UNITED NATIONS
M'Jj;I').W INSTITUTE FOR ECONOMIC DE
ELOPM~~T J4VD P1A)I~LNGDAKAR
E/CN.14/CAP.6 IDEP/ET/R/257 1
Nev..mber 1964 ENGLISH
Original:
F~~nohCONFERENCE OF AFRICAl! PLAl\f1;1I~1~Ji:R~S ~=;::::-1
f" DOCUMENTS
OFFICE
First Session
" .\ "tr
t 0 i' j'
Dakar, 16 - 27 November 1 64
NO TO BE TAKEN OUT~HE PLANNED DEVELOPMffiJT OF EDUCATION
by
No.urioc Dartigue
E/CN.14/CA.P.6 IDEP/ET/R/257 ,
THE FUNNEll DEVELOPMENT OF EDucATION
I -
.1.REVIEc, OF SOME ASPECTS OF THZ PROBLEM OF EllUC!l.TIONAL DEVELOPMENT The relation between educational development and economic
.l'roducti
'(Lte::.
Document E!CN.14!CAP.5 highlighted the important role played by
education in economic daVBlo~~G~t. But the very cQuhtries that are aiming
at economic progress in order to emerge from under-development are the ones that are short of educational facilities. In those countries there is limited access to education, either at all levels indiscriminately, or else from the secondary level onwards.
In Africa taken as a whole, the proportion of adults unable either to road or write is about 85%. The statistios relating to the year
1958-59 and, in some cases, to the years 1957-58 and 1959-60, show that the school attendance rate of children aged between 5 and 14 from 42 states and territories was less than
5~1oin 36 states and territories, less than 25%
in 23 of them, and less
th~10% in nine countries, the lowest recorded percentage being 3.3. For the same period the proportion of girls in the primary schools in relation to the total figure of boys enrolled, was less than 50% in 38 states and territories, less than 30% in 22 of them and less than 20% in five countries.
During the same period the school enrolment rate in all types of secondary schools in relation to the population aged between 16 and 19 was, with the exeption of Ghana, Mauritius, the United Arab Republic and Algeria (including the European population), less than 5%. In 19 countries this proportion varied from 0.1% to 1.4%. Comparing these data with the more or less equivalent figures for European oountries, we see that in the
~Iedi
t erranean countri es the
T;!'opo,,'".icnof young people pursuing regular "
studies was, in 1960-61, 12.3%. It was 20% in the countries of Northen Europe, 30% in France and Belgium, 48.6% in the USSR and 64.3% in the
UsA (1).
At the university level, the proportion of young people represented in the 20 to 24 age group who were enrolled in the African higher education
establishments was 0.3% arolli,d 1960, whereas in the Msditerranean countries it was 3.1% as
~gainst4.2% in France and in Benelux, 5% in the countries of Northen Europe, 8.2% in the USSR and 12% in the USA (2).
(1) OECD, Education and Economic and Social llevelopment, p.64-65.
(2) Ibid. p.65
E/cN •14/cAP.
6 IDE}I
BTlRI
257Page 2.
•
In Japan, tho percentage onrolment of compolscry school age popula- tion - that is, bctweon
6
and15 -
Wi2S 99.8i; in1961.
The percentage of compo Ls or-y schoel graJuates advancing to po st-ecornpo Ls or-y eJ.ucaticn,a , e. advancing._IrQr,i1 the 9th to the 10th year, H2B~ for the same po r-icd , 62j~'D It is truo that this ~orcentago .inc Luu.cd students in part-time upper-seconda.ry schools. The percentage cf s tu.Ionts of higher Ocluc3tion ago following GCUTSBS in highGr cduca'ti cn inotitutions 1-TaS
9.8%
(1).A comparison of the S0COnQary school d,na .university enrolment p~rcon
tages uith s orae cconorm c data points to t.h o conclusions summed up by
Professor Frodorick HARBISON in a study publ i.sncd in
1963
in the "Scienti- fic Amccrican", nameLy that there is a strong ccrrelation bo twcon acountry's cducnti ona.L dov e Lopmcnt ;J,wl its OC0110fllic productivity. Usin8 as an in ...icc,tol" of ed.ucational u..6v81opP.1ent th.u number of pupils enrolled
in SGC01Llary :~ichoo13 ana univer-ci ti.oe , he r ound. that for
75
countries thore is a cocZficiEmt of' correlation of 0.888 bot1feen oducational Lcvo L""el gross national proeluct per capita. Hmicvor, as he poin t.s out, eJuca- tion alODG is ~ot enough to assure a nation's prosperity. There are factors other than G~~c~tion which enter into a CouDtryl8 economic progress.
Th0T6f0ro on ; CCcllilOt say' that an investmont of Il.X" dollars in education will !--,rc,-,-uce C1. 'fly" result in economic gro\·,th. But i t is possiblo to pre- uict that a 1[011 ec.ucated and motivated poople will achisve a high Lov e.I of gro-;rth.
