SANE MONDlALE

ORGAN ISATION MONDlALE

DE CA SANE

G E O G ~ ~ C A L RECONNAISSANCE FOR MALPiRlk

EEADICATION PROGRAMMES

- 1 -

TAB-i OF CONTENTS

. . .

FOREWORD . , - . , .

Page

-

7

1. SCOPEANDTDIINGOFWORK

. . . ^8"

. . ^. . , .

1.1 D e f i n i t i o n '

. . .

⁸

2 Objectives

. . . ; . . . .

, . . ^.

8

. .

1.3 Need

. . .

. .

8

. . .

1.4 Scope

. . . ^{; .} . . .

_.

. . - . . . - .

9 1.5 T i m i G .

. . .

¹⁰

. ,

2. P R E L ~ ~ ~ R Y ~ J F ~ V E Y

. . .

¹²

. . ^{. .}

. . .

2.1 Assessment o f m a p p i n g 12

, . ^{. .}

2 2 Roads and means of communication

. . . ¹³ . . .

2 3 W a t e r a n d o t h e r f a c i l i t i e s . X 4

. .

2.4 Housing

. . .

¹⁵

. . .

2.5 Recornmendatiions - ' 16

. . . .

. . . ...:..:... . . .

39

COMP~TING~BASIC-MAPP~-:::.~:. , ,

17

. . . . . .

. . .

3 . l . Planning

tk

^wdrk: chdice of methods

. . . ¹⁷

. . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

3.2 ^.

staff and

equipment ,

18

, . . , . .

. . -

3.3 butiine o f procedure

. . .

¹⁹

. . . . .

4.2 ^. Categories of maps

. . .

^;

. . .

²⁰

. . .

4.3 K i n d s . of maps- used In malaria work ( i v o r k l ~ ' m a p s ) ' 2 0

4

- 4 . Repyesentgtion of. t h e eilr$h.'s surface

. . .

²¹

4.5

Location: grids and co-ordinates

. . .

²²

. . ^. .

. . .

4-6

Distance: s c a l e

. . .

²⁵

. . .

4.7.1 G i v i r g d i r e c t i o n s 29

l . _ . . I

4.7.2 Referring to n o r t h

. . .

²⁹

. . .

4.7.3

~ e f e r r l n g to another direction

3f

-.

. . . .. Page

-

4.8 H e i g h t . .

. . .

33

4.9 ^{Making a map}

. . .

³⁶

. . . 4.9.1

Framework . .

36

2 Choosing ruling p o i n t s

. . .

³⁶

. . ,

4.9.3

Choosing map scale

. . .

³⁶

. . . . 4.9;5 ' T h e d e t a i l

. . . ' . . .

⁴⁰

. . . . . . - . 5.1 Aerial maps

. . .

⁴²

5.2 . Cohparison with firintea maps'.

. - . . . .

⁴²

. . .

5.3

Use

of aerial photographs for correcting or completing maps

42 5.4

^. Sources of aerial photographs

. . .

⁴³

. . . . . . . 6 . PWPARP\K; WORKING _{. .} MAPS _{. . .}

. . .

_{. .}

⁴⁴

6.1

_. ,30urces .

. . .

. . . ⁴⁴

6.2 Procedures

. . . - . . .

⁴⁴

. - 6.5 D r a f t * and en1;rgemen.t

. . . ⁴⁸

6.6

Repro.ductf on, coding and revision

. . . : . . . . ⁴⁹

.

6.8

M a p s f o r r e p o r t s

_{. . .} . . .

⁵¹

6.9

D r a f t i n g technique

. . . , . . .

⁵²

. .

7.1

. Flahriing

. . . ' . . .

⁵³

. . . . . . . . . . 7.1.1 Need _{. . .} f o r p l m i n g _{4 .}

. . .

_{. . . . . .} ⁵³

. . .

7.1.2 P l a n n i n g at headquarters 53

. .

. . .

'7.-1.3

Sequence of work

'. ⁵⁴

. . .

7.1.4 D6lirnftatiori of zones, s e c t o r s and l o c a l i t i e s 55

Page 7 . 2 Organizatio ri

. . . ⁵⁷

. . . . . * .

7.2.1 ^' Organizational structure'

; 57

. .

.

* . . .

7.2.2 personnel ^' 58

. . .

7.2.3 supplies mu equipment

58

7.2.4 Vehicles

. ...

_{. .}

. . . a . . . * ⁵⁹

. .

7 . 3

Training

. . .

⁵⁹

7 * 3 ..

^{2. . SenLor} non-professional staff

. . . ⁵⁹

7 . 3 . 3 _{. .} S e c t o r c h i e f s

. . .

_{. . . .} ⁵⁹

. . .

7.3.4 The reconnaissanceagent _{. . . . . . .} 60

. . .

7.3.5 . . .Refresher . . t r a i n i n g . . . . . 60

7.4

Re.po.rting and su.pe.rv.is.iun

...:...

^{; +}

. . . ' . . .

^g

. ⁶¹

. * . . . . . .

7.4.2 Supervision _{. . .} . .

. - ,

^{6 1}

. . .

7.5.2. Total coverage

64

. . .

7 ..

5-3

Accessibili~y and water-

65

. . .

7.5.4 . .D e f b n i n g and delimiting l o c a l i t i e s ^g

65

. . .

7.5.5

_{. .}Recording _{. . . . .}l o c a l i t y _{. . .} inform~tion _{. . . . .}

65 7.5.6

Making l o c a l i t y sketch rflaps

. . . ⁶⁶

. .

. .

. . .

7.517'

nube era tin^

houses 72

. .

. .

. . . . . . ^.

7.5.7.1

_{. . . . .} D e f i n i t i o n _{. . . .} of a house

. . .

⁷³

. . .

7.5.7.2 Classification of houses

74

7.5.7.3 ^{House numbering} system (sequence)

. . .

⁷⁵

7.5.7.4 Markinghouses

. . . ⁷⁷ . . .

7.5.7.5

New houses

77

. . .

7.5.7.6 Housesrernoved 77

7.5.

8

~ o p u l a t i o n census

. . . ⁷⁷

8

.

^{HOUSING SURVEY}

. . . . . .

