Agricultural economics bulletin for Africa No.6

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'./ . E/CN. 14/AGREB/6

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AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS BULLETIN FOR AFRICA

ECONOMIC COMMISSION

fOR AFRICA

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

UNITED NATIONS

UNITED NATIONS ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR AFRICA

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS BULLETIN FOR AFRICA

No.6

ECA/FAO JOINT AGRICULTURE DIVISION ADDIS ABABA, October

1964

CON'ruNTS

POLICIES IN THE FIELD OF FOOD AlTD NUTRITION AS PART OF NATIONAL ECONOMIC POLICIES

By A.M. ^Acock

GENERAL REPORT ON THE NUMllERS OF LIVESTOCK, THEIR PRODUCTIVITY AND IMPORTANCE TO THE

AFRICAN ECONOMY

By Rex W. Boyens

SOME ASPECTS OF THE MANAGEMENT OF BEEF CATI!'LE INCLUDING RANCHING AND EXTENSION

By P. W. StutLey

THE WORLD BEEF MARKET By B. Habjanic

THE FULLEST UTILIZATION OF BY-PRODUCTS OF AJ.'lIMAL ORIGIN

By I. Mann

A NOTE ON THE FISHERIES OF AFRICA

(Prepared by the Food and Agriculture Organization)

1

7

24

39

55

64

by A. M. Aoook FAO ^JiI')ITiC I. Present Food and Nutrition Situation

It is too well-known to re~uire elaboration that the agrioulture of the Afrioan oontinent, taken as a whole, is oharaoterized by (a) largely subsistenoe agrioulture, and (b) roughly

75

peroent of the population is employed on the land. Only one major geographioal unit (i.e. Republio of South Afrioa) has less than 50 peroent of its population in the rural seotor; some have more than 90 peroent; (0) roughly

4/5

of the land. and manpower employed in agrioulture are engaged on food produotion, the remaining fifth is devoted to industrial orops largely for export;

(d) levels of produotivity in agrioulture are among the lowest in the world, average output per head for the whole population being only a little higher than in Asia and the Far East despite muoh more abundant land resouroes in relation to population. These per oaput levels of output are roughly half those in Western Europe and Latin Amerioa, one sixth of those in North Amerioa and one tenth those of Australia and New Zealand.

The food and nutrition situation in Afrioa also has well-known general oharaoteristios; (a) total supplies of food may be fairly adeQuate in

relation to age, phys i.que , climate and levels cf activi ty, but there are local and seasonal shortages and the diet is freQuently defioient in suoh major nutrients as proteins; (b) avaiiability and oonsumption of livestook products are partioularly uneven owin₆ to olimatio faotors and animal disease and to the speoial eoonomio position of cattle; (c) diets generally laok v&riety, often with a heavy dependenoe on starohy staples;

(d) there is widespread laok of knowledge of nutritional prinoiples.

Despite the points outlined above, there is evidenoe that the total food supply has greatly inoreased in the last tHO or three generations with the spread of stable Government, the improvement of oommunioations,

This artiole was prepared for the Fourth Inter-Afrioan Conferenoe on Food and Nutrition, held in Douala 3-13 September 1961.

E/CN.14/AGIlliE/6 Page 2

and the introduction of measures uo comba-t famines due to crop failures, locust plagues and otter disasters. Proof of this is found in the very great increases in population tha~ bave taken: place .and are taking 'place in many parts of the continent. PAG indices have shown evi,ienoe, however, that in the last few years, population Jrowtb is tendinc to exoeed the rate at which food production is increasing. This may be real or it may be within the margin of error of the statistios. In either case it is disturbing.

II. Present Food and Nutrition Policies of Governments

It is a feature of 60vernment policy in Africa that many governments have formed j.Lans for economic development, "hile others az-e engaged in preparing them. A few of these plans aim at a comprehensivE macro- economic approach relating all sectors of the economy into an integrated pattern. This is usually difficult to carry out realistically in African countries because of the s canty and inacourate statistics. Other plans Cover only government investment and are often in the form of a collection of specific projects.

,fuile food and nutrition do not usually figure directly in such plans, praotieallj all include provision. for a~rieulture, irrigation and land development. It is siJnificant that mest governments place special emphasis on industrialization, and ~n the agrioultural sector on increasing exports. In a few cases, there are 'special plans for the agricultural sector. That in the Central Afrioan Republic for example pays attention to improving the Quality of diets through the substitution of legumes for cassava millet and sorghum and development of poultry and fish ponds. This is rather an unusual case perhaps.

III. Future Food and Nutrition Policies within the Framework of Economic Development

Without exc9)tion the 60vernments in Afrioa have placed accelerated economic gro"th as one .of the main objectives of nat iona.I policy.

Economic development means inereasedrBal income per head.

Every responsible ~overnment in Africa desires it and many governments have already published or are preparing programmes for increasing national inccme at a hiGher rate than population growth i.e. to increase real

income per head. How do policies for improvinc; the food supply and raising the general level of nutrition fit into such plans for economic developmen t"?

It is a well-kncwn economic truism that the farm worker is less productive than the factory worker. There is evidence, from Africa, that

the city worker, in factories and services has three times the earning power of the farmer. Therefore one of the main ways to increase national income per head is to reduce the number of farmers and increase the number of city workers. As already mentioned, at least 3/4 of the population in most African countries is on the land, and high priority is given to

industrialization in their development programmes. This can only be achieved by taking workers cut of agriculture. Very roughly it has been estimated

that only when 50 percent or more of the population is in non-rural employ- ment is it possible for cumulative self-sustained economic growth to occur.

As indicated earlier, only one large economic unit in Africa has less than 50 percent of its population on the land. Most of the others have a very long way to go. But the process is taking place. Throughout Africa there are examples of people deserting the land for the cities, neglecting their farms to work in the mines. This in itself is not economic growth and many well-meaning people deplore these tendencies, but these same tendencies if ooupled with managerial skill, oapital and training are essential pre- conditions for the economic growth that is universally accepted as a national policy objective. Without this creation of a landless class

there is no process fcr increasing national income per head which is generally acceptable.

But this process of economic growth as just stated requires not only workers, but capital goods, machinery, management and training. These do not exist in adequate supply in less developed countries. If they did, the countries would not be underdeveloped. They must be imported. This requires foreign exchange. In Africa most countries derive their foreign

E/C1:T;o14/~GR:SJ3/6 Paz;:) 4 . '.

exchange t'r om pri,uary exports a , e. agricul tural produc ts and minerals, hence most national. development plans place high priority on increasing the exports of agricultural produce.

