The Saint John fire of 20 June 1877

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The Saint John fire of 20 June 1877

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL O F CANADA

.J: c. 3

DIVISION O F BUILDING RESEARCH 3 f i n

*

,.>

* - '.

THE SAINT JOHN F l R E OF 20

JUNE

1877

by G. W. Shorter F i r e Study No. 18 of t h e Division of Building R e s e a r c h OTTAWA D e c e m b e r 1967

T A B L E O F CONTENTS

DEVELOPMENT O F T H E CONFLAGRATION CONSTRUCTION O F BUILDINGS AND DAMAGE F I R E SPREAD BETWEEN BUILDINGS

OCCUPANCIES

DAMAGE T O CONTENTS

F I R E APPARATUS AND WATER S U P P L Y AUXILIARY FZRE FIGHTING AIDS

L I F E AND P R O P E R T Y LOSSES

COMPARISON WITH OTHER CANADIAN FIRES

S u m m a r y Of L o s s e s F i r e Loads Involved Spread Of F i r e CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND REFERENCES

APPENDIX A

-

EARLY

FIRE

HISTORY

APPENDIX

B

-

R E L I E F FUND P a g e 1 7 8 1 0 1 0 1 2 1 3 15 16 1 8 1 9 1 9 2 1 2 2

T H E SAINT JOHN F I R E O F 20 JUNE 1877

by

G. W. S h o r t e r

T h e twentieth of J u n e 1877 w a s d r y and hot in Saint John. F o r s e v e r a l d a y s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e had h o v e r e d between 75 and 8 0 ° F . T h e inhabitants welcomed a b r i s k wind f r o m t h e n o r t h w e s t which

p r o v i d e d s o m e r e l i e f f r o m t h e heat. At 2:30 p . m . on t h a t Wednesday, a f i r e b r o k e out in a wooden building a t Y o r k P o i n t , P o r t l a n d .

Although t h e f i r e d e p a r t m e n t a r r i v e d within a few m i n u t e s of

t h e a l a r m being sounded, t h e f i r e had a l r e a d y s p r e a d t o a building next door. T h e r e s u l t i n g conflagration d e s t r o y e d s e v e r a l h u n d r e d buildings c a u s i n g p r o p e r t y d a m a g e e s t i m a t e d a t $ 2 7 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 and w a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e death of 18 people. A l m o s t t h e e n t i r e b u s i n e s s and c o m m e r c i a l a r e a t o g e t h e r with s e v e r a l hundred dwellings w e r e destroyed. Many public buildings, c h u r c h e s , w h a r v e s , w a r e h o u s e s and s h i p s w e r e a l s o l o s t . T h e f i r e c o v e r e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 200 a c r e s b o r d e r e d on t h e w e s t by t h e Saint John H a r b o u r and by C o u r t e n a y B a y on t h e e a s t .

DEVELOPMENT O F T H E CONFLAGRATION

T h e f i r e began in a wooden building l o c a t e d on Y o r k P o i n t S l i p belonging t o a M r . F a i r w e a t h e r ( F i g u r e 1). How t h e f i r e began i s not known but once s t a r t e d it s p r e a d v e r y rapidly.

Within t h r e e m i n u t e s a f t e r t h e a l a r m w a s sounded, Engine No. 3 w a s throwing w a t e r upon t h e ignited buildings. Other engines followed i m m e d i a t e l y , but b e f o r e t h e y could find a s u i t a b l e location t o p l a y w a t e r upon t h e f l a m e s , t h e f i r e h a d s p r e a d by

T h e f i r e quickly involved S m y t h S t r e e t and s p r e a d south t o South Wharf ( F i g u r e 2) involving Nelson S t r e e t and R o b e r t s o n P l a c e . At t h e s a m e t i m e , it s p r e a d into D r u r y L a n e , M i l l S t r e e t and Dock S t r e e t . T h e Saint John f i r e ~ n e n a s s i s t e d by C a r l e t o n and P o r t l a n d f i r e m e n , who c a m e with t h c i r e n g i n e s , a t t e m p t e d

t o hold t h e f i r e at Union S t r e e t n e a r D r u r y Lane. Unfortunately, h o u s e s p a s t t h i s point on Union S t r e e t caught f i r e and f o r c e d t h e f i r e m e n t o r e t r e a t . In s p i t e of g r e a t p e r s o n a l d i s c o m f o r t t h e f i r e m e n eventually h e l d t h e f i r e i n Union S t r e e t a t t h e next block, e a s t of Dock S t r e e t . T h i s w a s t h e k e y t o saving t h e p a r t of t h e c i t y lying n o r t h of King S t r e e t .

T h e buildings facing M a r k e t S q u a r e ( F i g u r e s 3 and 4), including t h e M a r i t i m e B l o c k ( F i g u r e 5), soon caught f i r e . At t h e n o r t h e a s t c o r n e r of M a r k e t S q u a r e stood t h e building t h a t h o u s e d t h e w h o l e s a l e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of Daniel and Boyd. T h i s building w a s soon d e s t r o y e d but a n o t h e r s t r u c t u r e two d o o r s away r e m a i n e d standing ( F i g u r e 6) and helped t o p r e v e n t t h e f i r e f r o m s p r e a d i n g on t h e n o r t h s i d e of King S t r e e t ( F i g u r e 7). T h e building housing t h e B a n k of B r i t i s h North A m e r i c a a l s o s u r v i v e d and helped t o p r e v e n t t h e f i r e

f r o m s p r e a d i n g n o r t h on P r i n c e W i l l i a m S t r e e t . T h e f i r e s p r e a d a c r o s s M a r k e t S q u a r e i n t o Water (Saint John) S t r e e t and W a r d S t r e e t . A s l i p full of s c h o o n e r s and wood b o a t s w a s d e s t r o y e d .

T h e f i r e e n t e r e d t h e s o u t h e r n s i d e of King S t r e e t f r o m G e r m a i n and C a n t e r b u r y S t r e e t s ( F i g u r e 8). It swept down t h e south s i d e of King S t r e e t d e s t r o y i n g s e v e r a l wood s t r u c t u r e s a s well a s t h e P i n e Building, t h e only b r i c k building between C a n t e r b u r y and G e r m a i n S t r e e t s . C r o s s i n g G e r m a i n S t r e e t t h e f i r e continued t o d e s t r o y buildings including Hall's twin

buildings constructed of stone a t t h e c o r n e r of King and G e r m a i n S t r e e t s . No buildings on the south s i d e of King S t r e e t up t o and

including t h e United S t a t e s Hotel ( f o r m e r l y t h e Saint John Hotel) w e r e spared. T h i s hotel faced King S q u a r e a t the c o r n e r of King and C h a r l o t t e S t r e e t s .

T h e f i r e s p r ead south along G e r m a i n S t r e e t destroying F o s t e r ' s C o r n e r at t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of G e r m a i n and King S t r e e t s . After destroying s e v e r a l buildings on the west side of G e r m a i n S t r e e t it c r o s s e d t o t h e e a s t s i d e attacking "Old Trinity" church

( F i g u r e

9).

"Old Trinity", a Saint John l a n d m a r k , h a s been built

in 1791 and had a seating accommodation f o r 1000 people. It w a s destroyed s o quickly that t h e r e was b a r e l y t i m e t o s a v e t h e h i s t o r i c Royal A r m s . T h e f i r e continued down G e r m a i n S t r e e t until it r e a c h e d the old "Germain S t r e e t Methodist" c h u r c h at t h e c o r n e r of Horsfield S t r e e t . T h i s c h u r c h built in 1808 had

s i n c e been enlarged t o s e a t 900 people. T h e Academy of Music, located d i r e c t l y a c r o s s t h e s t r e e t , w a s burning a t the s a m e t i m e .

T h e a c a d e m y was a (190 f t x 51 f t x 65 f t high) t h r e e - s t o r e y b r i c k

building which c o s t approximately $60,000 t o build and could s e a t 1 , 200 people ( F i g u r e 10).