8.1

Type of information required

. . .

8.2

Nynber of houses to be examined

. . .

8.2.1 . Q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a ^;

. . .

8.2.2 Quantitative data

8.2.3 Summary

. . .

. ^{. . .}

8.3 ^. Choosing the sample

. . .

. . .

.

8.3.1

Random sampling

8.3.4. S t r a t i f i e d .sampling

. . .

8.4 ^. Closgd houses

. . . . . .

9

.

MEASmNTOFSPRAYABLESURFACES

.

. . * . . . : . : . . .

9.1

Method.

. . .

9.2 Special . . inforrnatzon on basic room area

. . .

. .

. . .

9.3

High ceilings

.. .-

9.4

The"athnrnethod

. . . . , . . . . . .

9.5 ^. P r e c i s i o p a n d e r r o r s

. .

. . .

.

10.1 .

oha ads

and temporary h u t s

. . .

. ^.

. . .

10.2 New and destroyed houses

10.3 Maintenance of geographical .. x o o n n a i s w c e

. . .

T i t l e E::ample of map a i r a i l a b i l i t y s t u d y WPes of ,grouping of African houses

World Geographical Ezf~rence System g r i d zone des ignat i o n s

Metric g r i d lines

Mapping elements &nu how they a r e measured F i n d i w n o r t h by observations of sun and stars Conventional l e v e l l i n g

U s e o f a clinometsr

I l l u s t r a t i o n of contours and profiles I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of contours

Locating an unknown p o i n t by i n t e r s e c t i o n F i n d i n g the o b s e r v e r ' s l o c a t i o n by r e s e c t i o n

Adjustment o f closing e r r o r i n s closed t r a v e r s e .

Enlargement by t h e Method of Squares Two methods of f o l d i n g c; map

Mapper beginni,ng and t r a v e r s e Orienting t h e mapboard

Sighting w t t h o r i e n t e d !napboard

Making t h e framework by closed t r a v e r s e Example of completed l o c c l i t y sketch

i l l u s t r a t i n g use of conventional signs House numbering system P,

House numbering system B House numbering system C

Conventional signs for sketch mapping

Length of d e g r e e s of the p a r a l l e l ^and the meridian Nornogram f o r mapping

Aerial p h o t o ~ a p h y U s e of the compass

Requirements of s u p p l i e s and equipment for geographical reconnaissance i n a h y p o t h e t i c a l zone of? one m f l l i m

Reporting forms f o r d e t a i l e d reconnaissance Sample post d e s c r i p t i o n

(a) Properties of some geometrical f i g u r e s

(b) B a s i c sprayable surfaces of some t y p i c a l s t r u c t u r e s Random numbers

Tables for f i n d l n g sample size T a b l e of equivalents

List of u s e f u l documents & p u b l i c a t i o n s

T h i s docwnent has Seen prepared vrith the purpose of z x p l a i n i n g t h e r a t i o n a l e of geographical reco-issance (GR) and o f giving organizetional and operational guidance

f o r carrying it o u t . It is intended 50 s e r v e as a guide In t h e t r a i n i n g of staff _on .geographice.l reconnaissance en6 a l s ~ t o provide reference material. It is n o t ^L f i e l d manual which can be handed out t o junior s t a f f .

, .

Sections and 6.nnexes a r e includcd which, contain d e t a i l e d problems worked out, and copious use is made of d i a g r a , ~ t o explain the text. The dissussions of mapping and sampling theory have been resti-izted t o what '-is d i r e c t l y r e i e v ~ l l t t o ^the problem

zt

hand. For those i n t e r e s t e d i n cbtaining more information on these s u b j e c t s a l i s t ^of references i s provided i n Panex M.

The first three chapters deal with planning, organization and preparatory work.

Chapter 4 gives %he elements of mapping which all f i e l d staff concerned need t o know.

Chapter

5

i n d i c a t e s how a.erial photography may be used. Chapter

6

^outlines f i e l d and o f f i c e work connected with g e t t i r g the basic working maps prepared. 'chapters 7 and 8 d e t a i l t h e s t e p s f o r carrying out t h e reconnaissance o f houses, w a t e r p o i n t s and enu- meration of t h e population. Chapter

9

discusses the s t a t i s t i c a l and practical a s p e c t s of housing surveys. The l a s t chapter deals with t h e problems of nomads, new houses, and

keeping a GR up-to-date. . . . . . - - - - .

I r i t s preparation use has been made extensively of material contained I n manuals prepared 1 y engineers and s a n i t a r i a n s of ME p r o j e c t s , i n p a r t i c u l a r of t h e manual on

GR

prepared a t the Malaria Eradicztiolz T r a i n i w Centre, Cairo by D. V. 2c&r&mmyam, WE0 Sanitary Engineer.

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CHAPTER

I. SCOPE AND

TIMING OF WORK

1.1 D e f i n i t i o n

Geogrephical reconnaissa.nce i n a malaria e r a d i c a t i o n programme i s the operation which, through census, mapping and sampling procedures, determines t h e q u a n t i t y , q u a l i t y ,

l o c a t i o n and a c c e s s i b i l i t y o f human h a b i t a t i o n s w i t h h t h e malarious area, and such * a d d i t i o n a l information as may be needed by the National Malaria Eradication Services t o s e l e c t f i e l d centres and supply depots, t o prepare schedules and i t i n e r a r i e s f o r spraying and s u r v e i l l a n c t f i e l d s t a f f , t o deploy t h e avaFlable t r a n s p o r t t o the best advantage, and t o assure t h e completeness of antimalaria work.

1.2 Objectives

Total coverage t o exacting s p e c i f i c a t i o n s of q u a l i t y and time-schedule are c a l l e d for i n malaria eradication operations, e s p e c i a l l y i n the a t t a c k and c o n s o l i d a t i o n phases.

It

is t h e primary objective of geographical reconnaissance t o f a c i l i t a t e the a t t a i n - ment of a high standard of work i n t h e a t t a c k and consolidation phases.

A secondary objective, but an i m p o r t a n t one, is t o a s s i s t fn t h e education of the public.