In order to cre~te this monster called economic development there should be,

(a) Relatively or absolutely fewer farmers (b) More food for the c~,ies

(c) More farm produce for export

How is this possible? The only anl?wer ,is thateaoh farmer mus t produoe more and more of the right kind of produce. The key ii^{o economic growth} in a mainly agrarian society is therefore a balanced development of both food and agriculture and of industry. Already, e.g. in L~t.in America,

there are case~ where "grandiose plans for industrial growth have stagnated and failed because agriculture did not deliver the food, raw materials and ezports to sustain a growing urban sector. It is not appropriate here to go into the deta.iled ways in whioh tb.~ producti vi ty of farmers can be increased - these are well-known ~ improved seeds, use of fertilizers, control of pests, improved implements, irrigation etc. Ho"ever, an important point that needs to be .emphasi~ed is that poor countries need

~" .", I".e,.!".<l.c1c?_' Small pro.gressive changer: through education and extension cost leu3 than big dams, and where land is plentiful as in most parts of Africa these ~elatively low cost measures can be very effective, Obviously

!5ubsistence agriculture is inconsistent uith economic grouth and as fast as possible the subai s tenoe farmer or pastor.ac.'.st must be enoouraged to p r-o duoe for the market or to move to t.';;u and work in industry.

Not o~ly does the farmer need to be trained and given the seeds, chemicals and tools to produce more efficiently and deliver a surplus to the tovna and to the ports, but the people in the towns (and on the farms) need to be educated so that they use part of their inoreased inoome to buy the right kinds of foods in adequate quantity and proper balance.

There are ~0ny Instanoe~ o~ relatively well-to~o oity dwellers living on me.iz^D "'2al, 3ucar and tea, and also examples of succe s sf'u,' cocoa

farmers whose ohildren suffer from malnutrition. There are also the children 'of fishermen suffering from Kwashiorkor. These ar~ not signs of poverty, but of ignoranoe. Inoreased purohasing power will not

neoessarily mean better nutrition unless the people know Hhat to eat and what is more, the riGht kinds of food must be readily available at

reasonable prioes.

But why should the eoonomist be interested in nutrition. Mal- nutrition and ohronic debilitating ~iseases often associated with mal- nutrition are in themselves an importcnt eoonomio factor calling for

positive action if economic development is to proceed at the neoessary rate.

Low produotivity of labour cannot be cured by feeding alone; training,

experience and the right mental attitudes are also needed, but malnutrition can and does contribute to Low earning power, whioh tends to maintain

oonditions of malnutrition. Many private firms in Afrioa and mining companies have found that it pays to provide balanoed rations or to sub- sidize them e.g. in the form of midday meals. Policywise therefore, govern- ments interested in making the oountry pay have a strong reason to pay

olose attention to the nutrition of the workers, not only so-called vulnerable groups, ~ost of l~,om are not direot produoers of Health.

~opulation ohanges are of oourse bj definition an essential element in eoonomios. An inorecse in food supply and higher standards of living does not appear to inorease the birthrate (and may even reduoe it through later marriage, better _educ~~ion and changed attitudes). Better feeding does hOHever reduce the death rate. If therefore governments of very under-developed oountries adopt policies to increase food production, relieve famines, ensure better marketing and distribution of supplies they will soon find themselves oonfrvnted with a population increase of perhaps

1%

per annum more than previously. This may very well offset their efforts to raise national inoome per head, unless the productivity of the people also rises as a r-esul t of better feeding. Conversely, a very rapid rate of population inorea~9 sUEtained over a long period oan readily give rie~ to n8o-!1~:,buoi~nfears. Yields per hectare of most

E!CN.14!AGREB!6 Page 6

advanced agricultural countries have over long periods increased by less than 1.5 percent per annum. But in some places populations are increasing by 3% per annum. In le8s advanced countries bigger increases in yields may be secured in'. '-ially but probably not in the long run.

Fortunately economic development seems to be, or at least has in the past, seemed to e.ot :::''3 a IJra~~e on. r ap l d popu'l ati.on growth.

To sum up therefore the basic poJicy objectives linking economic development and food supplies and nutrition are:

(a) Fewer farmers

(b) Higher productivity of farmers to feed the cities and increane exports

(c) As income per head rise~ nutrition education and special feeding progra~~eo for both city and farm dwellers to further raise pr-o duc t.i.vdty.

(d) An under~tanding of populatiou relationships with food supply.

GENERAL REPOR T ON THE 111JJllBERS OF LIVESTOCK, THjOIR PRODUCTIVITY AND n!POR'l'ANCE

ro

'I'HE

AFRICAN ECONOMyl-l by Rex W. Boyens

Lives took in Afrioa present speoial problems whioh have been inoreas.ed by the rapidity wi th whioh Lnd ep enderice has been gained in

c ertai.n countries, and the difficulties resulting from the loss of the services of. many expatriate specialists. The hazards of livestock farming in Afrioa are perhaps greater than in any other region. Some 10 million square kilometers of Africa are dominated by the tsetse fly which' effectivelyinhibi ts the sUccessful raisillc> of oattleand other lives took. The problems of da s s ase control are' extremely complicated and are rendered even more dif'fibul tb,,' such factors as huge di s tanc ee , lack of' communications, droughts, areas of poor land, management mal~

practices, unsettled civil conditions and ilU. teracy. Nevertheless wi th the t:.,ToHing Lnt r ro st especially in beef.",:,m.e.~t production, significant advances in animal health and prod"ction are being made.

In large areas of Afric~, sheep provide the principal souroe of meat, and goats are also of importance. In North Africa some proeress has: "'bt:etr- made "in--pasture' improve-mont and improved -'sheep-- raising, but in----

the....re.st ..Q.f til" contin"nj;.~)':Ltil the .n.otable exc epti on ()f a fe);.areas.- the Lndustr-y is pr-Lr.L tive,. management mctho d a are .inef'f'd c Lent and f'eed supylies ars defiqient •

.

.

Livestock Numbers and Looation

In'm'ost African oountries statistios ,..f livestook and livestock lJroducts are pa.r td cul ar-Ly deficient and are mostly not su-!..->ficiently aocuruteto use for ~nalyzinG treuds in livestook produotion. The data presented could be'c\:onsidered geri<3rall;y vaLi.d only for cut.Lirri.n, the broad d±scussions of the Africinproblem. -

This article was prepared for the FirL~ FAG Afrioan Regional Meeting on Ani.maI Pr-oducti.on and Health, held in Addis Ababa in Maroh 1964.

E!CIl.14/AGREB!6

Page 8

In general the number of livestock in relation to the human ropulation is not much lower than in the more developed regions, and the small production of livestock products ste~s from their very low productivity. For example, the output of m8at and milk per head of the cattle population in Europe is estimated to bo about

7

times greater than in Africa. Increased supplies of livestock products in these regions depend not so much on increasing the .number of animals, which are often already too large in relation to available feed, as on raising the output per animal.

The oattle of Africa, with the notable exception of those in small localized are",s, are of poor quality and their numbers are periodioally depleted by disease. The estimated cattle population is 105 million (Table I). Production is limited by two main factors - the availability of adequate pasture and water and the degree of loss from disease.