Tho grGi'J'ir:~.{,~.I:o.<~~~_~'enlentsof ~evolopmont T~,.0-_9.Q-...,~ducatiOD has to satisfy The C:LcvoloplTJent of an.lust ry , the mod e rui zati or; of agriculture under the imlH3tusxof s0ic.:ntific ancl tochnological _:;Jr.Ggress, and the grlJwing c ompi oxi. tylai~::"L p.rcf e s s Lona.L know Leugo on tho =::'>:'Tt of t.he mass .cf workors, In thee UJA, ,:,t'in the two Jec2,uos prior to
1960,
there W3,S a gain of three YSZ:'ors j_i'i 'C:10 amount of formal schooling that the ave r agc young Ameri can receivou,prior to ontering tl;iB..'lcdN,u;e',:markGt;a,
e. the average longth of eouoc La.ng of the labour force ven-t .up .fr-om a Lattleover Dln8 Y8ars tv ~ little over 12 years(3).
( 1) JapanIS GrcJ',;th ani EJ.ucat i on
1963, P. 59
J'apane s o I.Liliistry of Education,
national ~;Bnl1o\·'.Ter Council e E,lucation and Fial1power (~c:.it8d by Henry Davi.d.] Coll:i,ibii2 Univer-si ty l r-es s , New York
1960),
p,21-
22.Ix
ef the economy, require a gradual raising of the level ef generalE/CII. 14/CAP. 6 IDEP/Nr/R/257 Page 3
In Japan, the comparison of tho Qistribution of productive-age population (15-54 years of age in 1905 and 15-59 in 1960) by level of education completed gave the following results, (1)
Year Producti ve-age Not attended Completed Completed Completed population school· ..
,
elcmGntary-; f',8oondary higherod'.lc8-tion edhoation education only
(i" thdusands), ..
---
~---._--.,,---__t__
1905 24.370 13,960 10,150 210 50
1960 56,990 310 36,39 0 17,130 3,160
.tn
Italian study (2) nf manpnwer requirements prnjected over a period of fifte'" years (1960-75) was concerned to relate the needs of the growing oconomy r.--.lthe educa,tion system, In terms of the quantity and quality oftrained manpower likely to be required,
The ba3ic assumptions adopted and the. calculations made, such as the pr-epaz-ati on of projections r-f likely changes in the structure cf industry
"'hich wouLd involve a transformation 0f the oc cupaticria.L composition of the laoQuT.fnrce in the next few years - provided an indication 0f the needs of Gh~ econorr~ in terms of various kinds of skilled manpower.
A b r-oakdown of the educational levels of the labour force of that country in 1959 suggested that 9.5 millio'Js h8,d element8,ry educ8,tion, 1,600,000 had lowel (')1' f'c'st at-,,'e) DF'2:J::,::,'C"j e~·-.:c";ion, 1,200,000 had higher secondqry educ8-tion, 8-nd 500,000 haQ a university education. In the projections focr 1975 it ;,as estimated th8,t the group consisting of unskil- led lc-~1:':'~.lI';1'lcl1..;.d',,'bo'I:.JG::1.C,;rl ,tc- n.1."icll.lt 4;4.00yOOO, whi Le skilled workers Lnc Lud.i ng superviGory grades would increas8vo i1 mit Li.ons , the interme-
di~to levels to 4,500,000 and the m~n8-ge~ial and higher eche10n levels to 1,000,000,
The 8duc,~~tionoJ_ :~~]:::)l~_ca-cions (if the expooted ohangeo and the projec- tions made were, first, the setting up 0f an education system for all children between 6 and 15 yean; nld, and seoondly, a considerable expan- sion of education for young people between the ages 0f 15 and 19.
(1) Japan '2 Grolrth and 5dl
l c at i on , or;
oit.,
p")5~J(2) John Vaizey: Econoru cc of Educ ati on , Faber and Fabcr , 24 Russell Square9 London; D:?'9'(-99~
E/CN.14/C.iP.6 IDEP/ET/R/257 Page 4
In terms of years of schooling the comparison between 1959 and 1975 wo~ld be as follows'
Number.of years 1959 1975
of school per cent per cent
, (labour force) (lab0ur force)
5 85
8 10 25
10 48
13 3
1616 6
19 -
2 5100 100
The observations and comparisons whioh have been made ~o far have s hown the problem of educ.ational development mainly from the quanti ta- ti ve angle, although they do implicitly entail quali tati ve considera- tions. Bnt it should be stressed that the effects of education on eco- nomic development do not only depend en the number of sohools and on the
toGc.l figure of pupils and students enrolled. There is on the one hand the question of productivity of the educational system expressed as the proportion of students who have successfully completed the various school v coUrses pro,~ded for and, on the other hand, the nature and quality of the educational content which can be seen by the type of men and women which this education produces in relation to the civic, social, cultural and economic needs of the community to which they belong. That is the groat problem of school cur-r-Lcu.lcv and methods and their adaptation.
