ed ~_lth;.:a

^6:ra,.

f1b~r~l.as~·

b08t:,'vith)a ,35h~motor..Wha~e"b e,h aVIQur'was't i Me(], ....ith.

d~q1t~1':waech ,a~d, ,~bser~a.t1~n~ v~~~ ;ec~~ded

verbally

',o~'~a

cas~~t tetap erecor de,r·, ASl";t'ex."Honda._~~B:p a.per

~~.1~toi.tt e~ho:';s'ounde~ .-~~t~ ~,fr~~~~~.'.,o.!.:,so 'lGiz" _~

.4o° l;one

.b~,am

^..

tr~~Sd~~er a:n~

^.'

~ 1lI~~~.~~q ~~vl~e' .~a~·' u.~~ ~~r '~~1~

^{, . ,}

obs~rvatlon~~_...~e__~r-.acrecre w m8mb.e'n,v:!!re."a~ways_pr.8sent . prlmar1 l.y

f~i- ·s:~~et~

^..

h~~e~~r"

1n 198.1 ".n:

as~1stant

^{'t o'ok'}

.:;

i;,::'

"'''':-.

. '

. '. ' .,,',"

.,CI"OUP~-~.,'re"eas.!lY dellnee:t~ .·

... 1

\

Page19

. .

' .

.·Tal:? i e2,1.Humpback. :whaie'b~haVI0urs:r e fer r e d. to 1nth.8text.

A~ter·White~ead.(1981~.: .'" ..

,.:,'.

....--';

~~~ii;6~',~~~i:~e~~~;~r~~fi~~~·iern~~s~~';~:Z~t~~~~~:~ :,·.,>,:'

^":.':.'.":'...

~:

^:.::.'

".~. '~~~;i:~~·:~i~~in·, ~~~;~~d~-t~~~~.·~.~;t~~:i:~a~~l~~~"":''''

TAIL'ARCH -\.n:;;n:·

'a~c~'es ,t'~li-:: ~tcck~ 'P;;O~

^{'i o}

~te;~l~al ,

^{div'e .;": . ;}

>~:,.:

.but.flukes.r ee a t n. below the surface,_-o(:the ,w,,"t f!r.

n~e~ ~Vis~~{e: abO~. ·t~~·, w~ter" ~~~·(;~~" ~~~.:

^.

'orlen t e d":l at er a l l y" r:ather'than.ho r:.lzontally~.as ....l.'.l1so.~l;,.Whales sQmetltlles:pr op e ll ed.f ~ ~~ 5,'."., ,~,..

:

'-'f~r;ef~f~,~~i'~~6=~~~n'?~~~~a~;d~i~~:q~i~~~1~o~~'

^:

. . .. . . ::::~:~r~:.::::~i:::'~::·~l::::~O:n::~~::(.~

^i,

.

^{.'. . . .}

..

~~O{,,;; ~:le aP.',fr o"m.t he water wl.th mOTe tihanh~if th~

:-.bo'dy.~Qllling'above the water.surrace ..Whales·oft.en·

.c ' 't wl s.t e.d.,while'I n.t he.al r·t::o:.1-and,o~.~helr'.b.ac1:<s-,·:..

.

> :.":~:: .r,~£p~~iNG·· :'~{ipp~'~' ·.vi~lbi~·;·~d.~~ .-tb~'::~'it~~ s~rf~c'B." ,ii~\l~il;'~·

-~~:'f ~., .'~ ,; "', ,, ~, : ,·.:;··;~~ip~~~l'~e~t~~:ily~,~;~;o~~:~~:t~~ ;:;·l~a~~i.~,:~':)1:. , ~.' "

^;'.:

~':~" ,i'\' .•..',.,',.;':"~:."...'. .~":i ::.,t o.-f a l O1::ba·ck·J.n.-':J r e qiJent l y.s l appl ng'"t h,e,;:wal;:er::','~",~"

."i"

~

^(c.

~.

^{'.' ':;.;:..:'}

:,:,;h~~~~,r~i%~~~~~~~~~.i.;~~~.o~;·~~lj::i/~~~~~\;t~:~~~ ':::,'

^'/,..

:.<,.,,:: ~:,

." . ,i , C,U)BTAI' ..

:~~~;~!~~~:ef~i~~:i~~~:i~:i~m~:~~~f~~!~t~i,y"" " ;X?'

-v-:" .. '.

^,"· .0 1"dorsa.llY.~·' _on~o·I t.,·often,""l~I1,great.l~rce·.':' '. "~-"

.•

·A:lun~e::from·.th~, s-u~f~de ~how;,n~ :les~ 'i~iI~ ~alf