Table I African Regin n

Summary of Livestock Numbers

Cattle Sheep Million heads

Goats Pigs

1947/48 - 1951/52 86 112 80.8 4.1

1956/57 99 125 90.1 403

1957/58 10:+ 127 87.4 4.3

1958h9 105 124 8,.8 4.3

19')9/60 106 124 94.8 4.9

1960/61 106 121 96.8 5.0

1961/62 10'; 122 96.5 4.8

-

Extensive control of' disease and parasites and improved husbandry, nutrition and breeding,

w~uldb~ing ~bout

^an

imm:ns~

increase in meat production throughout the continent, where the human _p~pulation is at present deficient in animal protein,,;

The cattle population of North 'Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt) can be estimated at about

7

million of which more than four-fifths are concentrated in Morocoo and, the 'Nile Valley.

West Africa can be divided into two main areas - savanna and

coastal. In the savanna area livestock are reared in Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Upper Volta; Nlger, Chad, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Ghana and Nigeria.

Productio~

^is Ilmifed'in the north by the lack'of water and in the south by tsetse fly. Int:he liest Airioad

~;astal are~

tsetse is again the

limitingf~ctot i~d'

^{oriiy a}

~mall

number of resistant cattle are maintained.

The total cattle _populatio~ of West Africa is estimated at about 25 million head of whi:chmore than four-fifths are in the savanna.

Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia with about 30 million cattle constitute another'main livestock producing and potential exporting region. A large part of Sudan is savanna and other large areas are watered by the Nile.

The highlands and the savanna in the south of Ethiopia support a cattle population ih excess of 22 million. Somalia with its l~w rainfall ie largely desert but still maintains about I million cattle.

Another main cattle producing area is East Africa (Kenya, Uganda"

Ruanda,'Burundi; Tanganyika) with about 20 million head. The h Lgh.Land.a of Kenya; with a rainfall of 20 inches annually, m~intain the vast majority of the 7 million cattle population while in Uganda the main producing areas are in the north. In Tanganyika mOre _~han three-quarters of the cattle

ar~

concentrated in the north-west. Elsewhere the tsetse fly is the limiting factor.

The

3t

^{million catt}I.e in S,?uthern Rhodesia.ar-e mainly found on the higher country be~ween Bulawayo,and Salisbury and in No-rthern Rhodesia a smaller cattle population LaToca.t ed ,Hdjacent to tlje railway which goes' north from Livingstone. Similarly, in the Malagasy Repub1.ic,over 6 million cattle graze the higher centre of the island.

, i

E!CN.14!AGREB!6 Page 10

In Southern Africa most of the cattle are in the Revublic of South Africa, especially in the north and stretching into Bechuanaland.

1~e northern areas of South-West Africa and ths South of Angola are another producing area with a cattle population of about

3t

^million

head.

There are approximately 125 million sheep in Africa, an estimated·

70 percent of which are of native types, poorly fed and badly managed.

Such low producing animals are found in the regions where the population depends most upon _shee~ for the production of meat and milk. The main sheep _producin~ areas are Morocco and Algeria in the North; Chad, Mali, Niger and NiGeria in the West; and Ethio~ia, Sudan, Somalia and Kenya in the East. In the South, the Republic of South Africa has a very large sheep population of 38 million, most of which are woolled.

The view has often been expressed that the goat is a destructive grazer and sometimes the extreme view is submitted that they should be exterminated as a serious brake on agricultural progress. The' problem, however, is one which can be solved by proper management methods. There are many regions in Africa where the goat is a valuable source of meat and milk and when the estimated total of 96 million is considered, their economic value is considerable.

The poultry industry is one of the most promising and progressive livestock industries. Only a small investment and easily acquired skills are required to raise chickens unaer village conditions. Eggs and poultry meat provide valuable protein for the increasing human population and are an important source of income for even the small producer. Poultry meat can nowadays be produced with less than 2 kgs. of feed per kg. of live- weight if fast growing strains and properly balanced feedstuffs are avail- able. Provided that feed is available, and in many cases it can be pro- duced locally and economically, and that disease can be controlled, .there are no great obstacles in Africa to the establishment of a sound and pro- gressive poultry industry. A rough estimation of total poultry numbers would be 200 million.

En a"ca;:; ·...he r e religious objections agaipst the consumption of

por;~ do not apply the pig is nearly as promising as the chicken as a potential source of acceptable animal protein for human consump td on , Pigs can be especially useful to the, slllall farmer in Africa for the production of meat and for modest marketing, much along the lines of

village poultry raising, but the trad~tional custom of feeding pigs almost exclusively en ,...e.ste.materials aom eve sva P90r conversion rate (8-1).

0:::' ';:'.) v'" c," '.,,~. total of 4-3 million, 1 million are concentrated in the Republic of South Africa.

Buffa),nes, in auy number, are uni'lue to 'funisia. and Egypt where they are the ~ain support of thousands of small farmers primarily as draft aninal". The buffalo:is remarkable in that i t freq,uently thrives under c on d.i,tt.ons where other gralling.~n;l<lPalsbecome emaoilit9<).; emphasising

the iflj)ol'tence of the preserva'j;ion and impVl/vement of stocks.

G~~8 animqls in Africa almost invariablY~PPearbetter nourished than B,ll'opee,,, oa tUe in the same coun try and by far eclipse the poor

conditioned nomadio stock. Game would appear to offer great possibilities on Clel,,,i1l.::.l J.cnd.c as. a sr,urce.of protein. for human consumption if a system of G~':' fa,l·'·;.:l@; E.rld .narke.tangcould be i·'Lih",ted. Before this could. be system:.:'j.",-.I)y Ll tro duced i' hoxeve r , much more informa ti on is needed

ccncccm.ng tho m:....rr.bers of wild game in the area under consideration, their

era'3:i..nf.:,' habi,tr:-, annua.L increases¹ their- mi.gra tory movements, ,and the meat cui table c;.st0l.1 of marketing game meat •.

'i'"e 'Cl'oduotivi ty of a livestock population is the amount of meat i,t yield:> ",en:2.l¹_y per head of tot.aL population. This is influenced by

sever",!. f8~"C.i':J, the chief being the birth rate, the losses due .to disease and the c.o,i1~· "eight gai.l, which in itself reflects the level of

nutr i t^{i o-,} an'} am.ma) management ..

AccurQto average birth rate data for an appreciable percentage of

COH::; in a country are difficult to obtain. Observations in several

C01m ':l'i.??, he'" C \T:", indica. te that the 'average birth rate in African herds

E/CN.14/AGREB/ 6 Page 12

seldom exoeeds 50 peroent, and is often between 30 and 40 percent.

Birthrates are influenced mainly by the level of nutrition of the breeding etock. There is ample evidence from research stations in Africa that an addition of proteins and mine+als to the ration of breeding stock

during the dry season will raise the birthrate from the present 50 percent to as high as 80 percent, To apply these findings economically, however, is not always simple, eepecial.y in pastoral areaS.

Mortality and emaoiation are important factors limiting livestock production in Africa. Owing to annual large-scale immunization campaigns widespread mortality from rinderpest seldom ocours, but trypanosomiasis limits productivity ove+ vast areas due to resultant deaths and abortions.