Continuing down G e r m a i n S t r e e t t o Duke S t r e e t the f i r e destroyed "St. Andrew's" c h u r c h , which had been c o n s t r u c t e d

in 181 6. Next t o b e attacked was t h e m a s s i v e five-stor ey

Victoria Hotel located on t h e c o r n e r of Duke and G e r m a i n S t r e e t s ( F i g u r e 11). T h i s hotel was constructed of b r i c k and stone in 1871 a t a c o s t of $165,000. Many e x p r e s s e d t h e feeling that if a f i r e engine had been available a t t h i s location the h o t e l might have been

saved. By t h i s t i m e t h e f i r e h a d s p r e a d into and swept down

t o t h e w a t e r ' s edge, burning t h e B a p t i s t c h u r c h c o n s t r u c t e d of b r i c k in 1865. At t h e s a m e t i m e t h e f i r e w a s s p r e a d i n g in Queen S t r e e t and P a g a n P l a c e , d e s t r o y i n g r e s i d e n c e a f t e r r e s i d e n c e . S i m u l - t a n e o u s l y , it w a s r a g i n g in t h e lower p a r t of S a i n t John. T h e a r m y b a r r a c k s built in 1819 and located in the M i l i t a r y G r o u n d , Lower Cove burned t o t h e ground b e f o r e t h e V i c t o r i a Hotel w a s even

attacked. T h e m a n y wooden h o u s e s , built c l o s e t o g e t h e r influenced t h e r a p i d s p r e a d of t h e f i r e in t h i s a r e a . In Main S t r e e t , St. J a m e s c h u r c h , built in 1851, caught f i r e f r o m a s p a r k and w a s soon d e s t r o y e d . In Sheffield S t r e e t and C a r m a r t h e n S t r e e t two wooden m i s s i o n h o u s e s and m a n y dwellings w e r e d e s t r o y e d . Buildings on P r i n c e s s , L e i n s t e r , Duke, O r a n g e S t r e e t s and King S t r e e t E a s t w e r e r a p i d l y engulfed

b y t h e f i r e .

It h a s been s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e e a s t e r n s e c t i o n of t h e c i t y b e c a m e involved a s a r e s u l t of i n c e n d i a r i s m . T h e open King S q u a r e h a d s e r v e d a s a n effective s p a t i a l s e p a r a t i o n until l a t e in t h e evening. In t h i s a r e a old "St. Malachi's" c h a p e l caught f i r e f r o m s p a r k s

c o m i n g f r o m C h r i s t i a n R o b e r t s o n ' s m a m m o t h s t a b l e . T h e D r a m a t i c L y c e u m on King S q u a r e w a s soon d e s t r o y e d and f i r e c r e p t a r o u n d t h e S q u a r e with one wing advancing up L e i n s t e r S t r e e t and t h e o t h e r attacking t h e C o u r t House and J a i l which w e r e left standing.

T h e office building of t h e Superintendent of Water Supply a t t h e c o r n e r of C a r m a r t h e n S t r e e t and L e i n s t e r S t r e e t p r o v i d e d a s t u b b o r n d e f e n s e a g a i n s t t h e f i r e . Many people, believing t h i s a r e a would b e s a f e , brought f u r n i t u r e and g e n e r a l c h a t t e l s and

s t o r e d t h e m in t h e y a r d s u r r o u n d i n g t h e building. T h e w a t e r supply o f f i c e building, h o w e v e r , w a s eventually levelled, caught between t h e f i r e s on C a r m a r t h e n S t r e e t and L e i n s t e r S t r e e t . T h e Saint John Meteorological O b s e r v a t o r y w a s l o c a t e d in t h i s building. ( A copy

of t h e weather o b s e r v a t i o n s t a k e n a t t h e o b s e r v a t o r y a r o u n d t h e t i m e of t h e f i r e w a s m a d e a v a i l a b l e t o t h e w r i t e r by t h e f e d e r a l Meteorological S e r v i c e . ) A f t e r d e s t r o y i n g t h e Water Company's building t h e f i r e a t t a c k e d L e i n s t e r S t r e e t B a p t i s t c h u r c h a c r o s s t h e s t r e e t . T h i s wooden s t r u c t u r e built in 1864 w a s soon levelled.

T h e next public buildings t o b e d e s t r o y e d w e r e t h e b r i c k " V a r l e y Wesleyan" d a y - s c h o o l and t h e "Centenary" c h a p e l a t t h e c o r n e r of P r i n c e s s and Wentworth S t r e e t s . T h i s b r i c k c h u r c h w a s c o n s t r u c t e d in 1857. On t h e s a m e c o r n e r w e r e t h r e e s o l i d l y built r e s i d e n c e s which slowed t h e p r o g r e s s of t h e f i r e but eventually burned. F i r e s p r e a d t o h o u s e s on P r i n c e s s S t r e e t and t o t h e w e s t s i d e of P i t t S t r e e t , which w a s t h e e a s t e r n boundary of t h e f i r e . T h e G a s H o u s e on C a r m a r t h e n did not ignite until l a t e in t h e f i r e .

A l a r g e c o a l p i l e n e a r t h e G a s House b u r n e d f o r nine o r t e n days. Although t h e r e w a s 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 c u ft of g a s in t h e g a s h o l d e r t h a t w a s t h r e a t e n e d by f l a m e s no explosion o c c u r r e d . T h e e f f o r t s of t h e m a n a g e r p r e v e n t e d s u c h a c a t a s t r o p h e . Both s i d e s of L e i n s t e r S t r e e t w e r e b u r n e d down t o P i t t S t r e e t . On King S t r e e t a l l of t h e buildings e a s t of t h e j a i l t o P i t t S t r e e t w e r e destroyed. Buildings on both s i d e s of P r i n c e s s S t r e e t t o Pitt S t r e e t and t h o s e on O r a n g e S t r e e t w e r e d e s t r o y e d . On Sydney S t r e e t , two c h u r c h e s , both P r e s b y t e r i a n , w e r e d e s t r o y e d . T h e

d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e newly e r e c t e d "Victoria1' s c h o o l on t h e c o r n e r of Duke S t r e e t and Sydney S t r e e t c a m e a s a s h o c k t o many.

T h i s w a s a f o u r - s t o r e y m a s o n r y building ( e r e c t e d in 1876 a t a c o s t of $50,000) with a s l a t e - c o v e r e d m a n s a r d roof and a g r a v e l flat roof deck.

During the f i r e , people sought refuge both for t h e m s e l v e s and t h e i r goods on Queen and King S q u a r e s . On Queen S q u a r e ,

1 , 0 0 0 people watched t h e burning of the handsome r e s i d e n c e s on a l l s i d e s of the S q u a r e ( F i g u r e 12). Two buildings stood on St. J a m e s S t r e e t

-

the M a r i n e Hospital, a n old b a r n -like s t r u c t u r e , and

a splendid new orphanage of m a s o n r y construction. An irony of the f i r e was t h e saving of the hospital and the l o s s of t h e orphanage. A l l the fine r e s i d e n c e s on Mecklenburg S t r e e t w e r e destroyed.

T h e f i r e in C a n t e r b u r y S t r e e t levelled a number of m a s o n r y

buildings housing many of t h e city's leading m e r c h a n t s . T h e stone Savings Bank on t h e c o r n e r of P r i n c e s s and C a n t e r b u r y S t r e e t s w a s destroyed.

All the buildings on P r i n c e William S t r e e t , including the old C o m m e r c i a l Bank Building which housed the civic o f f i c e s (City Hall) and the Bank of New Brunswick, w e r e s e r i o u s l y damaged. T h e l a t t e r building was of heavy m a s o n r y stone construction. Although t h i s building w a s s e v e r e l y damaged, the l a r g e quantities of books and money that w e r e h a s t i l y brought in during the f i r e w e r e p r e s e r v e d t h e bank's vaults. T h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e new P o s t Office w a s a s a d blow. T h i s building ( F i g u r e 13) and t h e C u s t o m House w e r e d e s t r o y e d even though they w e r e of heavy m a s o n r y construction. Buildings on Water S t r e e t suffered s e v e r e damage, m a n y being destroyed. S e v e r a l fine buildings w e r e destroyed in P r i n c e s s S t r e e t f r o m P r i n c e William t o C h a r l o t t e S t r e e t . T h e s e included the Wiggins and Ritchie Buildings, both of m a s o n r y construction.

T h e f i r e died down about nine h o u r s a f t e r it s t a r t e d , although p i l e s of rubble s m o u l d e r e d for s e v e r a l days.