~~~~~0~~rigr~n7~\~~~;~n~ea~~r;;~:l~o~~~~~~~~:hh : "

th~

wtale,dorsallyuppermost,ventranyuppermost.

. . o rc

.~n·^.:i~~.~.;.~d~

. .' '. :' "" . .' , ' "':, '.

'",~,

. ; .

Jiea't.Q.f w~a~e dow LY'ra ~.seCl" ab~~e.~ater.

'~a_le ' 4i~a~p;'ars:-'frc'm 'tt~e" sur:f~C:~ ' f~r '!t':'i~~~t' .

1..0min',',andusua-lly'(or.longer .~Dlves we.r.e·,.'

,~".~~~~;;;16~~i~;~~i~e~r~~te~~p~

^{. ,}

~~~l:"~,~~he.s,

^..,

i-~~t.1ng w'h~l~~

^also

,h~d',

longer' ·i n t e r va l.s betiveen':t:10:o'S and' usuallyh~ng jus~b~iow.t he surface "11th fl1ppers,.extended.

,

~a;diFm~~;;g '~t··

^ai1.

" ~~ence ~~f

^pny

~~.

^the'depth

sO~der'

~as ~~~ay~',

taken

~

tobe

indlc~·tlV~ .

o'f"'no foad

an~: t~us

.

}~:~:::~~::~ri~~:t:1~:':i:::: ~::.O~~:~::~;V::U:Z:~~:ri~ , ..

.,~,,~,~_.,',., '.s.ou!'l,~~~,,;,~.;·) . : " -. :...,",:", .. . :.!.',':.:,:.-:

: ) :.e ,

'~ .'t.:: ~~i~~.,ar.:;;':.oup~:

^fOT"ond!,u••

Obs:;:"a~ioh

^{was abo}

~ ,

^'"

',:>

l:_,

~

" ...) ..

b~sed,?n t!l~ ab~nty

^{_to follow}

th~m:

^Wl1en

Whal~s~re

^.very,

.\:;~:'::.:~

,:', ','I' ,:·/d~nse\...qrol,lps;'~;e,easll~ccnrusedaftet;" resu"rfaclg: If] ~". ....;"'_';',

"'I"'" < $UchSltuat10ns vh;"le groups"enthe p-i,riphery

ot

t edense -;.-~: ^,"

>.',: ~~n,~e~~,:a.t1o!,~ ~~~.e~

^..

rn~r.e _e~siiy .~b"~i,o~~~.

^{I ' "(' ,}

'.:"

.· tn ,

'~';s'h;r~ N.\{fo'ui'ldi~rid'';;a,~e~"sh~b~ck,w~a1e--':gr_oup

Sl-~'~~':~.~ge '(r'o~

^{1_. -}

'io ' : ~t" ~o~ps

^{·,·l: r ge r.}

th~n 5 : '~~e ;ar~ '

"

' (~l-t~:~~'~"l~B;) "i" :,I·a~.~,e,~t~d,.

^to',

~~:~a1'h a ';~1?~'e~~'n?a~iY;' :.

"

sampl~ '

^{"o(tlie:mor:e:}

~o~o~' drOl.l~ I~i~'e~; bU~ thls."'~a~ '~.qo~ ··

:--,

" .

^{'" -'",'. - ','..}

.

~_

..

;:' ..'....-." ." ,...-'.-::

..

^{~..',•...;..}

,..,a1v:ays.p O S·~ ib l ~",Of t !"n__only~er.tai~'qi"o~p ~l%es we~e,·

. " _~ ",;:::i!~l:~: ~::::;:~~~:O:::d~.C:~l; .:::ct~l::~:}'~ .

"I~·~ne~ :',~~~.k',a,e'~~a~t,~,tIl~n Or~Obser'.va.tl~ to:,,9,et-~o:t.tl~^"

p01~t 'w_~~~e ~h~,

^{; o'up'}

CO~~d ' b~

^{reliably.'l de nt_i ; ; ed'}

~d "

~on~l.stent,i.;: f'O;lO~~d ,'< dr~up. ,~~zes .COl!-ld",c~an~~ :e~~hl:lr:

^by, the"tlmtl','ve'9ot,',~1~'se:'enough for:-O.b~~~_va_tl~'n~:~:,~-ci~n ait.~^..