The total figures of s~hool enrolments at the primary ~~d interme- diate level do not constitute an indication, still less a proof of the efficiency of an educational system. There can be a school system with hundreds of thousands of pupils enrolled without that system having
aY0> marked effect on the cultural, economic and social development of
e. cou.rt ry0 '
E/CiJ.14/C.uo.6 IDEP/ET/R/257 Page 5
In the Congo (Leopoldville) for example, the statistics for the school year immediately prior to independence showed that the school enrolment figure in relation to the population aged between 5 and 14 years was about 70%. But although there were, in 1959-60, 1,443,337 ctudents in the official primary schools and the subsidized schools, 899,328 of them, or 62.3%, were in the first two years. Of those 899.328, only 313,696 or 34.9% were in the second year. Such a large drop-out rate constitutes a waste of money and human reSOurces. The problem of schcol drop-outs is not peculiar to the Congo, it exists in nearly all the other African countries to a greater or lesser extent.
The problem of adapting curricula and teaching methods is not simply a pedagogioal and cultural question. It also has a bearing on economic development. Among the roles played by education in economic development, two of them have a close relationship with the structure, the curricula and methods of teaching •. One cf these roles is to .supply skilled manpower and technicians at certain levels without which the physical capital
"ould be of no tlse. The second is to crec,te a "favorable climate for deve- lopment", for example by helping to change the attitudes and habits which constitute obstacles to eoonomic growth and by developing in t~e masses -the ability to think beyond their immediate concorns and needs.
In a st~dy on education and economic development, Professor Arthur Lewis, formerly Principal of the University College of the West Indies
and now Professor of Economics at Princeton University (US1), made the following comments , "Everybody knows that one of the reasons why poor countries are poor is that their people bring to industrial processes habitstfJndisoipline, irresponsibility and patronage whi ch are a hangcver from life to the farm. This is not peculiar to Africa or to Asia or to other new regions which are just beginning to industrialize ••• Much thaught has been given to adapting scbnol curricula to technical needs, but much less thought has been given to ho" the schools might be used
yO,
hel young eople to ac uire the attitudes which industrial life requires"0 1
O"ing to the constant progress made in the fields of science and technology, we can expect continuous changes in the economy. As Vaizey points out (2), in 1960 a child is being taught for a working life that will extend to 2010, and perhaps 2020. The number of completely new jobs and techniques that the average person is likely to need to assimilate ovcor his lifetime_"ill be large, and therefore the average person "ill have to be prepared to learn a great deal throughout his life. Education will not stop at 15 or 16. But the education which st cps at 15 or 16 will will have to be regarded as a base upon which new knOWledge can be impo- sed. So tho ~ajor task of education (seen in this light) is to prepare
peollle to le1.rn" and to prepare students to adapt themselves readily and rapidly to chc~ges. All this has serious implioations for the ourricula at various educational levelsQ
(1) ur!ESCO Final Report, Conferenoe ~f ~frican States on the development of education in .1frioa, Ad~dis Ababa. ANNEX IV, Education & Economic Deve- lopment, by '1•.'1., LEHIS, p.79.
Vaizey, op , ci t , p.122,
E/CN. 14/C.1P. 6 IDEP/ET/R/257 Page 6
In nearly all the African ccuntries the school curricula, particular- ly at the secondary level, are not ~nl~ static and tend to preserve the cultural status QUO, but they:are not suited to the present and immediat~
neGds of the countries concerned. In gener~l the stress has been laid on literary studies in a society in which the predomin~t need is for tech- nic01 ability. The Bonference of ~frican States on the development of
education in Africa (Addis Ababa 15-25 May 1961) oxamined the problem of the reform of the content of education in the ,lfrican countries. The repre- sentatives cf the countries concerned at this Ccnference agreed that "The need for this reform is generally recognized. The educaticnal systems L:
:COO.~:X;O T>Te.-:,e mod.ellGc.:::~ :J;Y and le:-.:-ge!l all those o:f the for-mer ro.ail:'OJ)oli tan countries. Moreover, even in the latter they freQuently require 6ver- h au.l i.rig , as they had O:::8n worked out long sinc e, They ar-e in line Deither with oY~sting African oonditions, nor with the pcstulate of political
indep~l1dence, nor yet "ith the dominant fe'1tures of an essentially tech- nological age or,0f -i:;he imperati vcs of balanced economic development in...
velving rapid indust"ialization. Based as they are on a non-Africg,n back- grcw1d, they a.lLow nc room for the African child's intelligence, powers of observation and cr8etive imagination to develop freely, nor do they help h.i rn to find his bcar-i ngs in the wor Ld"0 (1)
The problem of ad.apting curricula is not confined to primary and S8COnQ2.ry ed'uc ati on , ThG JT1ananari ve Con:ference on the Development of Higher Education in Africa (2) pointed out that, "in view of the fact that until recently education in Africa has been largely oriented
t01Tard.s the culture of foreign pooples, the ti.frican university must cor- rect this imb~lance by adapting the contont of both its teaching and re- soarch specifically towards ~frican problems ••• African higher education insti tutions must be closely involved in the general economic; social and cultural developement of the African society".