CONSTRUCTION O F BUILDINGS AND DAMAGE

T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of buildings involved in t h e f i r e v a r i e d

greatly. F o r m a n y y e a r s t h e c i t y had a designated " f i r e d i s t r i c t "

which c o v e r e d m a i n l y t h e m e r c a n t i l e a r e a of t h e city ( F i g u r e 13. Within t h i s a r e a , buildings built a f t e r t h e f i r e d i s t r i c t w a s

e s t a b l i s h e d had t o h a v e m a s o n r y e x t e r i o r walls. On t h e h a r b o u r s i d e of t h e f i r e d i s t r i c t w e r e t h e s l i p s and w h a r v e s with t h e i r w a r e h o u s e s and b u s i n e s s e s t a b l i s h t n e n t s . T o t h e e a s t and south of t h e f i r e d i s t r i c t w a s t h e r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a . M o s t dwellings w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d of wood and had wood shingle r o o f s . S e v e r a l l a r g e wooden c h u r c h e s w e r e l o c a t e d in t h e r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a . Of t h e

13 c h u r c h e s d e s t r o y e d , 12 w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d of wood.

In t h e m e r c a n t i l e a r e a , m o s t buildings w e r e t h r e e o r four

s t o r e y s , with b r i c k e x t e r i o r w a l l s ( F i g u r e s 3 and 4). T h e r o o f s

w e r e g e n e r a l l y s l a t e although t h e r e w e r e a n u m b e r of f l a t r o o f s s u r f a c e d with g r a v e l . A n u m b e r of buildings had m a n s a r d r o o f s s h e a t h e d with wood shingles. T h e buildings u s u a l l y had open wooden s t a i r w e l l s and wood j o i s t floor and roof s y s t e m s . Many buildings s u c h as t h e B a n k of New B r u n s w i c k , t h e C u s t o m H o u s e and t h e P o s t Office had been i m p o s i n g s t r u c t u r e s of m a s s i v e

m a s o n r y construction. Unprotected openings in t h e s e buildings

allowed f i r e t o s p r e a d r a p i d l y throughout t h e whole building. M a n y of t h e buildings contained l a r g e a m o u n t s of m e r c h a n d i s e ; t h i s constituted high f i r e loads. Another w e a k n e s s w a s t h e e x c l u s i v e u s e of wooden door and window f r a m e s . T h e s e w e r e often t h e f i r s t i t e m s ignited.

A row of t y p i c a l buildings in t h e w h a r f a r e a m a y b e s e e n

in F i g u r e 2 , which shows South M a r k e t Wharf. T h e s e w e r e m a s o n r y

openings in thern. Inadequate i n t e r i o r s e p a r a t i o n s allowed f i r e t o develop in t h e s e buildings a s if t h e y w e r e one l a r g e c o m p a r t m e n t . T h e r e w e r e a l s o a n u m b e r of wooden buildings in t h i s a r e a .

Much conlbustihle rrlaterial was s t o r e d in t h e buildings and

on the wharfs. At the t i m e of t h e f i r e t h e r e w e r e a n u m b e r of

wooden s h i p s tied up a t t h e s l i p s . Following t h e f i r e a l l that r e m a i n e d in t h e r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a w e r e b r i c k chimneys. In t h e m e r c a n t i l e a r e a , only s h e l l s of m a s o n r y buildings r e m a i n e d . Sixteen h u n d r e d dwellings had been destroyed.

FLRE S P R E A D B E T WEEN BUILDINGS

Much of t h e f i r e s p r e a d between buildings w a s c a u s e d by flying b r a n d s . In R. H. Conwell's book H i s t o r y of t h e G r e a t F i r e in Saint John (1) two p a s s a g e s vividly depict t h i s situation.

T h e f i r s t p a s s a g e d e s c r i b e s conditions e a r l y in t h e development of t h e f i r e .

"The wind w a s blowing in a h u r r i c a n e , and fanned t h e f u r n a c e behind t h e m u n t i l with volcanic t h r o e s i t belched f o r t h burning b r a n d s of pine which a s t r o n g m a n would h a v e found i t difficult t o c a r r y , a n d , shooting t h e m high i n t h e h e a v e n s , l e t t h e m f a l l f a r t o t h e windward, c r a s h i n g i n t o r o o f s and windows,

o r t h r e a t e n i n g t h e l i v e s of t h e c r o w d , about w h o s e h e a d s they

w h i r r e d and h i s s e d a s t h e y f e l l t o t h e pavement. S o hot b e c a m e t h e g u s t s , and s o full of s p a r k s w a s t h e a i r e v e r y w h e r e in t h e path of t h e t e m p e s t , that bundles of goods t o s s e d f r o m s e c o n d - s t o r e y windows w e r e on f i r e b e f o r e t h e y r e a c h e d t h e h a n d s of t h o s e

who caught t h e m in t h e y a r d below. "

T h e s e c o n d p a s s a g e d e s c r i b e s conditions a s t h e f i r e s p r e a d to v a r i o u s p a r t s of t h e city.

"At'that t i m e t h e whole w a t e r -front upon t h e r i v e r s i d e of t h e c i t y w a s on f i r e . T h e conflagration had s p r e a d in a m o s t unusual and a s t o n i s h i n g m a n n e r . F o r while t h e o r i g i n a l f l a m e s w e r e c o u r s i n g down Dock and Nelson S t r e e t s , and demolishing t h e s t r u c t u r e s on M a r k e t Wharf, l i v e c o a l s w e r e c a r r i e d long d i s t a n c e s , and dropped into t a r r e d r o o f s , o r b a l e s of hay, o r s l y l y i n s e r t e d by t h e wind under c a s i n g s , s h i n g l e s , o r shavings, t o s p r i n g up into h u n d r e d s of b o n f i r e s wholly unexpected, and consequently wholly a t l i b e r t y t o grow into w i l d f i r e s without

obstruction. In t h i s way t h e l a r g e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of Daniel and

Boyd on M a r k e t S q u a r e w a s ignited. In t h i s way t h e wooden

buildings half a m i l e d i s t a n t and n e a r t h e C u s t o m House w e r e

s e t on f i r e . S o t h a t it was t h e w o r k of but a s h o r t s p a c e of t i m e , not exceeding f o r t y - f i v e m i n u t e s a f t e r t h e f i r e w a s in Dock S t r e e t , b e f o r e t h e whole of t h e c i t y lying between P r i n c e William S t r e e t and t h e w a t e r w a s b u r n i n g n e a r l y a s f a r down a s Reed's P o i n t . I t

Undoubtedly t h e f i r e s p r e a d f r o m building t o building by r a d i a t i o n a s well. T w o e x a m p l e s h a v e been worked out f o r buildings involved in t h i s f i r e using t h e s p a t i a l s e p a r a t i o n t a b l e s given in t h e National Building Code and a l s o t h e m o r e detailed o r i g i n a l t a b l e s on which t h e l a t t e r w e r e based. T h e v a l u e s obtained h a v e been b a s e d on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t n o c o n s t r u c t i o n s e p a r a t i o n e x i s t e d between f l o o r s . C o n s i d e r i n g t h e V i c t o r i a Hotel ( F i g u r e 1 I ) , which w a s located on t h e c o r n e r of Duke S t r e e t (60 f e e t wide) and G e r m a i n S t r e e t (70 f e e t wide), t h e National Building Code and t h e o r i g i n a l t a b l e s s p e c i f y that a d j a c e n t buildings should not b e c l o s e r than 78 f e e t and 8 3 f e e t , r e s p e c t i v e l y . A s a s e c o n d e x a m p l e , t h e building f r o n t i n g on King S t r e e t shown in F i g u r e 6 , although not i t s e l f involved in t h e f i r e , h a s been c o n s i d e r e d t y p i c a l of t h o s e on t h e opposite s i d e of the r o a d .

On t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e buildings b u r n e d s u c c e s s i v e l y ,

t h e National Building Code and t h e o r i g i n a l t a b l e s s p e c i f y , r e s p e c t i v e l y , that a d j a c e n t buildings should not b e n e a r e r than 6 2 f e e t and 55 feet. If s e v e r a l buildings b u r n e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a t t h e i r p e a k r a t e , t h e r e c o m m e n d e d s e p a r a t i o n given by t h e o r i g i n a l t a b l e s could r i s e a s high a s 114 feet. It i s unlikely t h a t t h i s o c c u r r e d . King S t r e e t w a s 110 feet wide and none of t h e buildings on t h e n o r t h s i d e ignited, w h e r e a s a l l t h e buildings s u r r o u n d i n g t h e V i c t o r i a H o t e l did so. T h e s p a t i a l s e p a r a t i o n r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a r e t h u s c o n s i s t e n t with t h e two e x a m p l e s specified.