-:the

.o~~.e;v_~-~l~ri" ',b'o~~' b~9~~; ' .:: ".'. ' . .

.

^"

. ... .

^;

....

:,- '"" ..;' . '

.

^{-' .: " ".}',:,

':

.. . . :', ,.;

~ales"we r e.us ually.follo~ed.;.at ;ad1stance':Qfsq ,-.100

,Ai~_hO~1;:',~id,

^:m>.t:.

';'i~:1b~Y',dist~r):J ~h~~ , a'~- 't~~se''~i,~tances

,'~nd'· the:'~l~~.,ip.eed~~ ,~S~.~1'.~y .i:5'

^-

:~ ~C? ,~!,?,t~ ~: k~~~ , t~_e

^{: '}

enginencLee10"'. On,a fe.., o,:caslons...,. s:a us eddire c ti ona l .c:hanges or

p,r~mature fl~e-ups u . ~or:, ex:a~i~

^.

..,e' ·~~dderilY

..ln cre ased''s pe e d:tocatcJ:1up to Qfl!-st'movi ng. group.' These,

.PO.S S.ibU itie~

^{w:ere.al..,ays}.record:d:. Very rarel yvp,a l e s

..,ouldappr.o.ac~',t~e"bo~t o\,,.lppea,~tolook,a1C\us,byspy ,?oPJ:?J.:nq(~e.f!' ,'I~le}}'."

~ ~i~~~r:~~~~jf"t; > ;

.

B~havi6ur

·.i mme d i ate l Y

~rior

^,tQ'

dl~ihg'

^(cio;;m

b'eh'av'l:~~) ~a;s '

^{., /'"}

clas~'lf!e~('~s

^.

fi,~k~:~"i~(~j :-- l~~' : fluk~

^,

(L~Y

^..

~

^'sid'e

flhk~ ~ {s;)

^;_'"

" , " " , , ' , '/"

~a il. ·arch (~N" or t.er.mi":al.d dvevith.,no,t.lu ke ·up

"Whi' l eat.t6esurf~ce^•.the:tr~~k^:of

the

^groupwa~

monitored.c~~i~uQu$"i;· .:

^" , , ,,' :' ' .

bY'

...

_not'l~~

" ," . ,,

'~lr~~~lon~~ 'd1st~nces .... . .

^{: '}

^.

^~

--:~nd ^.

, "sp~e~s o ~..'t r'aV:,e l.:.,,:~l~~c,t~~n a l.,'~~,r:i~b l es'i:~c:~r~ed ~~c'l.u~e

',t~~,~el J!:~a,dlt;'q~ a~,:~~~:.su.~~~:,',.(~~~e·A~,re~e.lo,n):, '~ermlna.l

^.

,:::~~:t::~:~:~:::~~:]::;::;~;E:::::' ::l::::~~::;:::::.

,,o.f:iO:di.~ldu;,albehaviours..,(~l,~^{,L t,)'}a1'l~~th'e,.tl~mber·

,O f:

blows a't th~':~·~r'face^{.vere ,nQted..."The'1n t o;m}a tion aboi:.at..t;r.'~vel

dis'ta~~~:s ,::, ~'Wlriai:~~ . s~e~~,~a'ii'd~'~u'r'f,a'ce:' ',~io~'s::"~:~'s rio~" ,1n~1~~~d

:~.::U::~:::;::a~:::·t:~~q::qP:~:'::~~:::::;:: . . _{::~~:~1 '}

Page 22

..

,~' "

-:--:.,..

cr'oupda:a.were also.recor 4;ed when.possib l e and included5wlmmln9.co~ forma't lon,(arr'angem.entof.m~ersof the group.inspac e:..r na·hor.~~~ntal"l.i ne.,~h'ale^A·t o.t~e 1eh,..or.o~e,behind.ano,~h~reee.) and.ord~rof -1ndlV.idual

't e r mi naldives. ,Rep e a t:groupih9s~ ,~here.the!lame whales

1o'ere

fO~!-Lnd t09'e~~er _'ln t~e. s'ain~ ·~Ol.\P ' o~<suc~e55'ive ' 0':_: ' , ,