In

each and every l o c a l i t y , i n f a c t i n every house, the awareness must e x i s t t h a t the country has decided t o eradicate malaria, t h z t the co-operation of every indi- v i d u a l is a sine qua non for success. The malaria eradication servfce has the oppor- t u n i t y during geographlcal reconnaissance t o c a r r y its message t o the people throughout the area of operations and ensure smooth progress of t h e programme.

The f?$t t h a t reconnaissance agents of the National Malaria E r a d i c a t i o n S e r v i c e s

,

.

^..I-

a r e often t h e first t o break t h e news of the forthcoming carnpalgn t o v i l l a g e o f f f c i a l s and householders, puts on them a special r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o awake i n t h e people a sense of duty and e n l i s t active s u p p o r t f o r the programme.

Need

1.3

-

Malaria e r a d i c a t i o n techniques of indoor spraaying,or mass drug a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a r e ⁹ not new. They were developed during the malaria control era. It is i n t h e re~uirernent o f t o t a l coverage i n space and time i n the a t t a c k and consolidation phases t h a t the main operational d i f f e r e n c e between e r a d i c a t i o n and control l i e s . It may be r e c a l l e d that the total coverage concept of applying malaria eradication measures envisages elimination

a0 the disease by preventini{ 'Lrsnslaission 19% enough ^ci:e p a r a s i t r : reservoir t o be depleted. T o t a l coverage spraying during one spraying round is d e f i n e d as the a p p l i - c a t f o n of a ^{specific dosagz of} Zmoc-ticide to al.1 sprzyablc surfzczs in all sprayable premises w i t h i n ² designated o p e r s t l o n a l a r e a . T o t a l coverage mass drug a.dministration i s defined as t h e general d i s t r i b u t i o n o f drugs t o a populatian i n such a way as t o assure t h e continuous maintenance of an e f f e c t i v e drug concentration i n the blood of every

i n d i v i d u a l . T o t a l coverage case d e t e c t i o n by d e f i n i t i o n covers every locality and house- hold i n an area under s u r v e i l l a n c e w i t h adequate e f f i c i e n c y throughout; t h e y e a s o r during a s p e c i f i e d p e r i o d based on local circumstances.

Tight administra-Live and quality control. of operatio,ls nre not p o s s i b l 3 without the complete data and maps produced through geographicsl r e c o n m i s s a n c e . Such data are a l s o e s s e n t i a l ' f o r precise assessment. A thorough geographical reconnaissance i s necessary before embarking on the attack philse of malaria e r a d i c z t i o n . Even where attack measures have a p p a r e n t l y achieved t h e i r a i m , and a r e t o be withdrawn, geographical reconnaissance

-

if not previously accomplished

-

^{i s essential for success i n the} c o n s o l i d a t i o n phase and even.u.uring rnainterance. During t h e l s r t t e r phase when an expanded malaria e r a d i c a t i o n s e r v i c e no longer exists it would be extremely d i f f i c u l t t o locate malaria c a s e s and t o

. .

e f f i c i e n t l y ,apply remedial measures i n a programme without geographical reconnaissance, The need f o r geographical reconnaissance i s a l s o evident ?or development of a r u r a l health

infra-structure.

The Expert Committee on Malaria has observed l t h a t d e f i c i e n t geographical reconnais- sance may be an important rea.scn f o r " o p e r a t i o n a l f a i l u r s " of a malaria e r a d i c a t i o n pro- gramme. The Committee a l s o noted t h e importance of being aware, through geographical reconnaissance, of "the presence o f unsettled or partially settled populations'' as w e l l

?,,

C of ''summer huts o r temporary s h e l t e r s af some population groups" which "when infected and highly mobile may c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e maintenance of endemicity i n t h e i r own o r other m e a s " . This important matter i s cic;.lt w i t h more f i l l y i n Chapter 10.

1.4 Scope

The main a c t i v i t i e s of geographical r e c o n m i s s a n c e tire concerned wi.th l o c a t i n g i n h a b i t e d places, houses snd people and w i t h d e s c r i b i n g o e r t a i n of t h e i r a t t r i b u t e s . Mapping,

census t a k i n g , and s p e c i a l surveys are involved. The work will be considered i n t h r e e stages:

I Eighth Report of t h e Expert Committee on Malaria, W l d H l t h Org. techn. R e p . Ser., 1961, 205, W.

6.

(a) preliminary ^{survey , (chapter 2 )}

(b) preparation of working maps (chapters 3-6)

( c ) d e t a i l e d reconnaissance ( c h a p t e r s

7

and

8) .

.The preliminary survey may be made a t any time before t h e s t a r t of the Malaria Zradication Programme.

It

includes' a study of t h e existing data and facilities and indicates how much work would be involved i n preparing the basic working maps for the

~rogramme

,

and i n planning the d e t a l l e d ^I econnaissance

.

(see Chapter 4

3

)

Preparation of working maps can o f t e n be c a r r i e d out a t t h e o f f i c e o f t h e Government's iurvey department I n c o u n t r i e s where geographical mapping is reasonably complete. In

;uch cases malaria eradication engineers and draftsmen w i l l be able to prepare working laps d i r e c t l y f o r the use of the agents i n t h e d e t a i l e d reconnaissance, But where existing maps do not carry enough d e t a i l t o allow t h e reconnaissance agents t o o r i e n t hemselves r e a d i l y i n t h e field, _do not show l o c & l i t i e s , roads, e t c . , the original

blanks" prepa~.ed i n the o f f i c e will need t o be completed i n the f i e l d before t h e f i n a l osking maps can be prepared.

The d e t a i l e d reconnaissance comprises t h e main bulk of work of geographical recon- aissance; it is n e c e s s a ~ ~ , during this activity to:

(3.) l o c a t e every hollse i n the malarious aree i n l o c a l i t y - s k e t c h maps; . ,

(ii) affix a separate number t o each house i n a l o c a l i t y and show it on the map;

( i i i ) r e c o r d -the number of i n h a b i t a n t s i n each house;

(iv) r e c o r d t h e name or" the head o f each household;

( v ) a f f i x the House Visit Card t o each house ( ~ n n e x G ) ;

(vi) ^' oomplete- the F i r s t Reconnaissance r e p o r t ( ~ n n e x G ) ; _%

(vii) i n addition t o the above, the o t h e r data mentioned i n Annex G need to _be

. . . collected i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l by proper s a m p l i n g techniques.