Exact figures for mo~tality are seldom available, but the percentage of cattle dying annually between ~95~.55 in Southern Rhodesia was between 4 and 8 percent-, w~le in B;gbuanaland 4.2 percent died in 1959. Losses amongst calves are usual.y high and have been estimated at between 20 and 25 percent but this i6 often due not only to disease, but also starvation and bad management.

Except in the limited areas of improved management and feeding of cattle, growth and maturity rates are slower in Africa than in most other producinJ areas. This is due to generally unfavourable climatic conditions,

there being a marked retarding of growth and loss of weight during the long dry season. Whereas under European conditions cattle are ready for

slaughtering at between

It

^and

3

years, in Africa, oattle in many parts, are not ready before the age of 7 yeare. With low fertility, high mortality and slow growth the peroentage of oattle slaughtered annually is correspond- ingly low. It may be said that annual slaughter rate of cattle varies

between 7 and 12 percent aocording to the level of productivity. This is oonsiderably 10wer than in developed meat produoing countries where slaughter rates reaoh as high as 40 percent.

Output of Livestock Froducts

It. has ~een calculated that the total number of cattle slaughtered

throu~out Africa is 11 million, biving about 1.7 million tons of carcass meat)!

Si~:j.larlY,

the numbers of sheep and goat slaughtered are estimated at about 57 million, giving three-quarters of a million tons while

slaughtered pigs are estimated at 3.3 million, giving about 160,000 tons of carcass meat. These estimates give a total output of meat of 2.6 million tons of which about 74 percent is beef, 30 percent mutton and 6 percent pork. This amount of meat is considerable but it is low· in relation to the numbers of lives took maintained. The 1.7 million tons of beef represent·s the meat output of 114 million cattle, an annual yield·' of about 16 kg;'. The comparable figure in Western Europe and North America would be about 70 kg. If milk production is also considered, the low pro- ductivity of Afrioan cattle is even mor8 striking.

Livestock production in Africa is unevenly distributed in relation to demand, resulting in some parts having surpluses and some a deficit.

Exports and imports of meat, meat products and livestock take place to help to secure a better ba~ance of supply and demand. Generally, however, Africa as a whole is a net meat importing contihent i.e. its imports of meat are ·greater than its exports. (To.Dle II),

Table II

Af~ica Trading 1961

Livestoc~L-~eat~idesand Skins

Quantity Estimated value (Millions US$)'

I i

Cattle Fresh Meat

Exports 248,000 head

42,000 metric tons

Imports 286, 000 head

43,000 metric tons

Exports 12.4 16.8

Imports 14.3 1703 Prepared and

Canned Meats 22,000

"

^26,000

"

^8.8

Hides and

Skins 83,000

"

^83.0

Total 121.0 41.0

l!

See Livestock and Meat I~arketing in Africa, FAG Rome , 1961.

E/CN.14/AGREB/6 Page 14

The estimated value of the Hides and Skins to .the African economy is also illustrated in 'I'abLe II. This estima.ted 83 million U.S • • re- presents 60 to 80 percent of the total production - the balance is used for domestic leather production, or is wasted, or, as dn the coastal areas of West {<frica" is partly consumed by the human population as protein food.

Unfortunately, the majority of the hides and skins offered are poo't-ly 'prepared due largely to avoidable human agency. The total loils due'

to

careless preparation amounts to tens of millions of dollars' which 'are 'urgentlyre'luired for African development. If immediate action is . not tfui:en by African governments to ,improve. the market standard of" their

hidlls 'and' sldns by implementing improvement schemes or improving the' efficiency sf existing programs in order to be able· to compete. with grow- ing competition, a decline, in export returns must be expected.

Increasing Prcduc ti vi ty

. 'Three' facets" of improved management are indivisible - disease control, better feeding and better breeding. Better reeding will do little if the

..',~:,i:" , _, - _ "'"

stock is unthrifty through disease or paraeites - genetic improvement'will do little

'~nle~s'tne

improved types of animals are

prop~rly·fed.

^Better

technical methods, however, will not be adopted unless farmers are made aware cf their potentialities through improved education and extension services, and unless economic condi,ions are favourable. The latter include adaquate credit facili.ties., improved conditions of land tenure in

.. ···rna·oy. COUntries, and also efficient marketing and distribution services.· ···_ .._{,.. ' - , ' , ' - . .}

.

···r '.TheAfr..i.can ,livestook.i(ldustry is facing a decade Ln which enormous

developm~nts are possible and the means by which they can be attained ~7e

feasible.and practicaql'( •

• • C

Consumption of Meat

The average meat consumption for the' whole of Africa is estimated at about 10 kg. per person. This is very low compared with Western Europe' and North America wher~ it ranges between 40 and 90 kg. Within Africa itself i t _va~i~'s conad dez-ab.Ly from one country to another - the extremes'

being a low of 2 kg. in SieI''ra~Leone and Gabon to~ 'a"high of 40 kg. in the Republic of South Af ri c: and South Fest Africa. _~ETable III).

Three main factors affecting the level of meat consumption appear to be the income 'of the consumer, the priceoi meat; and th'e pr-i-ee and,

availabi).i tyof fis::'. T;le most Lmpor tant is income. Southern Africa has' the highest consumer income per head in· Africa, and can, therefore, afford to eat the most meat. The availability of in~'ome a.l so affects meat

consumption seasonally. Wl18n c as h creps are marketed the demand for meat.

inoreases considerably. Co naequent.ly , immediately following the local cash crop harvest the value of cattle sold may be twice as high as in the middle of the year when the amount of available money is low~

The price of meat i s m ;:opcrtant :"e.ctor affecting consumption. High prices in the coastal zone of West fl_frica limit most consumption, "here as, lower prices in the production areas such as East Africa act as a

stimulant.

Fish is a substitute for meat and an important source of protein for large parts of Africa. To a certain degree its price affects meat consumption if it is retailed considerably cheaper. Competition bet"een.

meat and fish is esPeciaLly ~mportant in the coastal zone of West Africa;

.;ii!

Other factors affectin7 the fluctuating ccnsumption of edible 'live- ,stock products are the proximity of religious festivals or fastings, and

within the month, the proximit: of pay day.

Al1;hough -the levol of C,',\T~'::0'- co':~umption in Africa is unlikely to ,approach that of "ealthier countries for many years, two recent develop-.

ments",h..ve .1e4 to a ccns i.d arabj^y.more. rapid growth of effective 2,emar,d.

The first is the ac.ce Ler-at.ir.g growth of population, mainly as a result 'of. better control of disease and the co ns equent reduction in tr,e human death rate - and the second is the intensified effort now being made to aocelerate economic development and raise incomes.