4i'fCe:ent .da y:s werej-eccr-ded

as.

were:,any.'repea~,'S'! gh ti nqs

....·'.iri,~~~i~~~IS

<>" " .' .

^{r- ":" .' ". '}

,Wh~ncol1ci~~nl}:~h~les,.t~;'

depth

sounder was~:on

,~ conti.ryu6U~I.Y: :- P,~:til

^__

~r,~·c~s·.·~·(~h~ ,w~~.9')Jup. ,~~r~·d?~e,;:

^.

. when .they.res,urrac.edwe_would.,gIrt,9.theare,~and 5he !' [o11 9ow"

'd i r e c t l y in. t,helrp~th~

ii

-th~y ~urtaced,'teo-far,awayw~

w'oui'd,·~l~.iy ~;~ad ' t'~w~~~s' ~.~em' ~~d

^{sc a r -t}

,~o'; f~ilow

^{as ,'}

~o'on

,

as ',possi~{e"

^..

Th~

^depth

"s'o~nd~T '';;a:;o', mark~'d ,

^at

~he"begl~nl'rig

^':

ocr.

~J~ '~~,th "~.r'a~e llrid:_ae. th:e

^{:e nci.}

whe'n ',t,~~ ':,~bales te.r~1na,~IY

~i~V~; ' 't;:'l~ 1~6~t~~~

^of.

~hlclt ' ~~n~~~}lY a~;~a!"e: IIs .a ~i.~e~lar, ' ·

I . ~·a1uip.ate~or'"foo~prin~"',on·~h~;wa,t,er.'.,surfac~.',· A[ter :

'p~,~~~ng' ·~h~~~9h..t?~ ' f~~,tPr!n't: :h~;.~::.~be,.~Vhale.s .v~n.t dQ.~ .·

^{W.$ '.'}

~us~al iy '·~.~nt1·nued ·~r,a~elitng, o:n'·,th~· ,;~me,

^{'bead nqas}

~h~

^.

W~Ill~ . t'~TmI:nal'·,~dH."e:.·dlr;;'~tl~~ .f~; '~pproxi:ma'telY"

^{so. -roo-}

m . tll-e·· soundet·'~~~;~ 'a9~i~ 'be ~~rked.·"a:~·d~ ~~ ~b~l~ w"al~' [ 0; ~ ..

.

.th~~·~'·t~ "~~~_~r~a~~;;: ' ~e7 ~~mEiti~~:~,'~~n~,',to,:~h~ le'!t ,~~ ~i9ht'

'-':"'-'~i:,::~~~' ~r~:,c~uv~ '~1~e:6tlo:ri,,-.·~, ~,o" ,

^450,

Or9QObut ~h'1~' :~as':

^{no t'}

•

sys.teIftat1~al~~·do~~', · ,'·pa·th:·<tr~el~. t:h~

^foraqlng

gro~P. · . p'r~yid~ , :'~,'p:~~ture-'

^of't"mt.

ba~t·'~chooi

^..

'th~' ..ih~ies·

^{'we r e}

~re~'~ly'~i~j:':l(i l'n't;~',

.;" . , , ,, ";:"'.

. .

the soundervasmarked atthepositionswherewhal es'lunged and occasionally wherethey turnedor performedbtthavlours suchas flipper slapptnq.:rolling.b':'eachlng«,eet:-)

. . i

To de~erOilnetheapprox1mat~51'%8 ,.shape-and P?sitlon 0'£f1.!lh schools red.en bywl\ai e s we tra-'!elledback,a ndforth '".>"e~~ated~Y,~cr~Ss the~Ch~Ola_t,cons~ant..bOat_-'ipe,ed: ._.,,!t~the

.depth

:·so~d.er ~o~

^.."

~.'e

^er -ave r-se d

~cross it

1."

·.o.n'~ .di~~Ct10!, <

'llnt'l

i

b'~lt"'e~dbd

'and

·-then,r et ur ned,

- at' a- . s

iightly-"dift~fen~

" .

'::~:t'}j:j~ :~ ;7

⁰