.5

Timing

A l l o r most of the preliminary survey should be completed i n the e a r l y stages of an l c i p i e n t malaria e r a d i c s t i o n programme i . e . d u r i n g the pre-eradication programme o r p r e - ladication snrvey. I n c o u n t r i e s where the basic mapping i s very d e f i c i e n t , completion

,. ._ ., .... . .

of t h e basic mapping will a l s o be i n d i c a t e d during this _period. This i s likely t o be s tedious and time-consuming job, p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t r a i n e d staff _{a r e} f e w . It should therefore be started as e a r l y as practicable, and _under no circumstanaes left until t h e preparatory phase i s under way. The detailed r e c o n m i s s a n c e t o be c a r r i e d o u t during the preparatory phase of the Malaria E r a d f c a t i o n Programme should be laid down i n t h e plan of a c t i o n of the o r i g i m l plan ~f operations.

I n a programme c a r r i e d out by s t a g e s although the preparatory phase may l a s t a year or

18

months in each stage, it is desirable t h a t t h e actuzl f i e l d operations of the detailed reconnaissance be completed I n a s h o r t period a s near t o t h e beginning c~f t h e attack pnase as f e a s i b l e so t h a t the data on houses and populations may b as up-to-date as , possible

.

Geographical reconnaissance does not end with the beginning of spraying operations.

Maps and data need t o be kept c o n s t a n t l y revised, New constructions, houses destroyed, additions or alteratfons, changes in l o c a t f o n of summer h u t s o r tents of nomads,

new

water sources, new roads, new governmental and o t h e r facilities t h a t are of importance t o t h e programme

-

all these need t o be recorded both i n the r e p o r t i n g f o r m s and mapS.

I n some cases, surveys need t o be made a f t e r the f i r s t spraying, t o determine the e x t e n t o f " l o s t " surfaces due t o a t t r i t L o n and removal of i n s e c t i c f d e , r e p l a s t e r i n g , papering, s o o t , new constructions, e t c . Each spraying cycle should be u t i l i z e d t o serve a s a geographical reconnaissance f o r %he next cycle.

'The timing of the work mzy be foreseen as follows f o r a country where nationcl survey mappfng is incomplete:

1 Operation Duration

i

^{Programme and Phase}

r

l

Preliminary survey 2-12 months

l

Preparation of working maps up t o 2 years

(

Pre-eradicat ion programme o r

.

( Pre-eradication survey

Detailed reconnaissance

3-6

months Preparatory phase of malaria e r a -

/

dication programme

CHAPTER 2 . FIBLIMINARY StTRVW

2.1 Assessment of mapping

One of t h e f i r s t t a s k s t o be undertaken fn a pre-eradication programme, a pre-

e r a d i c a t i o n survey, o r a p i l o t p r o j e c t i s a thorough assessment of a v a i l a b l e maps. _!l&

a v a i l a b l e maps should be examined no matter how unprepossessing t h e i r appearance o r doubtful t h e i r origin. _Any map o r f i e l d s k e t c h may provide some u s e f u l information and may t h e r e f o r e save undertaking unnecessary f i e l d work.

Early c o n t a c t should be established w i t h t h e n a t i o n a l geographical s e r v i c e (or survey s e r v i c e )

-

^{not o d y} i n s e a r c h o f maps but a l s o t o e n l i s t t h e i r help i n future operations. Such a s e r v i c e may be able t o loan mapping equipment, draftsmen and c o p i e r s , and may even co-operate i n producing maps f o r t h e m l a r i a s e r v i c e . But the armed

forces, the departments responsible f o r roads, r i v e r s and railways, f o r r u r a l development, i r r i g a t i o n : schemes, a g r i c u l t u r e Torestry and n a t u r a l resources, mines, e t c . s h o u l d a ~ s d

b e visited. Such o f f i c e s are n o t infrequently pursuing t h e i r own mapping,programmes.

In consulting with these government s e r v i c e s , 1-t; may be p o s s i b l e t o a s c e r t a i n t h e i r future milpping programmes and t o arrange f o r eventual exchange of information and other forms of co-operation. A government s e r v i c e equipped t o do a e r i a l photography f o r example, could m a k e a s e r i e s of photos needed by the malaria service a t a fraction of what it would c o s t t o have this done commercially.

It sometimes happens t h a t maps of c e r t a i n a r e a s of a country a r e restricted for security reasons. A c l e a r explanation of t h e purpose f o r which they are needed coupled

. ..

with .a reques* a t a. suf f i x i e n t l y . high l e v e l - . - w i l l - u s u z l l y make them avazlable

.

... . . . .. ... , . , . , . . . . , ,- -

A kep map of the mGlarious z.:.rea should be prepared on which can be shown by appro- p r i a t e symbols t h e a r e a s covered by e x i s t i n g maps o f various kinds and s c a l e s . (An sxample of such a key map i s given i n f i g u r e l ) . This key map should be p o s t e d on t h e

~ s l l

sf

h i s office near t h e map c a b i n e t where, a,ppropriately annotated, it will f a c i l i t a t e

. . .

the search . . f o r individual maps needed .from t h e collection. . . . .. . .. .- - -... . .- - - . , . .

I n studying the a v a i l a b l e maps, t h e following questions should be answered:

( a ) From what sources was t h e map compiled and what i s t h e i r r e l i a b i l i t y ? ( ~ e r i a l photographs, d e t e i l e d ground survey, reconnaissance survey, travellers' r e p o r t s )

FIG. I

EXAMPLE OF MAP AVAILABIIJTY STUDY ( Malaria project area in Ghana)

CODE SHOWS LAROBST AVAILABLE SCALE OF MPS:

( 5 ) What i s t h e date of the map o r ^its latest revision?