U.N. estimates giv0 a r 0,ec.'ec;ted r.nnua" growtb of the human population in Africa of 2.4 percent. At the same time current objectives envisage an average increase in per caput income at about 2 percent. This is a low rate of increase but if both of these prcjections prove correct then the

E/CN.14/AGREB/6 Page 16

Table III

Estimated Consumption of Meat Selected African Countries (Kilogrammes per caput per year)

1961 West Africa

I

,Cameroon

'Central African Republic

,

,Chad

'Congo (Brazzaville)

,

,Congo (Leopoldville) 'Dahomey

I

,Gabon 'Gambia

,

,Ghana 'Guinea

,

,Ivory Coast 'Liberia

,

,Mali 'Niger

r

,Nigeria

'Portuguese Guinea

I

,Senegal 'Sierra Leone

,

, 'fogo

'Upper Volta

,

,11 5 8 3 3 7

2 6 7 4 5 3 , 12 '11 4

6

I 13

2

7

5

East and Southern Africa Angola

Ethiopia Kenya Madagascar Mozambique

Northern Rhodesia Southern Rhodesia Nyasaland

Ruanda Burundi Somalia Tanganyika Uganda

South West Africa Union of South Afri~a

Kg.

6 16 24 18 3 7 28 4 5 5 14 10 9 40 40

,

,

Average Average 15·2 ,

effective demand for livestock products could be expected to inorease by about

4.5

percent annually. If the cost of livestock produots to consumers could bo reduced by iwprovements in production and marketing a larger increase in the volume of con~umptiohwould be possible for a given rise in inoome.

In short₁ quite ap~rt ^f20ill the great nutritional need for larger supplien of livestock products₁ i~ ~ost of Africa there appears to be economic groU'lds for special effort;; to raise the output of livestock produots roug~ly in proportion to the expected combined rise in population and per caput inoome, that i~

4.5

p~~cent annually. It seems that live- stock production iiicrs''':'3ed less tl:;.::,:~

4.5

percent during recent years.

(Table IV). If the needed a~a81p~~tio~ of livestock production should fail, this could mean a _wor~8ning of the pro~ent unsatisfactory levels of nutri- tion •. It might a180 le~d to rise in the prices of livestock products making them eUll more i:1aC:0,,::;C'~_1:JJ.e to the poorest section of the popula.- tion who lack them moct and to greator forei.gn exchange difficul ties if impoI;'ts were jnsreascd. to CO\lnterrct 2":1y such price rise.

1951/52

-;--~---

_ _ _ _ _ _ _...:P;..;e;:,,:r:..:c::.;e:::.:n...;t::.::a::J:g~e;::.cs~-- ..,..

Period increase

Average annua l i1'1c!'N'.lOe

23

1.7

9

0·7

19

1.5

17

1-3

Many of the g~azing peo~les arc unreceptive to outside influences and their traditions of t.en tend to delay t~e adoption of improved

practices. In F.~ny areas the tendency among Africans to regard livestock as a store of wealth" ra~21er than a pxo duc tive unit hampers the oommercial- ization of livGstcok pro~uct~. Little cc~~i~er~tionis given to over-

E/cn.141AGREEI6 Page 18

stocking as the idea cf safe~y in numbers ia pursued as a buffer against loss from expected disoase epidemics. Convincing and effective mass vaccina tion campaf.gns gain the confidence of the farmers and encourage

them to diepose of surplus stock. If trade goods are available, especially in the hinterlands, contin~i~g trade can be achieved.

Pr-oml n en~ a,-.1v~l[':b~,' tL'3 ^{, " v} a I factors is ::18 uideopread desire to

accumu'l a te lives tool, no t only for weal th eu t for prestige. In many African societies, a man is measured ty the _D"~ber of cattle in his herd without regard to their condition or qua.I:',t:;. Ca:tle and goats are an essential feature of the brid.e p r i.ce i;: :1c,Yrbc;~. There are many indications that these customs are -jreo.l:::::.:c.g d0Ttf'"-~9 hOvlE..-\;"':·:'r~ ar..rl the spread of trade and improved pricsG will have inc;,s8sj.ng ef'f'e c t s in the future.

Nomadi cra i~ a t::'a,~,:t:ionL.l f'o rri of s o oa c.I organization based upon a collective occupati~~ of pasture land wit:. spcnoaneous migrations whioh follow the raips ~nd growinp veCstA.tirn, Man' a~eas occupied by nomads are severely cve rgz-az cd , since the number of dome svi c animals which can be'

maintained under such conditi.on s i£ 2.J most invariably grossly over-estimated.

Stocks are not O!".y a e cuz c c of pro'8jp but are symbols of statue, the importance of Hhich ou~-..,ei[~:_~~' e coricn.Lc considerations.

The tHO maj o r :J..,~::-,:,3ul~,,;·.':~~al O;::..-f;t"ms a.r-e pastoral and settled £arming.

In the pasto:cal ar-eas "i:8re the stockowners who are in many oases nomadic depend .entirely on th3::' -:,.." 1:v'csto c k for their sustenanoe and livelihood, a ca.s h .econ.on:y ic o:r",1. ",rJ~J:2~"", A':'y s.na L). excncnge of goods that takes place is urrua.I ly on a o'\:cte:c s ys t-..rn , lhnts for introduced goods are few and simple ar.d thu or.Ly IJu-L=-"et for _j~rl0strnent for stockowners is by

incre.8.sing the ^{GlSO 0-;;"} thair herd.s. 1J.':.t:.is si tna tion is a deterrent to the idea of rais~:'1g cattle f o;. ^h .iLe e.: a "\'lay of life"

In the settleu far:r.ifig ares;;, wh0re ty_e emphasis is on

cropping standard3 of life a r e based on r..uc h wider wants and conai.der-ab.Le cas A trade is carried on rna.Lr.Ly in crop surpluses. A large proportion of .the non-breeding cattle, whic!: ctben'i80 wotrLd be a.vailable for meat, is however tied up as draft ps~er fo~ cul~~va~iGn" The land is used for

crops and draft animals are required to survive on a minimum of keep, to breed replacements, and finally, before natural death to be slaughtered for meat. This means that not only is this potential of meat animals limited by draft requirements but the quality and yield per animal per year is low.

Thus there exists a situation in many African countries that in those areas where a reservoir of suitable slaughter stock exists there is as yet only limited incentive to develop any livestock trade, and in areas where there is a desire to sell for cash, only a small number of livestock.are available.

Need for Improvement of Marketing

Muoh can be done to attract more cattle from livestock owners. The importance cf organizing regular marketa and improving marketing systems so that sellers can expect a fair price has been well demonstrated in some African countries. The association of livestock markets with trading posts has had benefioial effeote in many places. If livestock trade is to be rationalized the establishment and operation of controlled markets is essential with the following points in viewl-

a) An organized and advertised market enables the stockowner to obtain the best ruling price because of competition. Pricing on the basis of weight and grades can be introduoed as an incentive to increased production.

b) Risks of spreading disease by contact at markets or during movements to destination can be ~inimized by veterinary inspection and preventative vaccination at the market.

c) Trade information concerning supply, prices and demand can be collected and analyzed.

d) Revenue for the improvement and maintenance of stock routes, water holes and other facilities can be collected by charging market fees.

e) Markets can be valuable centres of education and extension work among the stockowners towards improving quality.