(1) Final Report, Conferenoe of African States, Addi s Ababa, p.38 (2) Unesco Report of the Conference on the Development of Higher
Zducation in lfrica (Tananarive 3 - t2 September 1962), p.12.
E/CIT. 14/C\P. 6 IDEP/ET/R/257 Page
7.
The rural school and development
The problem of rural education (using the term. in its ,~dest sense) is an aaute one in all under-developed countries. But here we are only considering one aspect of the complex system comprised by rural education, the rural school regarded separately from the whole of the ways and means of educating the rural masses and of im~roving their cultural, social and economic conditions.
Rural schooling is in many respects an aspect of the wider problem of the development of W1iversal primary education. It also reflects the most striking aspects 8f the problem of adapting the school curricula, the teac~ing methods and textbooks. It provides a striking illustration of the fact that the deve- lopment of education - if it is to be useful and effective - must be closely co-ordinaied with the various developcont programmes Ivithin th3 fr~mework of mutual depend.ence.
Rural schooling and education is of sp0cial importanc8 In vieN of the fact that the rural populations represent the vast majority of the inhabitants of the under-developed countries. This majority includes almost all the illi- terate people in those countries, the economy of which is primarily agricu.ltu- ralo The development of rural education raises even more problems than that of urban primary education. Because of the low cultural standard of the population -the result of the illiteracy in porticular - it is often necessqry in some
areas to h~ve recourse to te~chers f~om other localities9 who are frequently reluctant to go to the rural az-eas vh e r e the living conditiona are less con- L;rtable and attractive than those 'to 'lhich thay are in gencral accustomed.
~r;orec)ver, in regions ,Ihere the lingtJ.istic areas are very Gl11.all and there is s ometi mcs a g-reat p r-of'us i.on of di e.Loctc , i t is not always eas3" tJ find in ever-y- case teachers '..vith a kno:-rlecLS8 of the 100'11 dialects" Th e r-e there is a di vorsi t;y of dialects in a relati vo Iy amall ?orca; this can create ad di ti ona.I probleoo wii;h regard to school t oxtbooks , if there is ne lL1gua franca cr no European language used as a medium of instruction" On tho cthoT hand the use of a European language poses seri;;us pr-ob l orcs0 ,\CLd8Cl to 2,11 this is the fact that in many countries the teachers have .inad equat e c La.s si c a.l and prnfessi:Jnal training and there is a shortage of textb·')oks9 furniture and equipn:ent in
'''',eral. ;,iost of the premises az-o usually unsui table even if thGY are not
E/Clf.14/CiI.P.6 IDEP/ET/R/257 Page 8
in bad condition. But the most serious shortcoming, from the cultural and economic standpoint, is the unsuitability of the curricula and textbooks.
Mention should also be made 0f the fact that in some areas the rural school comes up against the indifference of the population; in other cases there are prejudices on the part of certain local xeaders;
still~ihothers the attitude of the population is somewhat suspicious of the effects of education or the influence of the school on the young people it is educa- ting.
The mediocre results of the education given in tural schools and the difficulties of organizing and supervising a sound educational system in the areas served by these schools, added to the competition of urban centers for the allocation of public and private funds, mean that the rural areas usual-
ly o:uy "eceive a very small proportion of the budget expenditure on educa- tion, and hence are not in a position to contribute decisively to the social, economic and political progress of the national entity to which they belong.
Again, the rural school suffers from certain mistaken ideas which are held about it in certain national circles. Its usefulness is questioned and it is accused of aocelerating, or even of oausing, the migration to towns where an unemployed proletariat is steadily increasing. It is perfeotly true that the rural school as at present organized in the under-developed coun- tries, with its abstract and unsuitable curricula and methods, and with tea- chers whose training is not adapted to the task they ought to be assuming, is not producing the results expected; this is not surprising. But to say that the school as an institution has an adverse effect aLa is a cause of the migration to towns is to make a too hasty judgoment. Doubtle; s the present cur- ricula do not help to reverse the trend to
migrati~nand even may contribute to it to some extent, but the rural migration to towns are the result of so- cial and economic factors over which the school, taken in isolation, has practically no direct control.