( C ) FOP w h z k Purpose WES the map made? ^'

his

w i l l indicate which features a r e

l i k e l y t o be most reliable; f o r example roads on a public works department map, oontours on an i r r i g a t i o n department map,)

( d ) Are t h e m&in topographical and man-made features (mountain peaks, rivers, railwEiys, roads, towns) shown i n enough d e t a i l to permit a field worker to locate and orient himself readiiy and frequently w5ile moving about the area? (This involves an a p p r a i s a l of points (a), (b) and (c), above as well as of t h e s c a l e of the ^map. )

If

it appears ce&ain -that question (d) can be answered In t h e affirm2tive through- out t h e mslarious ar6a It can be coneluded that no extensfve field work w i l l have to be carried out before the working ^{maps are} produced directly from available maps by appso- prlate d r a f t i n g Processes.

If,

on the other hand, Tt is quite c l e a r a f t e r a11 available maps have been studied that the answer t o ( d ) f o r some p a r t s of the countsy is

in

the negative, then the necessary work w i l l need to be planned. Some suggestions on how this may be done are given in Chapter

3 .

I n order to judge the adequacy of existing maps as a basis for antimalaria field a c t i v i t i e s and in.order t o - e s t i m a t e the amount of field work needed to f f l l in the gzps, a number of t y P l c a 1 r u r a l areas should

be

visited including some l o c a l $ t i e s remote from motor roads, s o t h a t the adequacy 04: t h e information on e x i s t i n g maps can be t e s t e d . For instance, if roads, junctions and l o c a l i t i e s are e s s e n t i a l l y correctby shown, but the namss are wrong

or

missing (as might occur on a map made from a e r i a l photographs) the names could Probably be insirked d u r i r y the detailed reconnaissance (preparatory phase of DlaLaria Eradication Frogramme). On the other hand i f _{. -} the _. best existing m.Ps of L: f o r e s t area are 25-years o l d and show only motorable roads and rnslin population centres, a reconnaissance of the area during t h e pre-eradication programme

will

be rsquired i n order t o brin; up-to-ds.te t h e condition of motor. roads, trzce in the most

importank f o r e s t paths, and mark t h e smaller l o c i t l i t i e s , 2.2 Roads 8nd mezns of 'communication

Good communications and. t r a n s p o r t a t f o n f a c i l i t i e s are vital to a malaria ^era&- 2a.tion programme. P r ~ p e r planring includes -cm economical balance between the use of existing public f a c i l i t z e s and t h e establishment of special facilities for the malaria service. The first s t e p i n a pre-eradication programme o r a p ~ e - e r a d i c a t i o n survey is

5, zomgiete inventory of existing f ' t l c i l i t i e s

.

I n a d d i t i o n t o v e r i f y i n g t h e adequacy of road information shown on maps, data on

f u t u r e p l a n s f o r r o a d c o n s t r u c t i o n should be obtained from r e l i a b l e sources and from

*

personal o b s e r v a t i o n i n t h e field. Co-operative l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s may o f t e n open up motorable t r a c k s and b u i l d c u l v e r t s s o that malaria s e r v i c e v e h i c l e s can reach p r e v i o u s l y i n a c c e s s i b l e l o c a l i t i e s . It may be p o s s i b l e t o s t i m u l a t e and guide such e f f o r t s ,

It

should be remembered t h a t during a spraying campaign a zone o f f i c e may f r e q u e n t l y d i s p a t c h t o n s of i n s e c t i c i d e t o s e v e r a l dozen s c a t t e r e d spraying squads. I n a very dry a r e a where v i l l a g e r s cannot s p a r e water, t h e malaria s e r v i c e may have t o h a u l water t o keep s squad working. Malaria d e t e c t i o n p o s t s must d i s p a t c h blood s l i d e s t o the c e n t r a l l a b o r a t o r y and f i e l d o f f i c e r s must keep i n frequent touch w i t h t h e i r s t a f f t o ensure good work and high morale. E v e r y .rbad improvement w i l l l e s s e n the amount of unproductive " t r a n s p o r t a t i o : t i m e "

.

The study of transportation f a c i l i t i e s should include: ^' (a) Roads, railways, landing f i e l d s and waterways.

(b) Public and private s e r v i c e s a v a i l a b l e (passengers and goods road s e r v i c e s , pack animals, r a i l a i r l i n e s , boats)

.

( c ) RvailabiXity of v e h i c l e s , b i c y c l e s and b o a t s t o the malaria s e r v i c e .

( d ) Local a g e n t s , spare p a r t , and r e p a i r f a c i l i t i e s f o r d i f f e r e n t makes of v e h i c l e . Public and p r i v a t e p o s t a l , telephone and t e l e g r a p h s e r v i c e s must a l s o be i n v e s t i g a t e d t o determine i f t h e malaria s e r v i c e w i l l need t o provide supplemenkry f a c i l i t i e s .

PTT

o f f i c e s should be shown on a l l d e t a i l e d maps prepared.

2.3 Water and o t h e r f a c i l i t i e s

During t h e preliminary survey, suitable s i t e s should be sought f o r zone and s e c t o r headquarters and f i e l d supply depots, based on a c c e s s i b i l i t y , communications, garage f a c i l i t i e s , e t c . L o c a l i t i e s which might

-

^{not be a b l e t o provide} wzter o r accommodation f o r spraying teams should a l s o be noted. As much as possible of such information should '

be shown on maps as it w i l l be used i n drawing up t h e malaria e r a d i c a t i o n programme pra- posal

.

2.4

Housing

. ... . , .

Information of various kinds about houses i s needed i n planning an antimalaria campaign; points t o be noted are:

.- . . . ( a ) Types of construction

( b ) Materials used for construction (c) Areas of sprayable s&faces ( d ) Permanency of conStmction ( e ) Grouping of houses

. . ( f ) Number of houses.

During the preliminary survey data on ( a ) , ( b ) , ( c ) and (d) should be obtained by examining r e p r e s e n t a t i v e samples. ( s e e Chapters 8 & g , ) Types and m a t e r i a l s of con- s t r u ~ t i o n g i v e an i n d i c a t i o n of t h e probable effectiveness of house spraying (tishtxless of enclosures, probable absorbtive q u a l i t y o f . w a l l s , e t c . ) . ^& c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e average sprayable surface p e r house is used f o r estimating i n s e c t f cide requirements, If t h e r e is any doubt about spraying

-

a l l i n t e r i o r surfaces ( i . e . i f it might subsequently be

decided n o t t o spray walls below o r above a c e r t a i n height, ceilings, f u r n i t u r e ) figures -t.o show t h e approximate i n s e c t i c i d e consumption which would occur i n each case should be obteined a t an e a r l y stage.