E/CN.14/AGREB/6 Page" 20

For proper control to be exercised 'at markets there must be an adequate organization to provide marketing channels between producer and consumer.

In Africa varicus systems have been develcped tc meet differing conditicns. Scme have grown naturally from the initiative of private traders and transport agencies, others have been, modified by government regulation and the provision of government services, while some, especially in East, Central and South Africa, have been established by public bodies empowered by law to take over c'ertain. marketing responsi bili ties.

When suitable marketing arrangements have developed and this might' require proper transport facili ties,s.J.a~!!,~"ril1~_al1~col~storage,hold- ing camps, pricing on grades and weigg:.,. the .incentive to adopt better

techniques will be provided and the sale qf larger numbers of better quality stock encouraged.

Conclusion

There is little to be' achieved' in

a

program fbi'cohtrol of disease if the animals saved are going to die from lack of food, nor is there any advantage in raising the production potential of livestock brseds if complementary efforts are not made to prc.tect them from. disease .and mal- nutri tion and to improve marketing methods.

In the past, emphasis was justifiably placed upon problems of disease control but it is now widely recognized that livestock nutrition and

management, and to a lesser extent breed improvement, must receive fUller attention. This does not mean that there "dan be any reduction in the vigilance neoessary to maintain animal health -on the contrary,. better livestock implies increased value, and depredations as a result of disease will bring greater loss.

The efforts now being ,made to speed economic development, coupled with the accelerating growth of populaticn are likely to bring about a steep increase in the demand for livestcck products in Africa, Unless this rising demand is matched by increased production the result will be higher

prices, making them still more in~ccessible to the poorest sections.

This means that more concerted action in veterinary medicine, animal husbandry and improvement in livestock and meat marketing must be made in the future if the necessary increase in productivity of African live-

stoc~ is to be achieved.

Table V

Livestock Numbers (Major Species) Information available at 31 December 1962

Cattle Sheep Goats Pigs

Thousand heads

Algeria 624 5,360 2,350 62

Angola 1,220 120 465 295

Basutoland 377 1,227 579 33

Bechuanaland 1,319 96 274 4

Cameroon 1,750 700 728 254

Congo (Leopoldville) 1,035 641 2,139

368

Ethiopia 22,450 19,850 17,644 12

Central African Republic 500 50 400 10

Chad 4,000 2,400

Congo (Braz~aville) 20 50 80 36

Gabon 15

Dahomey 30J 188 400 178

Guinea 1,505 340 400 14

Ivory, Coast 289 291 510 54

Mali 3,513 3,275 4,188 9

Mauritania 1,000 941 3,600

Niger 3,500 2,000 5,000

Senegal 1,500 480 550 35

Upper Volta 1,800 1,000 889 7

French Somalia 12 80 455

Gambia 143 51 90 2

Ghana 500 755 386 28

Ifni 23 39 78

Kenya 7,460 6,700 6,400 51

Libya 125 1,016 1,195 2

Liberia 11 10 35 45

Madagascar 6,387 229 241 346

Mauritius 40 2 54 5

Morocco 2,560 12,924 6,489 57

E/CN.14/AGREB/6 Page 22 . ,

Table V (continued)

Cattle Sheep Goats Pigs

Thousand heads

Mozambique 746 89 408 90

Nigerir.:. 3,212 4,296 10,123 240

Port. Guinea 12 34 70 73

S. Rhodesia 3,563 332 421 115

N. Rhodesia 1,219 38 143 65

Nyasaland 372 72 444 72

Ruanda-Urundi (former) 1,060 620 1,830 56

Sierra Leone 180 25 30 6

Somalia 842 4,200 3,733 2

South Afrioa 12,327 37,851 4,953 1,001

S .W.•. Africa 2,117 2,954 ····1,144 17

SUdan 7,000 7,848 6,290 4

Swaziland 535

38

^{219 12}

Tanganyika 8,016 2,986 4,448 23

Togo 139 . 418 341 202

Tunisia 561 2,566 845 3

Uganda 3,383 832 2,533 16

United Arab Republio 1,588 1,578 833 17

Zanzibar 48 14

Tac'e VI

---

Livestock Numbers (Minor Speoies) Information available at 31 December 1963

Mules, Asses, HorsesicamelsjBuffaloes!poultry

.l.-. --.JL , I

'I'houaarid heads

Algeria Angola Basutoland Beohuanal and Cameroon

Congo (Leopoldville) Ethi()pia

Central African Republic

714 4 146 35 58

:>

4,799 . 1

21C

~oo

4,000

128 1,850 55,000

I

Mules Asses Horses

Camels ' Buffaloes' Poultry

Thousand heads

I Chad 150

,

_Cong~ (Brazzaville) 300

I Dah'lmey 3

r Guinea 3

I Ivory Coast 1

Mali 398 149 14,500

Mauritania 164 97

Niger 415 350

t Senegal 168 6 1,600

I Upper Vn1ta 200 3 3,000

I French S'lmalia 3 18 2

t Gambia 4 188

,

Ghana 24 2,343

I Ifni 7

I Kenya 5 281

I Libya 35 241 782

, Madagascar 2 14,950

I Mllrocco 1,65cl 208 8,000

, Mozambique 11 96

I Nigeria 1,450

I Portuguese Guinea 2

I Southern Rhodesia 65 750

I Northern Rhodesia 1

I Nyasaland 1,449

,

Sierra Leone 960

I Somalia 19 ^I 2,531 3,000

r South Africa 805 10,121

,

S.W. Africa 93 149

I Sudan 578 ^I 2,000

I Swaziland 19 304

t Tanganyika 141

I Tcgo 3 986

r Tunisia 288 172 370 5,000

I United Arab Republic 1,069 189 ^I 1,524 62,067

,

Zanzibar 1 168

E/CN.14/AGRE:iJ/6 Page 24

SOME ASPECTS OF THE ],IJ!j!AG.Ell.!ENTbF'BEEF CATTLE INCLUDING

.,~,RANCHING

...AND ,EX'rE<NSIONY by P. W. Stutley Senior Economist

.Ministr.y of .Agricul ture, Northern Rhode si a

I. The Meaning of Management

Management, whether of beef cattle or any other enterprise, implies ,the manipulation of resources so as to secure their more ef'f'e ctLve "

economic use. While the term is ·sometimes used to denote the techniQues ,of animal husbandry or grazing, the wider connotation must be kept in mind, since eood animal husbandry or veld management and criteria of economic efficiency do not necessarily coincide, although fortunately in praotice they freQuently do so.

In Africa, it is sometimes assumed that because social purposes appear ,to out across economic principles accepted elsewhere, traditional manage- 'ment practices do not 'take account of economic considerations at all, qr

that they are, ipso facto, uneconomic. This attitude overlooks, amongst other things, the fact that, in most parts of the world, wealth above a certain level is gene~allyaCQuired for social purposes, and tends to obscure the need to understand the motivation of local communities as a .basis for sound extension.