The fact is that, in most cases, the rural school as it operates at
present prepares its pupils for an environment different from that of the
E/CN •14/CAP/ 6
ID?F/ET,IR/257
P"ioge
9
oountryside. The reading matt0r and other teaching materials arC at best
!'Toak adaptations TIhen t.h oy are not mere tr-ar s l ati ons of material clestined for an entirely different setting. The examples p~oposod to illustrate the lessons are quito often taken from situations or practices current in a setting unknown to the rural dweller. Professor Dumont has cited tho case
•
of a region of Madagascar whero the children ourrently practise tho for- tilization of the vanilla tree at homo, ;-ThOTG2,S -the e ch.o o L books 't h oy use only describe the reproductive organs of tl18 chestnut fIm-JeI', a tree un- known to the Island (1). 'I'he r e is a gulf bot,.,een tho realities of rural life as the pupil knows it and this alien world into which he is introduced in an abstro,ct fe-shion by the school t03ching. How could he use the knowlodgo acqui r-ed at school to exert an influence on his envi r-onment , wh en this kno,'l- lodg8y instead of Deing related to that onvironment, tends rather to divor~e
him from it? Consequently, i f tho education recai ved prepared th8. ycung r-ur-e.L cbTeller to S00~C an office .jcb 3.1fay from his environment instead of {;i ..ring him the; trainL:1g and mati vat i on required for aj)plying to the improvement of that environment new knowl odge and new skills acqui r-cd at s c h ooL, i t is natura.l that he should try to make a living elsmrhorG,
Bcs
i d as ,a.s
the report of the1961
Addis Ababa Confc-renoG(2)
pointed cutSl although tho subject matter tau§;"ht i:tl :9riil1ary schools is obvi.c usLy ir.rgor- tant, the problom would Gxist OVGn if all rural schools taught exactly theskills need od .in rural ar-cas , 'I'h o real pr~)b18n is that an;"l g:Jod p ri mary school "',·r ifilllfiden ohildron's horizons beyond what C20n be satisfiod by the economy of thr2e-acre-and-a-ho8" Th8 school Leaver- eXJ)(;cts <:'~ higher standard of .lLvj_l1g
th~n his farmoT r~th0rSl ~ better house, pure w3ter ~ld e~sy accuss to modical and other public 8iJT"vices~ He can tarclJy be c.z:pocted to respect the back-brea- king ,effo:ntB~ tri.th TI1o,'J..gre output yi o.l s Sl »hi ch are f'o r c ed upon his father
through lack, aF,ong o th ez- things, of modern oqui pmarrt , So, when the primary schools turn out large nuniliers ~ho are expectod tn accomodate themsolves to a threc-acrcs-G~d-a-hoG civilizetion, what eml be expected but frustration and Gxasperaticn ?
(1)
Rene Dumont, L'Afrique Noire ost mal partie,p.73.
Editions du Seuil, Paris ..'')) Op. cit"p. 11
E/CN. 14/CAP. 6 IDEP/ET/R/257"
Page 10
Rere we touoh upon another aspeot of the mistaken idea held by many people as to the possibilities of the rural sohool. They expeot the rural sohool to transform the environment whioh it serves, to teaoh boys aged between 6 and
12farming methods and techniques
~dto spread them in the oommunity. This sometimes means that the sohool garden beoomes a place where forced labour, of no significance to the pupils, is carried on. In fact it is entirely erroneous to believe that the rural school, working in isolation, can transform, by itself and in
arelatively short time, age- old social and econcmic ccnditicns, when no serious effort is made in
cther quarters tc encourage this transformation. The peasant
mu~tbe super- vised, aided and encouraged to change his environment by such means as water supply, drainage, natural and artificial fertilizers, soil conserva- tion, the improvement of cattle-breeding, fish breeding, rural credit systems, marketing of produoe, health clinics, the improvement of communi- cations, the organisation of leisure, etc ••• , all this within the context of oonoerted aotion programmes suoh as those oonduoted by oommunity deve- lopment. The renovated rural school, with teachers having adequate training, would co-ordinate somo of its activities with thmee of the community deve- lopment movement, in which it would be participating.
2.- lJEEDS FOR A STRATEGY.
The solution to the problems raised by the development of education in the context of economic development depends on the financial and human re- souroes
av~ilableand on their wise use.
While education as a factcr in economic development must meet the
growing needs of economy, eduoation in its turn has to be supplied by the
eoonomy with increasing financial resources for its expansion. The irdus-
trially developed countries devote a large proportion of their incomes to
education.
E/CH • 14/CAP. 6
IU;;F/E'l/R/257
Pago 11
The following table 8ho10[8 the pc r'c entag e of nati onrL and. Loc a.L public cxpendi tura .le v otcd to cduc.i~,ion in a number of thuso c oun t.r i.c s (1).
Country
Year %
of total publicexp endi tures sj.ent on euucation
%-~f-totdl civil oxpenditures spent on (:'~~llcCLtion
(a) - - - . , . - , - - -
--~---,--USA
1957
USSR 1')60
U.K. 1955'
German Fed. Repub.,
1957
Japan
Prance
1960
1557
21.4
14.514. 1
11
.8
24.3 16.3 16.2
14.4
---=--- -- - - - 14.9
(a) except 101' mili tar;y o.xp cn di,tures ..
It is .nupoe s i.b l.e to c ompa.re , in absulute va Lu e , tho Gxpendi ture devotecl to eiucation by the eC0110mically developed ccuntr i as 2X1U by the African countri ec , Hcwevor-, most of tht: latter countrios .lovo to a very high pro- p o rti._,n of their public o:;':JJendi turo to education.