OCCUPANCIES

T h e Saint John f i r e s p r e a d r a p i d l y in t h e wharf a r e a , w h e r e t h e r e w e r e m a n y w a r e h o u s e s . It then s p r e a d into t h e b u s i n e s s and m e r c a n t i l e d i s t r i c t , involving a l a r g e n u m b e r of buildings containing l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of c o m b u s t i b l e goods. T a b l e I l i s t s t h e o c c u p a n c i e s (including 20 m a n u f a c t u r i n g ~ l a n t s ) which w e r e involved in t h e f i r e .

DAMAGE T O CONTENTS

In g e n e r a l , v e r y l i t t l e w a s s a l v a g e d f r o m t h e buildings involved in t h i s f i r e . T h i s applied both t o household goods and t o s t o c k s of m e r c h a n d i s e and f u r n i s h i n g s in s t o r e s , office buildings and w a r e h o u s e s . A t t e m p t s w e r e m a d e t o s a v e s o m e i t e m s by

hauling then1 a w a y t o a p l a c e thought t o b e s a f e . M o s t p l a c e s c o n s i d e r e d s a f e f r o n ~ t h e f i r e p r o v e d not t o be s o l a t e r in t h e day. F o r e x a m p l e , d u r i n g t h e l a t e a f t e r n o o n , load a f t e r load of f u r n i t u r e , m e r c h a n d i s e and g e n e r a l c h a t t e l s w a s brought into t h e building

housing t h e office of t h e Superintendent of W a t e r Supply and t h e y a r d s u r r o u n d i n g it. Unfortunately, d u r i n g t h e evening t h e f i r e s p r e a d t o t h i s a r e a and c o n s u m e d t h e s e goods.

T h e question of s a l v a g e was d i s c u s s e d in t h e Canadian

I l l u s t r a t e d News, J u l y 7, 1877 (2): "Leaving for the p r e s e n t '

t h e question of p e r f e c t i n g t h e F i r e B r i g a d e s , we r e m a r k that a t St. John t h e r e does not s e e m t o have been any organized s a l v a g e c o r p s , nor i s t h e r e any in m o r e than a v e r y few cities. How well i t would p a y t h e companies t o s e e t o t h i s , will be m o r e evident, when i t is r e m e m b e r e d t h a t i n s u r e d goods, on a f i r e

breaking out, b e c o m e v i r t u a l l y t h e i r own p r o p e r t y

- -

s e e i n g

that t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s m e a s u r e d by t h e i r value

-

-

and

t h e w o r k of t h e s e t r a i n e d and organized s a l v a g e m e n h a s a two-

fold if not a t h r ee-fold value, for they a r e not only a b l e t o r e m o v e

the t h r e a t e n e d goods t o a p l a c e of safety, but they m a y often s a v e t h e s t r u c t u r e itself by removing out of i t , i t s m o r e combustible

contents, and making a c l e a r way f o r the f i r e m e n ; while they can

a s s i s t t h e p o l i c e i n c l e a r i n g t h e p r e m i s e s , i f need b e , of t h o s e

who could do h a r m and not good. l 1

Among t h e s t o c k s burned it w a s e s t i m a t e d that 50

-

6 0 , 0 0 0

b a r r e l s of flour had been burned

-

n e a r l y all the flour in town.

T h e huge coal p i l e belonging to t h e g a s company w a s destroyed. F u r n i t u r e w a r e h o u s e s s u c h as S t e w a r t and Whites and L o r d l y , Howe and Go. r e p o r t e d c o m p l e t e l o s s e s . T h e r e w e r e one o r two i n s t a n c e s w h e r e i t e m s w e r e saved. F o r example, m a n y m e r c h a n t s

h u r r i e d l y placed t h e i r books and money in t h e vaults of t h e

Bank

of New Brunswick. Although t h e s t r u c t u r e w a s s e v e r e l y damaged, t h e vaults p r e s e r v e d t h e i r contents. G e o r g e S t e w a r t , in h i s book

"The G r e a t F i r e in St. John, N. B. 11, (3) c i t e s another example: "During t h e f i r e and unable t o h i r e a t e a m a t any p r i c e , they dug a deep hole in the c e l l a r of the h o u s e and buried t h e r e what jewelry, s i l v e r - w a r e they could s c r a p e together. T h e y w e r e now hunting f o r

One of the m o r e s e r i o u s l o s s e s was that of books and

p i c t u r e s . Although t h e r e w e r e no public l i b r a r i e s o r a r t g a l l e r i e s t h e r e w e r e a number of v e r y valuable p r i v a t e collections,

a l l of which w e r e lost.

F I R E APPARATUS AND WATER

SUPPLY

Conwell (1) h a s nothing but p r a i s e for the f i r e department. He s t a t e s , "Although t h e i r efficient chief ( T h o m a s M a r t e r ) who

for s o many y e a r s had d i r e c t e d t h e i r movements, w a s absent

f r o m t h e city, yet s o thorough was t h e i r discipline, and s o e a r n e s t was t h e i r d e s i r e t o be of s e r v i c e , t h a t a l l t h e i r w o r k

w a s done with t h e m o s t commendable p r o m p t n e s s and precision. "

Under Chief M a r t e r w e r e t h r e e D i s t r i c t E n g i n e e r s s u p e r v i s i n g

Engine Companies No. 1 , 2 and 3, Hose Companies No. 1 , 2 and 3,

and Hook and Ladder. T h e t o t a l s t r e n g t h of the F i r e D e p a r t m e n t

w a s 59 o f f i c e r s and men. T h e Department had 4 s t e a m f i r e engines,

s e v e r a l h o s e wagons, a hook and l a d d e r t r u c k and 1 c o a l wagon. E a r l y in the development of t h e f i r e , P o r t l a n d and C a r l e t o n f i r e m e n a r r i v e d with two engines t o a s s i s t t h e city f i r e m e n .

Much p r a i s e i s due t h e s e m e n , a s pointed out in Stewart's book (3): "The contingent of f i r e m e n f r o m P o r t l a n d worked with a will and

did much t o check the f l a m e s

- -

a s much, indeed a s m o r t a l m a n

could do in a f i r e like t h i s , with a high wind blowing a p e r f e c t gale

all the time. "

A s a r e s u l t of t h e f i r e , two t h i r d s of the f i r e a l a r m s y s t e m

was destroyed. T h e f i r s t f i r e a l a r m installation w a s in 1867.

All t h e watering c a r t s , s l o v e n s , h o s e etc. belonging t o t h e c o r p o r a t i o n w e r e burned. No. 1 engine-house was d e s t r o y e d

A d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e development of t h e Saint John w a t e r

supply s y s t e m is included i n Appendix A

-

E a r l y F i r e H i s t o r y .

It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h e d i f f e r e n c e in opinion r e g a r d i n g t h e a d e q u a c y of t h e w a t e r supply s y s t e m . S t e w a r t ( 3 ) s t a t e s : "A good d e a l of n o n s e n s e , d u r i n g t h e e x c i t e m e n t of t h e p r e s e n t f i r e , w a s talked about a n inadequate supply of w a t e r t o m e e t t h e wants of t h e exigency, but t h i s w a s found t o b e fallacious. T h e r e w a s plenty of w a t e r a l l t h e t i m e , and while t h e r e w a s much r e c k l e s s and n e e d l e s s w a s t e , t h e r e was sufficient of t h e e l e m e n t t o m e e t t h e d e m a n d s of t h e f i r e r n e n and h o s e - n ~ e n . It i s a popular c r y t o r a i s e a t a f i r e which cannot be got under way, that t h e r e i s no w a t e r . On t h e b e s t a u t h o r i t y t h e w r i t e r i s happy t o b e a b l e t o p l a c e it on r e c o r d that t h e supply of w a t e r w a s i n e v e r y way a d e q u a t e t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e hour.