The real criticism of traditional systems is that they do not

generate adeQuate returns to su~port the higher standard of living which ,is accepted for a variety of economic,social and political reasons by

the wider community. ,Furthermore, as a result 'of advances in disease

'11

This article was prepared as a discussion paper for the First FAD . African Regiohar1ifeeting on AnimalI'roductioJ'j'atid '1le.a:).th in Addis

Ababa in March 1964.

control, 'overgrazing by cattle communi ties, previously in an a.pproximate state 'cf ecological 'balan'oe', tends to pose an ever-increa.sing conservation ...problem.

It must be expected, therefore, that extension services directed towards improved manaciement will be prompted by complex social, political and economio objectives often far in advance of the criteria of the

producers most directly concerned. This is one of the principal problems confronting Governments and extension workers, to which further reference will Qe made.

I I . The Significance of Government Policy

The extent and direction of Government intervention with regard,

...

amongst other things, to rural develcpment, national food eupplies and nutrition,natural resources conservation, land tenure and the prOvision 'of extension services will have a direct bearing upon the emergence of mor.e effic:ient .sys tems of managemen^t in the production of beef.

inter~entionmay take a variety of forms, in some cases impinging 'primarily upon the production process and in others upon marketing

arrangements. In general, the provision of subsidies and similar

j . '

'inducements, save as temporary expedients, will be limited by the shortage of funds in emergent countries and the risks inherent in such measures, partiCUlarly wher~ little is known of demand and supply elasticities.

'irh~ implementation of legislative and administrative controls, on the other ha~d~ is subject to the provision of effective means of enforcement over wide areas, often in the face of limited communications and staff.

In such cases, therefore, the devolution of powers'and functions, and

the~r acceptanoe, by. local authorities, assume considerable importance likewi.se the wholeprooess of pub Lic-ir-eLa tions and extension.

, Orderly Marketing' and Stable Prices

The production of beef for market on a planned basis is a long-term enterprise which presupposes a reasonably predictable market for some years ahead. In the absence of a widely representative producer

organisation, or some kind of statutory or government sponsored marketing

E/CN.14/AGREB/6 Page 26

body, supply and demand relationships oannot be expected to produce a stable price pattern in the case of a markedly seasonal product such as beef, highly susceptible tc factors such as climate and disease whioh are largely outside the control of the producer.

Insofar as governments accept responsibility for national food

requirewents and supplies and/or producer incomes, they will be concerned to .secure the establishment of appropriate marketing machinery and (in

SOme sectors at least) factors affecting the producer and consumerprioes _a~ef.

The actual form that such an organization takes is not important in this context, except to the extent that it must adequately represent producer interests. The facilities and prices it offers to producers

are, however, the major determinants in the development of beef production.

In many parts of Africa, only a few of the slaughtered c~ttle for consumption in the rural areas pass through recognized marketing channels.

However, .relatively large, but not easily determinable, numbers are slaughtered for subsistence. Further slaughterings to meet the limited local cash-

market are secured by small-scale retailers purchasing their supplies direct from producers at mutually accepted prices. But the prices and quantities of slaughter cattle purchased for the urban and export markets, generally channelled through one or more large organizations, may have a

significant effect upon these local transactions. It is important, therefore, that price policies designed to encourage deliveries to urban and export markets should take account of existing and potential take- off for local needs.

Other Means of Intervention

Disregarding in this context the question of land tenure reform, the most drastic form of intervention with regard to cattle COncerns the limitation of stock numbers. In its crudest shape (crude because it tends to fix the pattern of ownership without rsgard to future adaptation in the light of social and economic changes) this takes the form of an overall limit on livestock numbers in respect of a given area.

An alternative which is more socially acceptable, 'although still open to criticismnn economic grounds, is the imposition of a limit on individual holdings. This is m..re easily evaded by means of loans to relatives and friends. The most familiar form of control, essentially remedial, is that of stock reduction based upon an adjustment of total holdings within a given area to the assessed carrying capacity and implemented by means of a percentage reduotion in individual holdings.

Again, this is open to the criticism .thati t does not take into aocount differences in managerial ability. Nevertheless, of the three it is probably the most easily implemented.

From·the eoonomic point cf view, a more satisfactory metho~ for disoouraging overstocking is to intrcduce some form, of grad,:,d tax. or grazing fee, based on the number of grazing animals instead of the liv~~_{, .-'},-

stock owners as in the case of poll tax. This,has the advantage of

.t J ,

social justice and economic logic since it places a ,value upon grazing

" '

land as a national resource and imposes an accountable cost upon the' producer, thus setting a premium on a productive, type of animal and

Bound

management generally. Moreover,'

it

provides appreciable funds which ;nay"

be used fer the development of water supplies or' other livestock facili ties.

Although introduced in Basutoland as an alternative

to income tax and based upon a pro."ressive rate according to the number ,af stock cwned, it can be employed as a selective measure, on the ,lines·, of the' earlier Palestine model, to weigh ml'lre haava.Ly upon unpr-oduc-ti VI'

animals such as scrub bulls and aged cattle generally.

Depending upon the use to which such revenue is put and the degree of participation and acceptance by local authorities, this method bf"

encouraging culling is preferable to legislative measures designedt'b ,:' secure the destruction of unproductive or unsaleable reject stock , ,While' there are instances, as in Kenya, where portable field ~battoirs may be successfully introduced, holdings are often too scattered and the

cost to ,the Government is generally too high to facilitate the adoption of such expedients.

E/CN.l4/AGREB/6 Page 28

For the same reason, inoentives by ,way of subsidised prioes for rejeot or infprior stook have limited applioation, partioularly where a carcass of any sort may have a relatively ~gh value for subsistenoe.

They may also be self-defeating to the extent that an uneoonomio premium is plaoed on the most inferior type of animal, thus reduoing the prioe- differential between the good and poor quality animal.

The more generally adopted methods of government intervention are in the nature of servioes and faoilitiesl-

the provision of acoess roads, trek'routes, watering points, dipping tanks and orush pens, veterinary'servioes, researoh, the enoouragement of oo-operative type organisations, marketing and extension.

Ocoasionally they may include land use and settlement planning, to which brief referenoe is made elsewhere.

The main danger arising from the provision of services and facilities is that cattle owners tend to respond selectively. For instance, disease oontrol and improved animal husbandry may _joi~tly cause an appreciable adjustment to calving percentages and stock losses, with the result that livestock populations rise sharply and overgrazing problems are

~ntensified. Again, improved watering facilities without adequate oontrol may produce a similar result.

Extension Services

It i,s generally accepted that extension must go hand in hand with research, but this is not only true of the te~hniques of animal husbandry and veld management, but also of the social and economic aspects. Here, however, research is generally more limited, and its application to varying conditions is very complex and requires specialised training and local knowledge.