In pruportiun LO tho Low level of their incomes? 801118 of these cQuntriGs are making a gruatcr uffort
tv
expand thoir c~ucation systemthan the a.n.lu s trially l:cvelopol countries, although In absolute figures their cx pcn.Li tur€' on 8cLccation cannot be cC'Epared to th2,t of Lho \LevelopeJ. count.r-i es ,
'I'ho table shoun bol cvr gives the percentage of pub.li.c expenditure a.L'Loc at od to c.ducet i or: in Q Dumber of African coun-t.r-d c.s (in 1962) (2).
- - - ---- ---
-- - - -
AWB1UA
UGjll~DA JAHOEEY
GUINEA
TAN GfJ'IYlKA27.5 27.(J 21.9
20.6
20.6
G>TlU,!A EUH0CCO
TUGU
Jdj::i'YA
IVOHY Vv,.AST
18.1 18.1
17 .6 17 .4 16.17
SI2RHA L.00NiJ
SUDAlI Sc.:.:l'l:.GAL CH.IJ)
KALI
15.7 14.3 12.7 12.2
11.2 (1) Japan's Growth c.,nu. :";;Jucation, o~cito, po 111
(2) Ul'iJ"SCO/AFklN/5, 10 l'c1.nuc.ry1964.
E/
cr, 14/
CAP. 6IilEP/ET/H/257
Pagc 12
The fact thc,t cducation, ',llila baing a factor in economic ("_cveloprnont, de- p cnds for its full expansion Oil :financial resources whi cn can only be obtained
.itll a .ccrt2"in level of oconcr.n o l"'...ovel.Qpm8nt, creates a vicious circle~ End.e ed , t.h c ecluc2. tic-nal needs in the ,"l1::':Lcr-devcloped ... ourrt ri c s are gro2. tly in excess of the rv.ii Lab l e 2ccnornic and fitl21nci.q,l r-cs our-c oe , The cxpanui on of education i.s alse e Lowed do;vn in the inlmc~liC'_tc ~'uture by the shortage of Luman resources, for oduucation is o-n unde r t.aki ug -:hich 11808 a considerable amount of specialized rnan- PO'1i(:T. bV8D if a poor countr-. I!laD3ged to obtain enough I incnoi a I resources for its BeLucational no e d.s9 i t \.Ioull~ not have thl; pez-acnnc I .r-o uired to Lrr.p Leme rrt
the -..Lovelopment programme .ihi oh -tho ci r-curnstaric e a called for, vri rh out resorting to a large-scale importation o.. foreign p er-sonnel tG tcaoh in ''ehe primary and sGconclar;y schools and in i t.s hiL~)lcr- education .iristi tutions ') not to speak of a large numbe r of sp'2cialists ~',nlt a(lrr:inistrv,tors to help i t to set up a system of admi ni e t.r-ati.c n anu inspectiun of its school r o twcrk .. Even if it ha.d the r.leCes;3ary financial resources availo'blc ':'-.l1CL i:lanagoCi to obtain the personnel re ui r-ed from abroad wi thout u-clay, its ecoi10E1Y trou Ld not be able to absorb the skilled \-iorkersJ the office staff5 the technici;::~J.1S i-:ncL senior grades who could thus be trained
~:'ithaut implementing at t.he saL10 ·ClIl18 a programme of oooriomio clevelopmentl' This programme »ouLd i t.s e l.f have to to.,ke .into account t.he time r-cqui r-cd for the
training of ak.i Ll ed rdanpo'.,rer" I t t.ak.e s
6
years f Jr a child to complete his primary" studies, 12 to 13 y car-s "GO finish his secondary studios') 15 to 16 yearsto become e.n engineer') c-,xHl 2,Dout 18 to 19 years to reach tho senior grade level') not counting tho pe ri.c d. of 2..ftc.n'-school exper-aonc o needed to -'!)(Jcorne a really
~ualifie~ sl,ecialist or profo3sicnal worker capable of assvming certain respon- sib :_li ties ..
In order to break the vicious cir- cle of e:ciucational unQ8r-dev
lopment') the
countries concerned must adopt astratogy of oducati cn.,'! c18\':..c;J-.o).JE~oEJ? one that fits in, fF.£.,_tJ"~~.2-"_e_~?_onswe have jliSt
S8';':'D, li:ri th a 1vic?-.?r strategy.y.:J:~5:,?..::nolllic Cln,j, SOCi2,1 devG~.?_P!l1_c,n_~__ of it!hich education beCOHiE:;;S one of the :most im~.ort(:.. nt sectors.