"

Conwell ( 1 ) on t h e o t h e r hand h a s a somewhat d i f f e r e n t

opinion: "But t h e few buildings which w e r e left a t t h e w a t e r ' s edge w e r e s o a c c e s s i b l e t o t h e s t e a m f i r e - e n g i n e s , and t h e f o r c e of t h e aqueduct w a s s o g r e a t a t t h e s e low p o i n t s , that w a t e r w a s t o be had in abundance. S o m a n y people had opened the f a u c e t s in t h e i r h o u s e s , and w e r e using t h e i r h o s e s o g e n e r a l l y when t h e f i r e a p p r o a c h e d t h e p r i n c i p a l s t r e e t s , t h a t t h e supply on t h e h i g h e s t p o r t i o n of t h e mountainous c i t y r a n s h o r t f o r t h e

f i r e - e n g i n e s . T h e w a t e r would s c a r c e l y flow while t h e f i r e r a g e d t h e f i e r c e s t , s o g r e a t w a s t h e quantity taken and w a s t e d by t h e

people. But i n t h e l o w e r and outlying d i s t r i c t s t h e r e w a s w a t e r

in abundance, and buildings t h e r e could be s a v e d . ' I

AUXILIARY FLRE FIGHTING AIDS

A g r e a t d e a l of a u x i l i a r y f i r e fighting w a s undertaken.

h o s e and buckets of w a t e r , but l i t t l e t h a t t h e y did delayed o r p r e v e n t e d t h e s p r e a d of t h e f i r e . One m a n t r i e d t o s a v e a h o u s e by standing on t h e roof and throwing w a t e r f r o m a p i t c h e r on s p a r k s a s t h e y caught v u l n e r a b l e spots. F o r an hour or m o r e h e stood t h e r e with h i s p i t c h e r until it b e c a m e evident t h a t no effort that h e could m a k e would s a v e t h e building. H e got down, leaving t h e p i t c h e r standing on a ledge of t h e chimney. T h e f i r e s h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s b u r n e d t h e building, and left t h e t a l l c h i m n e y standing a g a i n s t t h e sky. T h e next day when people walked o v e r t h e h e a p of a s h e s t h a t h a d o n c e been a household, t h e y saw t h e old p i t c h e r , standing on t h e l e d g e of t h e chimney.

On St. J a m e s S t r e e t stood two buildings. T h e Wiggin's o r p h a n a g e w a s a m a s s i v e and beautiful s t r u c t u r e . T h e M a r i n e H o s p i t a l w a s a n old wooden b a r n - l i k e building t h a t h a d been decaying f o r y e a r s and w a s only waiting t o b e blown down by

s o m e p a s s i n g wind. T h e M a r i n e H o s p i t a l s i t u a t e d a stone's t h r o w f r o m t h e m a s s i v e Wiggin's O r p h a n a g e , w a s built in a garden. When t h e f i r e a p p r o a c h e d , t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t and a few of t h e

i n m a t e s s t a t i o n e d t h e m s e l v e s in good p o s i t i o n s and began a v i g o r o u s defence of t h e old place. A n u m b e r of w e l l - d i r e c t e d b u c k e t s of w a t e r , plied r a p i d l y when t h e f i r e showed i t s e l f , s a v e d t h e old building.

Unfortunately, no such a c t i o n w a s t a k e n a t t h e o r p h a n a g e and t h i s splendid building w a s d e s t r o y e d . T h e s u c c e s s f u l r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e f l a m e s a t t h e r e s i d e n c e of J a m e s H. M o r a n , Esq. a t C h i p m a n ' s H i l l p r e v e n t e d t h e s p r e a d of t h e f i r e t o t h e n o r t h e r n p o r t i o n of t h e city. T h e h o u s e w a s a t t a c k e d by t h e f i r e f r o m f r o n t and r e a r , but t h e e f f o r t s of a c r e w of w o r k m e n f r o m t h e s h i p y a r d , a i d e d by t h e c i t y f i r e m e n , kept t h e f l a m e s a t bay. T h e window s a s h e s caught s e v e r a l t i m e s , and t h e m e n , finding n e i t h e r tirnber nor a x e s , g r a s p e d t h e s a s h e s with t h e i r naked h a n d s and t o r e t h e m away. T h i s s a v e d t h e bui.lding and stopped t h e s p r e a d of f l a m e s along Union St. and beyond it.

T h e fight with t h e f l a m e s on Reed's Point Wharf, which l a s t e d

f r o m t h r e e o'clock in t h e afternoon until 4 o'clock the next morning

w a s one of t h e m o s t d r a m a t i c of t h e day. Between 1500 and 2000

people had taken refuge a t the end of t h e wharf. A number of b a r r e l s

containing k e r o s e n e oil o r petroleurn lay on t h e wharf. One m a n ,

a d o c t o r , did much t o s a v e t h i s situation even though the crowd would not help. T h e b a r r e l s w e r e too heavy t o r o l l into t h e w a t e r s o h e kept getting p a i l s of water and throwing t h e m on t h e b a r r e l s t o p r e v e n t t h e i r explosion. He had a l l the women put on board a s t e a m e r a t t h e end of t h e wharf and then together with a r e l u c t a n t young m a n kept throwing p a i l s of water on t h e f i r e . Finally,

a p a s s i n g tugboat c a m e alongside and used i t s h o s e t o deluge

t h e wharf. In a few minutes t h e danger was averted.

L I F E AND PROPERTY

LOSSES

Many people w e r e burned o r o t h e r w i s e injured during t h i s f i r e and 18 p e r s o n s l o s t t h e i r lives. Twelve died f r o m b u r n s , two f r o m i n j u r i e s suffered when c o r n i c e s fell, two f r o m i n j u r i e s inflicted by falling w a l l s and two by drowning while attempting

t o s a v e t h e i r p r o p e r t y in boats. A s a r e s u l t of t h e l o s s of dwellings,

a p p r o x i m a t e l y

2,

700 f a m i l i e s o r 13, 000 people w e r e l e f t h o m e l e s s .

Many c o m m e r c i a l buildings, t h r e e t h e a t r e s , t h i r t e e n c h u r c h e s , and a number of public buildings s u c h as t h e C u s t o m House,

Savings Bank, P o s t Office, C i t y Building and schools w e r e destroyed. Fifteen v e s s e l s , m a i n l y s c h o o n e r s , burned a t t h e i r moorings.

Various e s t i m a t e s of t h e financial l o s s have been given.

All e s t i m a t e s indicate that the l o s s w a s approximately $27, 000, 000.

A s f a r a s can b e a s c e r t a i n e d , i n s u r a n c e l o s s e s w e r e in t h e o r d e r

of $6,500,000. A number of i n s u r a n c e companies w e r e h a r d hit,

bankrupt. T h e Saint John Mutual paid s c a r c e l y anything. T h e

C e n t r a l of F r e d e r i c t o n , the P r o v i n c i a l of T o r o n t o and the Stadacona m e t m o s t of t h e i r obligations in t i m e . Most i n s u r a n c e c o m p a n i e s p r o m p t l y a d j u s t e d l o s s e s . Unfortunately m a n y of t h e dwellings w e r e not i n s u r e d . Adding t o the n u m b e r of p e r s o n s l e f t d e s t i t u t e w e r e t h e h o u s e h o l d e r s who w e r e i n s u r e d by l o c a l m u t u a l c o m p a n i e s that went bankrupt. T o l e s s e n t h e i m p a c t of the l o s s , a r e l i e f fund w a s e s t a b l i s h e d (Appendix B). An e s t i m a t e d $250, 000 w a s c o n t r i b u t e d i n addition t o huge quantities of s u p p l i e s s u c h a s food, bedding and clothing.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER CANADIAN FIRES

A c o m p a r i s o n of v a r i o u s f e a t u r e s of t h e Saint John f i r e with t h e T o r o n t o f i r e of 1904 and t h e Ottawa-Hull f i r e of 1900 r e v e a l s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n c e s and s o m e s i m i l a r i t i e s . T a b l e I 1 c o m p a r e s w e a t h e r conditions a t t h e t i m e of a l l t h e f i r e s . T h e one f e a t u r e t h e y h a v e in c o m m o n i s a s t r o n g wind f r o m t h e n o r t h o r northwest. In e a c h c a s e i t tended t o c h a n n e l t h e f i r e in one d i r e c t i o n , which enabled s o m e s u c c e s s f u l f i r e fighting e f f o r t s on t h e flank of t h e f i r e s . A l l t h r e e f i r e s w e r e c o n t r o l l e d only when t h e f i r e r a n out of fuel. T h i s w a s m o s t n o t i c e a b l e in t h e

Saint John f i r e w h e r e t h e f i r e d e s t r o y e d e v e r y t h i n g in t h e p e n i n s u l a

-

s h a p e d a r e a , stopping only a t t h e w a t e r ' s edge. It i s p r o b a b l e that

in a l l t h r e e f i r e s the wind c a u s e d a n i n c r e a s e in t h e s i z e of r a d i a t i n g f l a m e s otl t h e l e e w a r d s i d e of buildings, t h e r e b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e

e x p o s u r e h a z a r d . In t h e Saint John f i r e , a s in t h e Ottawa-Hull f i r e , flying b r a n d s f o r m e d f r o m burning wood s h i n g l e s and other c o m b u s t i b l e m a t e r i a l s and b o r n e by t h e s t r o n g wind g r e a t l y influenced t h e f i r e s p r e a d .