: i: : " ;;::~::rr~:t::~i:::·:: ::~:::t

.~o~as.'abl rl:~·C.hC?Ol·^er-ace. w~··.~~~a:il;'"PIO~t:_~~-ourP?'sttlon .In,relation-e c'l a,ndmar ks ortoo~compass bearingsat turn

pOin.ts:

\ '.

2<5.t~alt lde~tlty

Depth sounder traceswe r e the malnsou r c e of

I

I , ,J', .. . ' ., , , ' I.

informat ionabout bait,l,d e n ti ty.·..·Add i t i on a l evidencewast

Page 24

figur e 2.2

Sch e ma t ic represen tat i o n of abait tracesho....ing the out l i n e of a preyschooland the path of the boat

~;~~~~r ~ :~~~t~l~;t~:~~~t(~6t~~~)~t ~et~:i~e~~~OOl

....as crossed four time s at di f fer e nt places. Each singleline onthe trace in d i c a t e s a turnpoint . the double line si gn i fies the presence of a group of ....hale s . Dept h scale is0- 60 fathoms (0-109.7m).

./..,~<

,.

Page'25~ 2,6Mapdate.

«:

2.7Census data:

-r-r nthe smaller bays (Wltl,essBay ,MobUe.~y, Cape Brqy ie

Ha~bO~r).

^and

f~ vark~tCh~ntlel ;

^,t'he'

to~a,l"n~er'"

^of

.whales 1n'thest udy,ar-ea"

we~e co~nted

1..:

~8 iH~e;s

per day,.

I~:"ilr~~s

^not

s~f'~~f~entlY surro~rided' b~ . !and· ~r ~h~~~·,"l~nd

^.

was tad

tar

-a:w~y,.'.¢rs·permit reHab:le slght inq,ofall'wha l e s present.; "'51min

co~~ts :

^{of 'all}

, ~haJes· v.is1b18': ~nd. ~,th~,i~t-'

^{':;. .,}

,,~l1r:ec.op .andd~st8:~c~· "ro~ ~e boa.~~re ~~~

^1-

,~ ti~ttll

',p~rday (e e e Ramsey a~dScott1? 79).. A~~~.e~Qnc"'5mincount ~

In somelocat io ns,whe n surroundedfairly'cl os e ly (within2kill) on a.t,l!!,a, t two sidesby land,plot:s'of 'ofhale, groupmov~me':ltswerema de ona map05·t he'a r e a. Terminal ,dive positions-ariefsom~times.resi,lrfacepo~1t'loris^{wer e} 'plo tte d , In 1~81i twasposSibleto·make .de t a-1le d~l~tsof

. t6e path!'l

't ake n.bY wtiaiesat.the'$~rface-an d to·i1otespati~l

.; , , "

",'

.,," , .-

.

^{' ...,}

re;L.at'~C1nships'9!In41vldu~lsw.ithln'tho'group, 'IoIprkingin _

' ~~~il ~.~~s SU~h , a,~'.:~~l~eS~ : ~.~d'M~b(~e .B~;S ,'ra'c11.~te4" pi~ts

accuh.te to~i-th-i~

260

m~-": r. . " .. .

. . " '. ". ' :

' .

us e d to obtain bearings,.from the footprint""location toenr-ee

prominentpolnt~ , O f~.

^{Itwa s}

-n~t

always possihle to'

~or'

'~hiS

for eve:y

t~ml1)al'

dive b.ut}4:was