Stra tOg;Y9 in the militor:;: field') ac c oz-u i.ng to 2, Briti ch historian and
writ~r9 is the art 01 allocatin0 D~ilitar~ mcal18 fer the pur~osc of obta~ning po- litical en~s. Hcnc89 in or~er to bre~k through the vicious circle ui under- devolopment in educ ata..n9 w"e Deed tu clefin8 ano. prepare a s cr ic s of Dl...;aSUrl:S
which will ensure the best ros3iT)lo use of the; avai Lab l o financial and. human r-e s cur- CDS in crJ8T to obtain decisivo results. Within this strato0y priority will
E/CN.14/ CAP.6 IDEP/ET/R/257 Page 13
to those meo.sur-e s t.hat neve the most ciirect effect on the increase of the national income, so OvS to have the E,oans sube ecuent.Ly -\:'0 ac.h Leve certain important targets ,Iithout s::"crificing o th-.r s , or again to stress those a spec t.s of o.iucati or c;;,ich are likely to have a muLtil,liur E,ffect on the I;rogress of education. It 6088 withaut sa;y ing that2·_}_ll~~der to to appliorl
succ8si::>ful~Yi this< s_t_~.c~.t.
.e_&:y_
must be an integral j:"'_~:L_?i~~- sinc2re and vi- gore-us §,0~8rnmGnt p..?~~i~c.Y-2 Gnu. tnat tho imp18ment~~t}-Y~rl__.9=L _the measures 10- valved Tee uires th8_,_S_0_-G_t_i}1.~ up anJ. operaticn of a cOli:pGtent aD0. sfficient administration.The instr;_,rr,ent of this strategy ia a plan in uhich the various measures p.rc po s e.I arb integr2_.toJ. 2"nd. p l ac o., in order of l-,riority}' vrhi.Le a.Ll.cv.i.ng suffici'-nt flexibilic; in its tactical application to Hcet any situation c.c d any uncxj.cct od cor:tingencies that might a r i s e ,
3.- OBJEOTIViCS, OOF'rENT,ANTI E.THODS OF EDUOAcrIOlTAL PLAFlITlTG
In thG final report of the Gonf8rE)nce 81' Afrloan St0tes on the Deve- lopment of :S·il,cation in Africa, n c l d in AdJis Ababa in I':ay 1961, educational planning iS~8fin0d in the f'ollowing terms:
"P'l ann i.ng of education is concerned. both .: itil govornmental and priva te ac tivit i os in oT'ler t.c. hav o adequa to cduc a tion by ste~gc3 and 1i~ithin Jefineu goals, offering eac;' in .ividual a b0tter chance to realize his potentiali- t i e.s a.nd to ma.ko his mort of'f'ootiv e contribution to tho country's social
"Planning of c;cluc<:1-~iGn thus conceived sh oul d be overall:'
:;h:,~t c.lucatiori is a f'undarrenta.L arid inseparable Gspect of socioty 2..ncL Lr.a .vuLtural an.; economic act ivi tios;
(b) in vi ov of tl12 J.:2,ct that tho J.ifforl;nt l~v\jls oi education ohuulcl c c n sti.t.ut o a w811-intc.LTc..tcd. an"," ha.r-mcni c.u s systom ,-_:2,l)tl,ble of effectively serving thd unit~l of ·chu cduca tional jr'c c es s 5 a.nd.
(0) because v1 t!-:'.Q l"loccl of co-or'..l.inatine; adiaini s t.r'at i.on and finance in G-:cJ..er to Ensure tllO Gflcctivcnoss and. 5fficicncy of th-e educational service"",,"
J!JjCN • 14/CAF. 6
LJb"~/BT/H/257Fage 14
"In a it;orlu of liEli-'ccd. financial r-e sour-ccs ,.:lith many competing no ed.s , education must take its )lace in Lh c gODLrc:.-l pro{sraulTIo of social an.l economic development.. Ccns equc.rtLy9 e du cati onal JevolOi.lIT.Ont p l a n s should bo made for each coun t.ry acco::"~lLiag to its socia-ecunomic r-oa l i tiivS an.: the goals
it tries to attain" (1)
In this definition HO fin~ the basic elemGnts cOllcorYlinb thE objectives, tho c ontcnt and tho n~(;tllods of e,iucational pI ann i.ng , Pirstly9 the achie- vement of the funcL2,I!lGil-:~C'!'l and general o bj ecti.vcs 01- o.luc ati cn 9 including the direct contribution Ll2lle by ouucati on to C00110lilic CTO\.'Tthj secondly the principle
or
the intoT're13.tion be twe eri education on the ana hand and cocnomic uns social ~uvolOfment on the ether hQ~i; thirQly~ the noed to c o-eo r.Li na te the aJminictr'::-'.tion and the f inane ietl resoureus so as to gotthii1t'-s~~cne9 since cclucat a on must La planned realis·i;icalJ.-y vi.thi n th,s l i - mi-Ls ~f the availablo ~e30urc0s~ ani fourthlY9 the need - which staniS from
the [::(;G~'nLi l_~oint - 'tc ii1"togrs,t,,-, c.Iuonti onn.I (L8volopl,H:mt intv overall planning.