Many t y p e s of building c o n s t r u c t i o n w e r e involved in t h e t h r e e f i r e s . A l l of t h e buildings had s e r i o u s d e f e c t s f r o m t h e standpoint of conflagration h a z a r d . In t h e Saint John f i r e and t h e Ottawa-Hull f i r e a l m o s t a l l buildings d e s t r o y e d w e r e wood f r a m e

h o u s e s with shingle r o o f s ( F i g u r e 14). In a l l t h r e e f i r e s m e r c a n t i l e

buildings w e r e involved, although m o r e s o in t h e T o r o n t o and Saint John f i r e s . In Saint John and in T o r o n t o , t h e a v e r a g e m e r c a n t i l e building w a s a four - s t o r e y b r i c k s t r u c t u r e with a somewhat s m a l l floor a r e a . T h e f l o o r s w e r e wood j o i s t and t h e r e w e r e open v e r t i c a l s h a f t s and windows f r o n t and back. Windows in t h e f r o n t ground floor w e r e quite l a r g e . I n d u s t r i a l buildings involved in t h e Saint John and Ottawa-Hull f i r e s w e r e g e n e r a l l y of wood joist c o n s t r u c t i o n , m a n y of t h e m e n t i r e l y wood. T h e r e was no p r o t e c t i o n of v e r t i c a l openings in t h e m u l t i - s t o r e y e d buildings.

T h e contributing conditions for conflagration h a v e been d i s c u s s e d in a companion r e p o r t on t h e "Toronto F i r e of 1904"

(NRC

7830). In t h e Saint John f i r e all four conditions c o n c e r n e d

with c o n s t r u c t i o n a p p e a r e d t o b e p r e s e n t . T h e f i r e s p r e a d f i r s t in t h e c o n g e s t e d m e r c a n t i l e a r e a w h e r e the buildings w e r e c o n - s t r u c t e d in s u c h a way t h a t i n t e n s e i n t e r n a l combustion w a s

r a p i d l y s e t up. In addition, t h e r e w a s a l a c k of f i r e b r e a k s s u c h a s

solid b r i c k w a l l s and window protection. On t h e o t h e r hand,

t h e f i r e s p r e a d in t h e r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a w a s influenced by t h e cont iguity of f r a m e buildings and t h e p r e v a l e n c e of c o m b u s t i b l e roof c o v e r i n g s .

In t h e Saint John f i r e , unlike t h e T o r o n t o and Ottawa-Hull f i r e s , t h e r e i s no r e c o r d of i n t e r i o r s p r i n k l e r and standpipe s y s t e m s n o r of a n e x t e r i o r w a t e r curtain. T h e m u n i c i p a l w a t e r s y s t e m s

a t a l l t h r e e f i r e s w e r e s e v e r e l y t a x e d , but enough w a t e r w a s a v a i l a b l e t o allow t h e f i r e f i g h t e r s t o e x e r t s o m e c o n t r o l on t h e flanks of t h e f i r e . No i n f o r m a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e on t h e a m o u n t of w a t e r pumped a t t h e

Saint John f i r e .

T h e Saint John f i r e w a s fought by a p p r o x i m a t e l y 60 f i r e m e n and o f f i c e r s , including p e r s o n n e l f r o m P o r t l a n d and C a r l e t o n . Equipment u s e d included s i x s t e a m f i r e engines (two f r o m outside) and s e v e r a l h o s e wagons. T h i s is about t h e s a m e n u m b e r of m e n and p i e c e s of equipment u s e d a t t h e Ottawa-Hull f i r e . At a l l t h r e e f i r e s c o n s i d e r a b l e a s s i s t a n c e w a s r e n d e r e d by h u n d r e d s of civilians. T h e chief value of f i r e fighting d u r i n g c o n f l a g r a t i o n s i s t o p r e v e n t f l a m e s f r o m s p r e a d i n g a c r o s s t h e wind and t o extinguish b r a n d s t h a t h a v e alighted outside t h e zone of t h e f i r e . In g e n e r a l , t h e

Toronto, Ottawa-Hull and Saint John f i r e s b e a r t h i s out. In a l l c a s e s , o b s t a c l e s in t h e p a t h of t h e f i r e on t h e l e e w a r d flank enabled f i r e f i g h t e r s t o p l a y a r e l a t i v e l y e f f e c t i v e r o l e in stopping t h e f i r e on t h e flanks. S u m m a r y Of L o s s e s T a b l e I 1 1 c o m p a r e s t h e l o s s e s i n c u r r e d in a l l t h r e e f i r e s . T h e Saint J o h n f i r e , l i k e t h e Ottawa-Hull, r e n d e r e d a l a r g e n u m b e r of people ( 1 3 , 000) h o m e l e s s . T o s o m e extent t h e d e s t r u c t i o n c a u s e d by t h e Saint John f i r e w a s s i m i l a r t o t h a t c a u s e d by t h e T o r o n t o and Ottawa-Hull f i r e s . F o r e x a t r ~ p l e , in t h e Saint John f i r e i n d u s t r i e s w e r e d e s t r o y e d a s in t h e Ottawa-Hull f i r e .

In addition, t h e h e a r t of t h e m e r c a n t i l e a r e a w a s d e s t r o y e d a s in t h e T o r o n t o f i r e . I n s u r a n c e c o v e r a g e f o r t h e Saint John f i r e w a s low (2270) a s w a s t h e c a s e in t h e Ottawa-Hull f i r e , b e c a u s e of t h e l a r g e n u m b e r of dwellings involved. A s i n t h e Ottawa-Hull f i r e , a r e l i e f fund w a s e s t a b l i s h e d and tons of s u p p l i e s w e r e contributed.

In the Saint John f i r e , which was under c o n t r o l in a p p r o x i - m a t e l y nine h o u r s , 200 a c r e s w e r e involved and approximately 2000 buildings and a number of s h i p s and t h e i r c a r g o e s w e r e

destroyed. T o t a l value of v e s s e l s and c a r g o e s lost was about $40, 000. T h e l o s s a t Saint John was felt t o an even g r e a t e r extent because

of t h e number of public buildings, including 1 3 c h u r c h e s , which w e r e destroyed.

F i r e Loads Involved

T a b l e s IV and V include a c o m p a r i s o n of r e s i d e n t i a l f i r e loads in Ottawa and Saint John and of m e r c a n t i l e f i r e loads in Toronto and Saint John. T a b l e IV shows that f i r e loads and

building density conditions in Ottawa and Saint John w e r e s i m i l a r . In the m e r c a n t i l e a r e a s , the f i r e loads based on building a r e a s w e r e approximately the s a m e for both Toronto and Saint John, w h e r e a s t h e r e was a significant difference between t h o s e based on f i r e a r e a s because of the different building densities. T h e nler c a n t i l e a r e a in Saint John includes wharf w a r e h o u s e f a c i l i t i e s a s well a s n o r m a l b u s i n e s s p r e m i s e s . One i n t e r e s t i n g note

r e g a r d i n g t h e f i r e load in this a r e a c o n c e r n s t h e amount of flour involved. It i s r e p o r t e d that 50 t o 60, 000 b a r r e l s w e r e destroyed.

6

T h i s number of b a r r e l s would hold

9.8

x 10 l b of combustible m a t e r i a l with roughly the s a m e c a l o r i f i c value as wood. T h e calculations for f i r e loads m a k e s o m e allowance f o r the f i r e loads due t o a u x i l i a r y combustible construction such a s s h e d s , l e a n - t o s , etc. S p r e a d Of F i r e

T h e r a t e of f i r e s p r e a d h a s been e s t i m a t e d on t h e m e a g r e information available. T h e s e r a t e s a r e given in T a b l e s IV and V. T h e r a t e of s p r e a d among r e s i d e n c e s in Ottawa was much g r e a t e r than in Saint John in s p i t e of t h e fact that t h e f i r e loads and building

d e n s i t i e s w e r e approximately t h e s a m e . T h e r a t e of f i r e s p r e a d in m e r c a n t i l e a r e a s was f a s t e r in Saint John than in T o r o n t o even though the f i r e load and t h e building density w e r e l e s s .