Data on permanency of housing w i l l be obtained 2.t f i r s t by questioning v i l l a g e r s . Seasons o r d a t e s of customary whitewashing or painting will be noted.

If

replacement of walls o r c e i l i n g s i s made a t frequent and unpredictable i n t e r v a l s , a s t u d y might be undertaken i f time permits over t h e succeeding years as a guide t o f u t u r e spraying opera- t ions

.

Grouping of houses will present no problem i n countries where most of the kouses Ere concentrated in well-defined l o c a l i t i e s and t h e few s c a t t e r e d houses c a n be r e a d i l y found from the l o c a l i t y c e n t r e s . I n suck; s i t u a t i o n s working maps w i l l show only l0ca- l i t i e s . S e r i o u s d i f f i c u l t i e s -?rise when s c a t t e r e d houses a r e numerous and a r e unlikely t o be t r a c e d from t h e locality centre. ^A more d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n m y be ZoUtId i n places where householders may n o t acknowledge that they are r e s i d e n t s of l o c a l i t y but; only give a l l e g i a n c e t o a t r i b a l chief whose headquarters may be In a d i f f e r e n t p a r t of t h e country. I n such cases working maps must be more d e t a i l e d (and usually

larger s c a l e ) in order to provide the information needed by field malaria workers.

This question is discussed also in Chapters

3

and 8.

2.5

Recommendations

The report on the preliminary survey (as it relates to geographical reconnaissance)

'

must contafn specific recommendations regzrding the detailed reconnaissance and, if indicated, the completion of basic mapping, as follows:

(a) ^{Proposed zone and sector} boundaries and centres.

(b) Work needed to complete basic mapping (taking into account the grouping of houses) in terms of staff, equipment, and co-operation with other government

departments.

( c ) Staff and equipment required for carrying out the detailed reconnaissance.

(See Chapter 7 ^and Annex

F.)

Provisions for training.

(d) Systematic for grouping houses.

( e ) Transportation provisions for detailed reconnaissance.

(f)' Special provisions which may be needed ^during the attack phase to overcome difficulties of communications, provision of water, etc.

TYPES OF GROUPIN( )F AFRICAN HOUSES

Fig.15.1 A compact Af'rioan village _Pig.15.2 A f r i c a n huts forming a 'Compound'

Fig.15.3

^Soattered huts not constituting a village

Fig.15.4 Scattered huts in a village

With permission o f D . K . Svbrahmanian W H O 60288

. CIiAmm

3 .

COEIXTING BASIC MAPPING

:?.L Plalming the work: cholce of methods

When t h e preliminary.survey has d i s c l o s e d t h a t e x i s t i n g maps a r e inadequate f o r ma1ar:a e r a d i c a t i o n operations m5-zsures will have t o be taken to fill i n the gaps. An estLmate of the extent of work required will have been nade during t h e preliminary

s?.:rvey (see 2.1. and 2 . 5 ) . PJeverthelrss, it w i l l be necessary t o study i n detail e x a c t l y what is neede0, bearing i n rnMd -that the purpose o f t h e job is t o ensure t h a t enou& of the topographic and man-msde feztures and prominent place-names are known ^and recorded

. ^--,

----

^-------p

on maps t o enabie f i e l d workers with the h e l p of t h e maps t o l o c a t e and o r i e n t themselves

--W -. . . . . . ., . .. ". . . . . ., ^{, .} -^, . ----,-.,*.". P., -. .- -... --^. -^.

in any p a r t of . t h e malarious area. AddTtionzl .work, such, as i n s e r t i o n o r correction of

.. . . .

place-names w i l l . be useful, but not e s s e c t i a l - . i t can be done at a l a t e r d a t e during

. .

the d e t a i l e d reconnaissance.

One immediate way of l o c a t i n g and o r i e n t i n g oneself is by f e a t u r e s of the road o r path being followed. Hence i f roads, paths and junc-tlons a r e c o r r e c t l y mapped this is the most important single aid. Natural and man-made f e a t u r e s which l i e beside o r ^across the road o r path one is following may also serve a s landmarks;, these include r i v e r s , lakes, canals, g u l l i e s , cols, railways, power l i n e s , l a r g a b u i l d i n g s , . b r i d g e s , e t c . If t h e roadside vegetation i s scanty, f e a t u r e s away from t h e road can be used as landmarks, such as v i l l a g e s , t a l l buildings, e t c . I n mountainous comtry, mountain peaks, ranges, and d i s t a n t water courses f u r n i s h good landmarks; o f t e n t h e y serve to.,localize o n e ' s posi.tion t o a small p a r t of t h e map, in-whlch Che exact l o c a t i o n can t h e n be spotted

from nearby landmarks. . .

The am*& of map d e t a i l (corresponding to l a ~ d m a r k s ) needed t o f i n d o n e ' s p o s i t i o n . -

v a r i e s greatly with the t e r r a i n . On t h e one hand i n crid country by climbing a h i l l .

- ,. . .

S, whole v a l l e y may be seen, with its and v i l l a g e s l a i d out " l i k e a map", and the a c t u a l map need c o n t a i n only the main roads t o f i n d one's wey e a s i l y . A t the o t h e r extreme, i n flat jungle o r savannah country only nearby 1anilmarks.are a v a i l a b l e . Judge- ment w i l l have t o be exercised as t o how much and what deta.il t o add t o t h e maps.

In

some cases it may be a good idea t o place d i s t i n c t t v e markers (painted s t o n e s , ^' p a i n t e d t r e e blazes, wooden stakes) a t c e r t a i n p o i n t s where other landmarks a r e lacking o r a r c n o t d i s t i n c t i v e .

The usef'ulness of place-names i n finding one's p o s i t i o n varies g r e a t l y .

In

many countries one v i l l a g e has s e v e r a l names, o r several (nearby) villages h a w t h e same name, o r v i l l a g e s change name with ownership, or v i l l a g e s change l o c a t i o n i n s e a r c h of water, o r a mountain has d i f f e r e n t names on d i f f e r e n t s i d e s , o r s e v e r a l (nearby) r i v e r s

5

have t h e same name. Such c u r i o s i t i e s i f not recognized can e a s i l y impede the geogra- phical reconnaissance. They point t o the advantages of checking one's p o s i t i o n as much as possible by actual landmarks.