If extension ~rogrammes are to be soundly based, tbere is a need for more research into the social and ecqnomic significance of cattle management, in relation to both extensive grazing systems and arable farming. In many cases, extension workers with training in animal

husbandry are neither orientated nor trained to advise and encourage cattle owners wi th regard to the economic utilization of their animals Edther generally, or within the local context. The whole question of incentives calls for searching enquiry, but there is evidence that in many communities the mere exhortation to sell cattle and increase turn-over - unless reI a ted to other needs and uses (eog. for draught or social security)armaentwyroduce income for s~ecificpurposes- is often quite inadequate. Clea~ly, the

solution imp:).ies not only research but also the suitable selection and training of extension workers.

There is a further ~oint in favour of diversifying extension on cattle management to include all aspects of their utilization, inoluding human nutrition. As has been pointed out, animal husbandry alone may merely facilitate increased destruction of natural resources, but veld management and increased turnover - the essential corollaries - have unpopular associations in many areas, and there may be a tendency for cattle-owners to discount good advice on animal husbandry and veld management by reason of their apparent association '"i th other schemes, past or present, that involve stock limitation, conservation or other aspects of resource planning,

In recent years, governments have readily accepted the need to

divest extension workers of any responsibility for essentially regulatory policies. Their task as agents of change in the face of conservative traditions, low standards of education and productivity allied in many cases to unfavourable climatic conditions, is already formidable. But as the most ~eadily accessible representative of government, the extension

wo~ker is often regarded as the embodiment of all aspects of government policy that im~inge closely upon the life of the rural community. It is, therefore, imjoortant that the im~le,"entationof necessary but nevertheless

un~alatable measures should wherever possible be planned in such a way that a generally favourable image is retained.

E/CN .l4/AGRLB/6.

Page 30

III. Rainfell as a General Determinant

In many cases, land classification has no: gone beyond relatively superficial cate_6orization OL the basis of inherent characteristics.

Of these,rainfall is the principal determinant but its significance upon v8geta tive grow~h is strongly limi ted by seasonal distribution, evapo- transpiratibri', - temperature, topography and drainage, soil-type e tc , , so that appropriate allowances must be made when. comparisons are drawn between differe~t regions and even between different areas within the saoe region.

Even where classification in terms of capabilities) has been completed, infrastructural and technical developments together lath the availability of managerial skill and capital, amongst other things, must be allowed for in the last stages of classification - recommended land use ana programme planning.

Wi th these pr-ovt s o s , however,- the general potential for livestock and agricultural development can be conveniently examined in relation to rainfall, excluding in the case of this discussion the high forest areas more suited to the production of perennial cropsi

Catogory 1. Arid to ~emi-arid Pastoral Areas: Apart from small stock the potential development of areas with an a~erage rainfall of

from 10" to 20" is confined to extensive cattle j.r-oduc tion. Their generally low productivity, however, cannot support individual enclosure of the

grazing land, and the continuation of family farming, "hich is in any case, detrimental to the emerge'lce cf specialised beef production,

cannot survive in the long run. In the majority of such areas there is a need for intensified research into car;ryin;; capacities under varying grazing routines and systems

0:

manag~ment. But even where standards are laid down, these are freQuently exceeded for a variety of reasons, some of which are referred to later on. The following fizures (Makings, S.M. The Future

0:

the Cattle Country, 1959, unpublished) ,relating to

the N.L.A. Act

ll

areas in Southern Rhodesia, are Quoted in full for the

11

Land designated for African farming Under the Land Apportionment Act of 1930, as amended.

sake of illustration. It must be noted,·that·althoughaocording to these standards, there should be not less than 25 ^acres of grazing for each animal unit in the 16" to 20" areas, and 30 acres in the areas below 16" , the average at the time of enquiry was actually only l7t ^acres.

TABLE

(Carrying Capacity According to Rainfall) (N.L.A. Act Areas, Southern Rhodesia, where "fully

developed")

28" or more^I 10

I

24" 28" 12 20" 24" 15 16" - 20" 25 below 16" 30

I

,

I

Rainfall Acres per . large stock

unit

Full Approximate

,stana:ard acreage ,per

animal ho l.ddng arable standard holding ^I

unl ts acres

6 8' ^I 70

6 8 80

10 13 160

15 12 390

20 20 620

Category 2. Semi-arid pastoral/agrioulturalareas marginal ·to the savannah" tYJ?e:. Such areas with rairifallvarying from 20" to 28", but ma.rkedly seasona,J., cover large A'-"ea8 of East, Central and Southern Afrioa.

Variation in soils and fertility and carrying capacities are also marked.

Ca.reful research and extension is needed in order that propAr use can be made of water, Li.ve st.o ck , arable land and forestry. The high co s t vof individual enclosure of. gra,\ing in terms of fencing and water, in relation to probable re tU,rns, sugges ts the introduction of communal enclosure and grl'lUP action in livestock, management. But in this category, the, probable expansion,of arable cultivation in. response to population pre~sures may' continue to militate against the development of specialised beer production on an appreciable scale, unless arable production can be intensified

within those areas that are more suitable.

E/CN.14/~GREB/6 Page 32

Category 3. Sub-humid Savannah areas: HLre, alternate husbandry based upon beef production and dairying and a wide range of tropioal and

sub~tropioal orops is possible, depending upon temperature and altitude and, in the case of cattle, upon the inoidenoe and oontrol of tsetse.

Rainfall, although generally satisfaotory for crop produotion is again seasonal, with the result that oarrying capacities are principally

determined by the availability and quality of dry-season grazing. On the other hand reasonable opportunities exist for supplementary feeding of grain and forage crops, thus increasing the potential for heavier stocking rates. In both categories 2 and 3, river flood planes or low-lying

vleis and dambos often facilitate-seasonal transhumanoe from upland summer grazing to lowland winter pastures.

IV. Cattle Ownership and Patterns of Management

In contrast with large areas in North and South America, the

production of beef on a commercial scale in Central, South and East Africa has arisen not so much from cattle ranching as from relatively intensive mixed farming, oonfined initially to a small proportion of the population employing capital, labour, management and land - and often exotic cattle ~

as accountable factors of produotion. On the other hand the majority of the indigenous cattle which are still primarily multi-purpose animals, are to be found under traditional or but slightly modified syste~s of.

managemen t in the ari d and semi -ari d areas (ca tegory 1 and 2);· or the.

less fertile parts of the sub-humid zones (Category 3), The present

distribution, is very uneven as a result of inadequate watering facilities in the former and the prevalenoe of tsetse over wide areas of the latter.

Afrioan systems of management vary oonsiderably, not only between tribes but between districts within the same tribal areas as Walker, C.A.

found in the Angoni-owning communities of Northern Rhodesia. Apart, however, from sooial oonsiderations, oertain fundamental features are to be found in oommon between peoples soattered over an extensive ares comprising Bechuanaland, South Africa, Basutoland and the Rhodesias with which the writer has som~ acquaintance.