A p o s s i b l e explanation i s that s p a t i a l s e p a r a t i o n s between buildings when t h e s e s e p a r a t i o n s a r e c l u t t e r e d with wooden s h e d s

have l i t t l e value. F i g u r e 15 i s a view of the uptown a r e a arid shows a profusion of wooden s h e d s and fences. Sheds and f e n c e s

behave in a m a n n e r s i m i l a r t o a conventional explosives f u s e , t r a n s m i t t i n g f i r e f r o m building t o building. T h i s s a m e situation prevailed in t h e r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s of Hull and Ottawa during t h e f i r e of 1900.

A c o m p a r i s o n with m o d e l w o r k h a s been attempted.

Atallah (4) h a s c o m p a r e d t h e r a t e of s p r e a d during the G r e a t F i r e of London (1666) with the r a t e p r e d i c t e d f r o m Thomas' e x p r e s s i o n

-

2

-

1

R c b c o s cp

=

0.0085 g c m s e c

3

w h e r e c b i s the bulk density of a wood c r i b (grn/crn ), rp is t h e deflection of t h e f l a m e f r o m t h e v e r t i c a l and R is t h e l i n e a r r a t e of burning. According t o Atallah, a fuel bulk density of 0. 43 g m / c c and an angle of inclination ( c p ) of 70" corresponding t o a wind speed of 10 mph gives a value of 0. 58 crn/sec for R. He e s t i m a t e s that

t h e a c t u a l r a t e of s p r e a d was between 0.36 and 0. 59 cm/sec.

F o r the r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s of Ottawa and Saint John, the bulk density of the fuel was about 0.0051 gm/cc o r about one ninth of the 1666 Londorl value. T h e l i n e a r r a t e of burning was about 600 ft/hr o r 5.08 c m / s e c , which i s about t e n t i m e s t h e value. F o r t h e relationship t o hold t r u e , t h e r e f o r e , the angle of inclination of t h e f l a m e s m u s t have the s a m e value,

i. e. 7 0 ° , although t h e Ottawa and Saint John windspeeds w e r e 25 t o 30 mph, compared with the London value of 10 mph. An a r t i s t ' s i m p r e s s i o n of the f i r e suggests that t h e inclination was in fact about 70".

On t h i s subject Hamada (5) gives t h e relationship

tan

8

= 4 ~ / v 2

where

0

_{= inclination of f l a m e s t o the horizontal (i. e.}

0

₌

₍₁

-

_{e p ) )}

D

=

f l a m e depth

an d

v

=

wind velocity ( m / s e c )

Substituting 0

₌

_{20" ( o r t o be m o r e p r e c i s e 19.1 " ) and}

v

=

12 ~ / s e c (=26.6 mph) gives

D

=

12. 45 m e t r e s = 43 ft which is a plausible value

for t h e depth of t h e f l a m e front. CONCLUSION

T h i s is the t h i r d l a r g e f i r e o c c u r r i n g in Canada that h a s been studied by the writer. Unlike l a r g e w a r t i m e f i r e s , t h e s e conflagrations a l l originated f r o m a single s o u r c e of ignition. All o c c u r r e d in the p r e s e n c e of a s t r o n g wind.

In general, they s p r e a d in t h e direction that t h e wind was blowing and continued t o s p r e a d until they r a n out of fuel. The s p r e a d of the f i r e on t h e flanks was stopped s o m e t i m e s by topographical

f e a t u r e s and a t other t i m e s by relatively fir e - r e s i s t i v e buildings

In t h e r e p o r t on t h e T o r o n t o f i r e , t h e w r i t e r s t a t e d that "it i s m o s t i m p r o b a b l e t h a t s i m i l a r c o n f l a g r a t i o n s could o c c u r today in t h e s e two u r b a n c e n t r e s under n o r m a l p e a c e t i m e

conditions". It i s t h e w r i t e r ' s opinion that t h e s a m e s t a t e m e n t

could be applied t o t h e Saint John f i r e .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

T h e w r i t e r w i s h e s t o t h a n k t h e staff of t h e Dominion A r c h i v e s and t h e New B r u n s w i c k M u s e u m f o r t h e i r h e l p in s e c u r i n g and

t h e i r g e n e r o s i t y in lending photographs t o i l l u s t r a t e t h i s r e p o r t . T h e following books and publications w e r e u s e d a s r e f e r e n c e s i n t h e r e p o r t i n g of t h i s f i r e :

1. T h e H i s t o r y of t h e G r e a t F i r e of Saint John by Col.

R.

H. Conwell.

P u b l i s h e d b y B. B. R u s s e l l , Boston, 1877.

In New B r u n s w i c k M u s e u m , Saint John, N. B.

-

2. Canadian I l l u s t r a t e d News, M o n t r e a l , J u l y 7 , 1877, p. 2. 3. T h e S t o r y of t h e G r e a t F i r e in Saint John, N. B., J u n e 20, 1877, by G e o r g e S t e w a r t . P u b l i s h e d by B e l f o r d B r o s . , 1877, 273 p. In P a r l i a m e n t a r y L i b r a r y of C a n a d a , Ottawa.

-

4. S o m e O b s e r v a t i o n s on t h e G r e a t F i r e of London, 1666, by S. Atallah. L e t t e r t o N a t u r e , No. 5044, J u l y 2, 1966, pp. 105-6.

5. T h e Inclination of t h e F i r e F l a m e by Wind by M. Hamada.

Bulletin of t h e F i r e P r e v e n t i o n S o c i e t y of J a p a n ,

F i r e Waste in Canada by J. Grove Smith. Commission of Conservation, Canada, Ottawa, 1918.

Canadian Illustrated News, Montreal, June 30, 1877, p. 406.

History of the City and County of St. John. P r i z e E s s a y on Saint John,

1783-1883, by D. R. Jack. Published by J. and A. McMillan Co.

,

Saint John, N. B.

,

1883. In McGill University L i b r a r y , Montreal.

-

Information was a l s o obtained f r o m the following newspapers:

Saint John Daily News. July

9,

1877.

Saint John Globe. July 12, 1877.

T A B L E I

OCCUPANCIES INVOLVED IN THE F I R E

N a t u r e of B u s i n e s s Nature of B u s i n e s s G r o c e r s (Wholesale) G r o c e r s (Retail) Gasfitter s and P l u m b e r s H a i r d r e s s e r s H a r d w a r e S t o r e s Hotels I n s u r a n c e Agents Iron M e r c h a n t s Liquor D e a l e r s (Wholesale) Liquor D e a l e r s (Retail) L i v e r y ~ t a b l k s Lumber M e r c h a n t s Manufactur e r s M a r b l e Works Merchant T a i l o r s Newspapers P a i n t e r s P h o t o g r a p h e r s P h y s i c i a n s and Surgeons P r i n t e r s ( J o b Work) R i g g e r s S a i l m a k e r s Ship C h a n d l e r s Ship S m i t h s Stove D e a l e r s Tobacconists U n d e r t a k e r s Watchmakers and J e w e l l e r s Number Destroyed Number Destroyed 40 102 9 13 8 1 4 29 8 27 116 8 12 2

0

6 36 7 13

6

15 10 7 5 14 8 8 7 4 1 2 A r c h i t e c t s A u c t i o n e e r s B a k e r s Banks B a n k e r s , P r i v a t e B a r r i s t e r s B l a c k s m i t h s Block and P u m p M a k e r s Boarding Houses Boat B u i l d e r s Bookbinders Book S t o r e s Boot and S h o e m a k e r s Boot and Shoe S t o r e s B r a s s F o u n d e r s Builder s C a b i n e t m a k e r s C l o t h i e r s C o m m i s s i o n M e r c h a n t s Confectioners Dentists D r u g g i s t s D r y Goods (Wholesale) D r y Goods (Retail)

Dining and Oyster Saloon F l o u r D e a l e r s F r u i t D e a l e r s 4 7 1 1 5 4 80 10 8 55 5

5

7

3

8

14

6

2 7 9 29 93 6 9 8 14 22 10 32 7

TABLE I 1 WEATHER CONDITIONS Toronto St. John TABLE

I 1 1

FLRE LOSSES F i r e Ottawa-Hull Date 26 A p r i l 1900 Life L o s s 7 0 18 T i m e of Origin 10:30 a. m. - Insurance $3,855,595 $8, 375,000 $6,000,000 F i r e Ottawa -Hull - - Weather Conditions 63" F , balmy s p r i n g day, 8:00 p. m. 2:30 p. m. 19 A p r i l 1904 20 June 1877

snow gone, wind f r o m north up t o 30 mph. 24" F , cloudy, snowflurries, wind f r o m northwest 25-30 mph. 75-80°F, sunny bright, wind f r o m northwest 20-25 mph. No. of Buildings Destroyed o r S e v e r e l y Damaged over 3200 P r o p e r t y L o s s $9,515,849 T o r onto 100 St. John approx. 2000 $10,350,000 $27,000,000

T A B L E IV

RESIDENTIAL FIRE LOADS AND F I R E SPREAD

T A B L E V

MERCANTILE F I R E LOADS AND F I R E SPREAD City Ottawa St. John C i t y T o r ont o St. John P e r Cent of Land Occupied by Bldgs. 12. 2 13.6 R a t e of S p r e a d P e r Cent R a t e of F i r e Load of Land

Lineal S p r e a d P e r Unit Bldg. P e r Unit F i r e

( f t / h r ) _{by Bldgs.} Occupied

-.