The work o f "completing" t h e mapping by c o r r e c t i n g road i n d i c a t i o n s and adding appropriate landmarks involves some of t h e mapping procedures o u t l i n e d i n Chapter 4, p a r t i c u l a r l y l o c a t i n g one's p o s i t i o n by r e s e c t i o n and by open traversing, o r "dead

*

reckoning1'. Sometimes d i s t a n t objects (e.g. v i l l a g e s ) w i l l be s p o t t e d on the map by i n t e r e e c t i o n

-

without a c t u a l l y being v i s i t e d . Elevations, where needed, may be e s t i - mated by aneroid barometer o r clinometer.

I n cases where large t r a c t s of inhabited land a r e v i r t u a l l y m a p p e d , and where conditions f o r moving about on t h e ground a r e very d i f f i c u l t as i n jungle t e r r i t o r y , t h e p o s s i b i l i k y o f obtaining aerial photographs should be s e r i o u s l y considered. 1%

w i l l probably pay f o r itself by saving t h e time of s p e c t a l l z e d s t a f f f o r o t h e r work.

With photos a v a i l a b l e , t h e ground work can be g r e a t l y simplified, being r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e v i s i t f n g and "fixing" of a few landmarks.

3.2 S t a f f and equipment

The work described i n t h e preceding s e c t i o n i s not routine and requires judgement on t h e part of t h e f i e l d workers carrying it out. The engir~eer in charge must s e l e c t mappers on t h e basis of t h e i r a b i l i t y t o understand and use maps and must g i v e them intensive i n s t r u c t i o n f o r a t l e a s t a week on t h e work t o be performed. The i n s t r u c t i o n should consist mainly of p r a c t i c e with compasses and a c t u a l ^field work with maps. If ^I staff can be r e c r u i t e d who know t h e various areas t o be covered, this will be an a s s e t .

Each f i e l d u n i t requires motor t r a n s p o r t , appropriate t o t h e team size and t h e road ^* conditions. The unit needs reconnaissance, mapping and camping equipment (see t h e l i s t given i n Annex F ) . The need f o r zneroid barometers and f i e l d g l a s s e s depends on t h e t e r r a i n . Radio telephones might speed up the work under some conditions. B a s i c off i c e equipment is also listed i n Annex F.

Outlina of procedure

De~ending on t h e q u a l i t y and t h e s c a l e s af t h e e x i s t i n g maps annotations may be made dLrectly on them ( o r on photo, o r ozalid copies of them) o r e1s.e.-one.~may"'begin b$

preparing "blanks1' (tracings, enlargements., o r reductions of the e x i s t i n g mhps showing information required by the m ~ l a r i a s e r v i c e ) . Where useful in??ormation about the sarns r.,.rea i s a v a i l z b l e from more t h a n one set of maps, the most convenient way would be t o record it a l l on the sane map. I n this case, work would be saved l a t e r on i f t h e blanks

. . . .- - , -

arc designed t o cover f u t u r e s e c t o r areas, as described i n t h e preliminary su'lzvey r e p o r t ( 2 . 5 ) . Note that p r e p a r r t i o n of blanks need n o t . b e completed a t this t i m e f o r areas vshcre t h e basic mapping i s considered sdequate.

I n a pre-eradication programme t h e completion of maps would be c a r r i e d out by stages, as required by t h e operat.i.ans -.

b8iW

-undertaken..- FoF,:aminp.le-,- the ,siting of r u r a l health p o s t s , t h e carrying out of an extensive p a r a s i t e survey, the s e t t i n g up of a model sprzying p r o j e c t , o r t h e determination of the limits of t h e malarious a r e a

-

a l l these activities a r e a s s i s t e d by good maps. I n a pre-eradication programme t h e mappir.

should be planned i n accordance with needs and p r i o r i t i e s o f the programmes' a c t i v i t i e s . I n t h e f i e l d , a mapping u n i t should start from a known point on the map and r u n l i n e s of survey o r t r a v e r s e s through t h e a r e a covered by the map. The larger traverses should follow t h e roads already shwm, checking distances and d i r e c t i o n s by kilometre and compass readings. Smaller open t r a v e r s e s should be run by automobile or by f o o t i n t o m a p p e d areas. - A l l notations should be made d i r e c t l y on the working map ( o r

"blank1'). A t t h e end of each day a brief r e p o r t of work done should be prepared, t h e engineer recording on a -keg map t h e progress of operations:

It i s advisable t h a t t h e f i n a l working mps 'of t h e a r e a s covered be prepared a s soon as the f i e l d -work i s finished, .and . r ~ h i l e it is f r e s h i n t h e minds of the s t a f f . Where blanks have already been pregered t h i s amounts t o a r e v i s i o n . ^'

h he

o f f i c e work

Lnvolved i s described i n C h a p t ~ r 6. )

4. X

Wha-t; is a map?

A p r i n t e d map is a geographical r e p r e s e n t a t f o n of a p a r t o r whole o f t h e e a r t h ' s ⁺ s u r f a c e drawn t o scale on a plane s u r f a c e .

It

_{shows natural} and man-made features

thraugh symbols, l i n e s , colours and codes.

4.2 Categories of mzps

Printed maps may be i d e n t i f i e d by s c a l e ( l a r g e , medium, small) which limits the amount of detail shown and e x t e n t o f area covered; and by type based on form and con- tent, e.g. planimetric, topographic, photornosaTc, road nap, e t c .

4.3 ^{Kinds of maps used in} malaria work (working maps)

The study and c o n t r o l of malaria in r u r a l areas involves an almost c o n s t a n t need f o r reference to maps. Maps prepared f o r use i n rnalarla work are c a l l e d m a l a r i a working maps..

Dif

r e r e n t - working maps f o r d i f f e r e n t purposes a r e needed:

(a) t o help health service personnel FIND areas, locall-bies, and e v e n t u a l l y houses of populations at r i s k of malaria i n order t o carry out ^surveys, c o n t r o l operations, and i n s p e c t i o n s .