~.on'.'. ~ite

-; ,

~egt1 l ar ly. '1111spr-c v ad edknowledge of thevne j .es' . . approximaterccaetcn (Within 1·ktn) a~dla r gescal e changes;

~nlocation over,~tJ;iecour-se of anccservatncnbQ";'t'::.'-y.

...

, ..

•~.>

.. .. >,S '. was frequentlyr,epOat~d:illllDed~atel}'"afte~'the t1rst:·to

::::'::d:ri:;~:1:~:·~:::c:::;w~1:\:::::~,Z:::t:o::s ,

w~.n we mowed-"o dHJ~r~~~:loC ~~6~S:.:~1hl;the ~;';~Yhe" .

2.8

An~lYSi~

^{-- . . ,r}

'j \: <

<>, "

<. ." .• :.: _:.;::-.i·~ . . .'

.. "c.u~e t:e dep~;; .ou~~~r '~~ m.~~J.; at te~~,n;: ~,w~ · . ... :;;.}'"

· E~~~

~oun~~J"__p'Tlneo.U

I~

,t .~nto.

~~$~~(~~~~

m..Q,f:~t_~r,_~(~<1~:e,"~:~~•"~~.,~,~6~S

i;!~£ZJ!,

,'.:."/ ; :: : se.etlo~a~.area_of:~~it;'!1?'m't:~'eit he r:.s~.dt1,o~~he.',t e r mina l. "',:, ·'t.

. '?:j:: ':::'d~::~~::~:~~~t~:,::~::.:tt,:::;:,nt ^{. (F ioU} r e ,. " ;

lnio :::,~n~:!:'::0:,:~r:l~::; !:~:?;i:~~:~:n;':r~t.:n.,~:. ' : _{..: "~.'}

~urf~ce.::~l~,S,·~o':f~1.1.~Vi~9_.~'t,~m.e~: :,":.~a.e~.:~~~:,:f~~.,..:...: ".

" _"' ::~~Ftgit~:: :::,;::t;;;r;;:~t:! ;~fM~;:i;¥~~'~ , . ' , <. , . ,:.

_ \ cue. ~h.wlour occurrlri9.tthe.u~'acet~'t .ebutab,

^{C " • •.'}

' . -/ :::~~;~:d(::;f:::~::~'::~~·~:~:r:~;r'~~l:~;d·;:?~; t~ . _{~\ : "}

2~~~~~~ 1\~~~~;~ c&

setotbaitc~a,~:~t,~~i:t1.~~.w,i~ti·::~v·e~~and!3d,t~_.~nclude,~ ..;:..~,~.

. the t1~.Pent ~"dt~~b+~Vlb~~.~~ci."~inq .t ,th:s~"t,i~~, .. \),'.'

. '.:'.~~<,'.~~<::; . . ;:-.~ ' : \~:</:~,.:;,~:,j . , : : ::iF:~',;~: '>:'.

'. 'y. , ," : ~':~':' -

1..,;••

~

^{,:.",.'." \".,',:.}

:,""'~ {':; '

^.-

.:,,::.:. ' . ",

.~:

:,:\' .

~

. .. :

:~/i>:t·\/:··;.:':

. )," ,.;':i~;<.',;

^'..:>:";-c,:.:'....

.,. ~ .,', '

';,"

F19ur.e'"2.~

'.,

, :

.rage27.

• » :

"

; /

Po. ' ,. : .: .':.

:S·Chema't\·c.Jepd~;SOUndElTprln1:~ut,w1thmar kat terminal

' d,iV. ,~)'~~~(\;~~ \uS7t1n~q " ",'" verr ecres , "

...

Page 28'

.CONTINUOU~WHALE.VARI ABLES

~

stJRFTiMi

·" " ~~f~·

•RATtO CROSDIR

Table 2.2 . Var.iilbies·us~" inthe analysis .

Ocean floor·.dept})at.footprint1n m.

~e:~~~;~o.~~.~~~.~~:r~qed }~t~:a~~~d^•.or'75 m Depth to.t;op

of .bait .~ ,al: .footPrlnt

^in'm..

DePth totop.o f.l;lai t..s~hoo1..aver~ged.~50_rt!''around