-

Average Length of Fir e F r o n t 1 , 9 5 0 ft 3 , 0 0 0 f t L i n e a l (ft/hr) 800 540 F i r e Load up t o 185 up t o 375 ~ o u s e s / 1 0 0 0 f t ~ r o n t a ~ e / h r 1 40 86 P e r Unit Bldg. A r e a 1b/sq Ft 64. 1 65. 5 P e r Unit F i r e A r e a 1b/sq Ft 7 . 8 8.93 I 125.5 109.2 74. 5 41. 6 59. 4 38. 0

Figure 2 Market Slip, St. John, N . B . Early 18701s, South Market wharf in background

F i g u r e 5 P r i n c e William S t r e e t n e a r i n t e r s e c t i o n with King S t r e e t M a r i t i m e Block in left foreground

L-

w

; d 4 r q b + .

-

->::

~

=- '*n

--

l a w

_-r

F i g u r e 6 Building which p r e v e n t e d f i r e f r o m s p r e a d i n g on n o r t h s i d e of King S t r e e t ( F r o m "The S t o r y of t h e G r e a t F i r e in St. John, N . B .

"

by G e o r g e S t e w a r t )

,,, . ' . . . \ 1; " ; - . ,: , . i -, e . . ,, , . . ,

tii;,,

, \.

,,ni*j.

;,

, ;.., i i j / l

li

; , : , I ' , , , .,:

',

.

, , I . ' . ,

F i g u r e 9 T r i n i t y Church

F i g u r e 1 1 V i c t o r i a H o t e l , c o r n e r Duke and G e r m a i n S t r e e t s

Figure 1 3 N e w P o s t Office

APPENDIX A

EARLY FLRE HISTORY

Saint John suffered m a n y d e s t r u c t i v e f i r e s p r i o r t o t h e conflagration that o c c u r r e d on 20 June 1877. Over the y e a r s e f f o r t s had been m a d e t o i m p r o v e t h e f i r e protection s e r v i c e s of the city, including t h e water supply. T h e f i r s t s e r i o u s f i r e r e c o r d e d o c c u r r e d on 18 June 1784 and destroyed 11 houses.

On t h e s a m e day seven h o u s e s w e r e destroyed a t t h e F a l l s and

a woman and child w e r e burnt t o death. Two y e a r s l a t e r on 2 F e b r u a r y 1786, t h e corporation p u r c h a s e d two f i r e engines for

f

136 6 s 8d. T h e s e engines p r e s u m a b l y proved ineffectual b e c a u s e in A p r i l 1787 a number of c i t i z e n s lent t h e corporation

284 13s 4d t o i m p o r t two f i r e engines f r o m London and t o s i n k a number of public wells. In 1823 a f i r e began on D i s b r o w l s Wharf that burned both s i d e s of P r i n c e William S t r e e t . During t h i s f i r e over 40 h o u s e s w e r e burned and t h e l o s s of p r o p e r t y and goods w a s in t h e o r d e r of 20,000.

On 13 J a n u a r y 1837, a f i r e originated around 9:00 p. m .

on P e t e r t s Wharf causing a l o s s e s t i m a t e d a t

f:

250,000. T h i s f i r e d e s t r o y e d both s i d e s of St. John o r Water S t r e e t and P r i n c e William S t r e e t between Cooper's Alley and P r i n c e s s S t r e e t ( F i g u r e A-1). It a l s o caused damage on Market S q u a r e , South M a r k e t Wharf, E a s t and West s i d e of Ward S t r e e t , the North and South s i d e s of P e t e r ' s Wharf, Johnston's W h a r f , Church S t r e e t and P r i n c e s s S t r e e t . Over 100 c o m m e r c i a l buildings and 115 h o u s e s w e r e destroyed in t h i s f i r e . During 1837 a water s y s t e m w a s initiated whereby water was brought by a s l u i c e

f r o m t h e t a i l of Gilbert's m i l l on Lily Lake t o a c i s t e r n southwest of M a r s h bridge. An engine and pump h o u s e w a s e r e c t e d over

t h e c i s t e r n and a s t e a m engine t h e r e pumped t h e w a t e r through a 10-in. m a i n t o a r e s e r v o i r on Block House Hill. In t h e following y e a r , a l i m i t e d piping s y s t e m for w a t e r in t h e c i t y w a s installed.

In August 1839, a f i r e t h a t s t a r t e d i n Nelson S t r e e t burned t h e e n t i r e n o r t h wharf, both s i d e s of Dock S t r e e t and M a r k e t S q u a r e . It did not c r o s s P r i n c e William S t r e e t . P r o p e r t y l o s s was e s t i m a t e d t o be 1 , 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 . In S e p t e m b e r of t h a t y e a r a n Act f o r t h e b e t t e r p r e v e n t i o n of f i r e s i n Saint John w a s p a s s e d . In 1841 t h e r e w e r e two s e r i o u s f i r e s . T h e f i r s t

o c c u r r e d on 26 August when a f i r e in s u b u r b a n P o r t l a n d d e s t r o y e d

60

h o u s e s and c a u s e d

E

3 0 , 0 0 0 damage. On 19 November a f i r e

b r o k e out on t h e South Wharf and b u r n e d not only t h e wharf but P e t e r ' s Wharf, t h e south s i d e of Water S t r e e t and t h e l a r g e b r i c k M a r k e t House in M a r k e t S q u a r e . On 29 J u l y a f i r e s t a r t e d in Water S t r e e t and d e s t r o y e d 40 buildings.

In 1849 two m o r e s e r i o u s f i r e s o c c u r r e d . On 27 F e b r u a r y a f i r e b r o k e out in L a w r e n c e ' s building on King S t r e e t , d e s t r o y i n g a n u m b e r of buildings among t h e m t h e C o m m e r c i a l Hotel. It w a s during t h i s f i r e t h a t t h e t o w e r of T r i n i t y C h u r c h w a s pulled down i n o r d e r t h a t t h e c h u r c h might b e saved. In t h e following month a n o t h e r s e r i o u s f i r e b u r n e d 100 h o u s e s . On 8 M a r c h 1877, a f i r e b r o k e out in a building on P r i n c e William S t r e e t owned b y t h e E n n i s and G a r d n e r e s t a t e . T h i s f i r e r e s u l t e d i n a l o s s of

s e v e n l i v e s and a p r o p e r t y l o s s of $2,000,000.

In 1850 a s m a l l d a m w a s built a t Scott's M i l l on L i t t l e R i v e r a n d a 12-in. m a i n 4; m i l e s long w a s l a i d and connected t o t h e

10 -in. m a i n i n s t a l l e d in 1837-1838. In 1855 t h e c i t y a s s u m e d

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e w a t e r supply, and a n u m b e r of c h a n g e s

was built higher and stronger and a 24-in. main was laid frorrl the r e s e r v o i r beside the 12 -in. main put down in 1850. These two mains w e r e connected t o an iron chamber f r o m which water flowed into the original 10 -in. main running up B r u s s e l s S t r e e t t o the r e s e r v o i r , a 12-in. main up Waterloo S t r e e t ,

a 12-in. main via the city road t o Portland and some other mains. In the Little River Reservoir the water is 160 ft above high tide level and in the Leinster Street Reservoir, 132 ft. In 1868 a new 12-in. main was laid up E r i n S t r e e t through St. P a t r i c k and Wentworth S t r e e t s t o P r i n c e s s . The 12-in. main laid up Waterloo S t r e e t was extended along Sydney t o P r i n c e s s S t r e e t s and the Portland main was a l s o extended. F o r the next nine y e a r s the s y s t e m continued t o be expanded a t a rapid rate.