(b) t o DEXJMIT zones, s e c t o r s and l o c a l i t i e s .

( c ) t o

PLAN

t h e b e s t locations of f i e l d centres and i t i n e r a r i e s f o r f i e l d teams, i n d i v i d u a l workers and supply units.

( 8 ) t o SHOW conveniently t h e areas covered, work accomplished and results obtained by surveys and c o n t r o l operations.

( 5 ) to _STUDY epidemiological, entomological

-

^OF even operational

-

phenomena, where geographical features o r geographical proximity ;nay be important f a c t o r s .

2 .

The planning and carrying o u t of f i e l d operations requires large-scale maps On which sre shown groups o f houses and r o u t e s of access. The same maps appropriately marked 3uring t h e course of operations serve as basic records of survey findings o r o f spraying 3perations completed. The r e p o r t i n g and analysis of results is made on small-scale naps covering a province, a country o r a group of c o u n t r i e s .

A t each s t a g e of the work, more a t t e n t i o n i s paid t o the u t i l i t y of the working map than t o its elegance, Mclaria working maps, except those destined t o be included i n external r e p o r t s o r p u k l i c ~ t i o n s , a r c constantly being revised and amended and must be prepared with t h i s i n mind, Likewise, th? precision required is only t h a t needed -to

prevent e r r o r s i n f i e l d v~ork o r interpretation: malaria working maps must he prepared and revised c a r e f u l l y using t h e best a v a i l a b l e data and t h e malaria worker i n the f i e l d must not hssitate to c o r r e c t or amend a s well as he can Yne maps he is using when they are obviously wrong o r incomplete.

4.4

Representation of the e a r t h ' s surface

A map i s a p i c t u r e of t h e e s r t h ' s s u r f a c e , Like most pictures it shows the fsatures smaller than they a r e , does not show a l l ~ f e a t u r a s ,

-

and presents only one a s p e c t of them ( i n t h i s case t h e i r t o p ) .

How much smaller things look on a ~p than they r e a l l y are depends on the rflap's scale and on t h e distance from which t h e map i s viewed. It can be visualized as the appearance of t h e earth from a plane flying a t d i f f e r e n t h e i g h t s . For i n s t a n c e , a 1 : 10 000 city plan viewed from reading distance ( 5 0 cm away) gives an idea how the cLty would look from an aeroplane 5000 metres above it. The same plan viewed from

5

metres awky shows t h e c i t y a s it would appear from 50 km above. A 1 : 100 000 map of a rural area observed from t h a same distances gives an a s t r o n a u t ' s oyc-view of t h e area from 50 km and 500 km above respectively. ... . . . . . .. . . . . . . - -. . . . . . . . . . , . ,

A

map can ^show any_features desired, but n o t

-

a l l f e a t u r e s . A political map shows boundaries, capitals and principal c i t i e s . A topographic map shows mountains, ^plateaux, and watercourses and sometimes a l s o roads, houses and other works of man. A n a t u r a l resources map shows the lokztion of mineral resources, f u e l resources aild. w a t e r resources.

A

motori'sts' map shows towns, paved and unpaved roads, roads under construction, motoring distances and sometimes average motoring times. S p e c i a l maps mey be produccd f o r many purposes

-

such as t h e maps used by the malaria service. The best are simple, clear and exclude unneeded d e t a i l .

Conventional symbols aye generally used on maps and are explained in a r n a ~ g i n a l tabulation. For instance, p m a l l e l lines often represent first c l a s s roads, rows of " ~ " s represent telegraph l i n e s , and small black r e c t a n g l e s represent houses. Con- ventional symbols for malaria maps are a l s o used by a l l s t a f f i n correcting working

maps and preparing l o c a l i t y sketches. For t h i s reason -they should be distinctive, e a s i l y drawn and few. A suggzsted l i s t is given ⁱⁿ Annex A. .Others may be required i n s p e c i a l circumstances.

It should be remembered t h a t t h e e a r t h ' s surface is curved, and t h a t it c m o t therefore be represented truly on a f l a t map. On t h e o t h e r hand map users could no%

convsniently study and annotate maps p r i n t e d on s p h e r i c a l surfaces, even i f t h a t were f e a s i b l e . Cartographers have t h e r e f o r e devised a number of plane projections, which give approximately t r u e p i c t c r e s , A projection, as understood i n cartography, r e f e r s t o t h e inethod of presenting ^3. paart o r whole of t h e spherical s u r f a c e of the e a r t h on a plane surface. Each projection has p r o p e r t i e s which make it u s e f u l f o r some purposes but possibly u n s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r others. These differences z r e important i n maps covering a considerable p a r t of t h e e z r t h

-

when"Ged f o r example, i n sea and a i r navigation

-

^but

they are of p r a c t i c a l l y no importance i n maps, such a s those which i n t e r e s t us i n rural h e a l t h work, which cover at most a few thousand square ~ i l o m e t r e s . This means t h a t maps of s m a l l . a r e a s prepared on d i f f e r e n t projections look t h e same and t h e i r d i f f e r - ences can hzrdly be measured. Country-size and continent-size maps, on the o t h e r hand, which w e use for _the display of administrative and t e c h n i c a l data, may f o r our purposes be reproduced on any convenient projection as long as t h e meridians and parallels are shown.

4.5

^Location: g r i d s and co-ordinates

To h e l p readers f i n d places q u i c k l y many road maps and a t l a s maps are marked with v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l l i n e s , the resulting columns being labelled' ( f o r example)

A , B, C

. . .

^{and t h e rows 1, 2,}

³ . . .

^{s o t h a t} each "box" o r " g r i d square'' can be i d e n t i f f e d as

B2,

G 7 , etc. Town lists a r e provided, a l p h a b e t i c a l l y arranged, and a f t e r each town is shown t h e name of the g r i d square i n which it l i e s on the map. In t h i s way any position on t h e m p can be described approximately. More p r e c i s i o n could be obtained by making smaller g r i d s q u a r e s , but this would eventually make the m a p d i f f i - c u l t t o read. Where exact positions need t o be indicated, as f o r example i n m i l i t a r y usage, they a r e measured from t h e sides of t h e g r i d squares.