~~~~~;~~~?tten~

'Of' b: t t':sc h oOl

-~~":io~~Mnt in.

e:

Ve r'tic a l..extent of,schoolaveraged150 m arqund

~~b;~r;~~tl0n'~1, a~~a 6f'b~it 'SCh~O'l' l50'

^til

'a;Q~rid

footpr~nt.J~"~ ~ " ,I 'e'

CA~CORlCAL \rAR,~~LE.S

^{_'" " . _ '}

DWNBEHAV DOlm~eh8:vI0u~:, fluke·-up•.lo....~

0: '

side~fiuke', noU.Uke-up. . '.',' "- ,

fORAGE Foragil)q or notfor:a q inq '. " " "

LUNGE Numberoteur raeelun g e s.:~or·each periodof time

~entat·t!lesur.fjl~e.'. , . '

.~~ ~~"g:rt

_capellnciTkl"Ul. ,

' ~:C::'hoO~': , 'd~~p

",

,

^capelln." ...^shallow Study.,location..'.:. .

Date_ofobservation: . Size of follol"e,Slwhale"qroup : HOUR

TYPE

coNtINUOUs'

BAITVARIABLES FLRFP

FWAY '1'OPFP .JJJp~y vEXTFP' VE'j.TAV AREA'-

.PuiE

CATE CPSIZE

...

-r-... '

Paqe 2q prior to diving. Two types of each baLt: variable,at the foot'prine and averaged150m around the rceepr int (FIgure

Z.3,and Table2.Z),wereInc:luded lnthe analysis, It"IotiS

original~y: thought thatt~eaverage value would~bel,ess 'a: b r,l t r ar:y . howev'erv,alues~feach ",erehabituB1~yvery

"indlV'idu~lwhale is'!":presentedtin"thei~(;l.1VidUal^{data,s e t ,} whale variables (e'9:~imdSand directions) arevalid'

. Ba'~t

variables

alone~ ~~les~

ineenjunec rcn with wha'le var.rebtes,...U-1be 1nv';l1d becau.se for larJs,gro~psbait _ va'r:-iablesv111..b eover represented:by a !a~tor ofthe-nu~er

o:f

.whaleilllll, th~·

^group. In the gT,?up

data:s~t

^{:e ach'e a s e}

.repr-esenns one d1,ve,i"toone b~i.t ^sltuationbY'~for:-2091n9 unit (whale group):' ·i t isthe set'o f all bait's i t uat i o n s whales,

fOra,q~ -~Tl' id~~'e

^?r:.'

~~~~d~,ntO)

^"

Whal~

^variables

at-eoinvaiid

b,~Ca4s&"lnd~vid~~i 's~r:e

not ;epres-ented.

' us~ 'o ~

.:the gr-oup.,o~indlvidU~r"dai:a set;'in:~partlcul~r.ana l Ys 1s

~t:lpende~, o~' ~h~; fOCU~', ot e~C:h

^research'que s't i.e.n.' The group dat:a' .'set

\la$:uise~ tor al~-, ~ll' :~ri~~~Se$ ,:l~';'o'i~ing'bai~

^.

variables only...