l - L a n ni ng a v oi.ts ,\'-1 u r i b aLe.nco d or inconsistent . l c v oL o p m e nt 01' cciuca- t ion , It nc Lps tc rai niuiz o thiO:~ "wa.s ta&t"1'20tor (hUmiJJ1 ~-~(~l financial)
by Gstablishiu6 foroc~~·tG of future no~~s an~ by ~~oposing the fr~D0work i\_,rI1,J.,-ti(;nc:~1 action iTi. orcl8T tc heot these n00Qs. _By ~j_inkillg eJ.ucational do-vclopmuut " i1,11 t.ho :r\TCl.~llll c.ev c Lopmont J,rogrammo, it makes it J)ossible to a i L oc a t« e n o u g h f U : ' l d . s t o e u u c atio n within t h e c o n to xt o f t h e o u jc ct iv e s
of the overall Qovelopment plan, and minimizes the risks of shortage or superabundance of labour •
.Guucational IJlccl1ilin:j lS not an inJ.cpcnd8ut GCiCi.1Ce like ma th craat i.c s , for cxampLo , But :~, ,=:Ci;';YiCG of l'lanning is devGloliil1C:., "Ll:.o sense that i t borrows d2ta~ priuciplu8 ~DJ mstho~s frOIG oth0T more or loss independent disciplines such as Ic s , compar-a.tivc e Iucati.c n , ec or.crm c e ,
soci o l ogy , adrni n i.strc.i.Lor, , etati sti c s and public I'Lnanco , In this field
th8rt~ :'8 an aU':'llogy ·:);;,,~,-(;ccn the planniLg of 8ducatLon -.nd cducat ion i t ao lf ,
~·!hC:l,t'} for .in st.anc o , c .. , mean trncn lI8' e ay th2t there is a science
(1) Op, cit., Chccp. V, I}. 35.
E/ CIl. 1
4/
CAP.•6nEP/ET/R/257
of cduc ati.ori? Ac c o r di n.;
'co
John Dowey 1 0ducat.ion as a s~"Hjcific opera t.Lon is 3D art9 but thero is a system of' j)rinciples, derivq~ fr orn cthe rr e I a ted ac i.onc cs , which make this c pe r ation more rat i onc.L, more in telli- gGut and mcre efficient.. This s.}'stom of principles, as r.ica.ne ani.l
methotis apj.La cd to t.h a specific opere"tieD ani making i t no r e rational ami
t·,'··
cf'fi ci cnt , 00Dstitutes tho SC,ie:DC8 of education ,
Dewey fro~u~ntly com~arGs 8Qucation with civil enginoering; somo- t i nios h8 even calls eclUGi"ticn !l social engirieering1t• Ho says that there is a ac i.cncc of brLlge-builc;.inS in the s en s c t.h..t thero irJ a Dolly of in~
d<;"';rGnd0.A~t sci8ntific subj;:;cts, - matbemati'cs c;.,na liKohanics from wh'lch we
~:&'ri"bb-;row, and. t.ho cubjcct mat t e r s thus bcrrm4eu aro GC' organized as to
o bfa i.n in pr-acti.c o a bore cff'oct iv o svlution for t.ho lifficul ties E1riU. obs- tacles t.hat ari s o in tho actua.L bu i.Ldi.ng of bridges. It is the tray in vrhi ch those s t.bj ec s s 21'0 "\1'0(:1tell ~'.nt1 c r'g ani z ed for tho purposos rel-:.~uirea.whi ch
;'LllO~vls u., to sp0ak of ,;-l 5cici,C;; of bridge-building1 although 'bridge- COl:lS-
tr-u.,ti cn .it s e Lf is an L~rt ;~~-,d. not a science. J\iochallics end. raat.hcrna tics are in th~[[18Glves h'hat thGj ~,~rc9 but they arB not sciences of b r i.uge-ebu i.Ld.i ng , They b"olme that Hhen p"rts of them ar-c borro,.ed. and applioJ. to probl~ms
which ariso in the art o, building brillges (1).
'I'he SaniG r82.sonins C2,D be al~plied to euueational pl ann i.ng , None of thE: -ab0vB...;mtC..nticn8~.i._"scirlinGs to wh i.ch c.Iuc at ionaL pl2.nning has r-cccur-sc , oOlisi',iG:reJ. by i t.so l f 9 can bo iclontified as a s ci cuc e of oCLucational plan- ning. Bu-t cac h Cih2 eupp l Lc s contributions to oduoati ono.I planning to help ccLvo the fI'oblGL1S wh i.ch CLri;e,;c in tho practice of this of activi 'ty ,
Of o0ursu, the; cci onco of 8clueational planning is just developing, i t has notyets, ttainocL full rna turit.y , rr'h8re arc many 1:~uGstions to which
aDGW8.rs must be found. by studic..:s c1.ncL resoarch9 wh i.ch Lnvol v« for example SOLlG 01 Lho s c <u;";Gtions are: hoy; c an vro establish an e f'fecti.v o relationship lJct,!oen the structure ancl cont on; of eJ.ucation and. tho neeJs of ~conomic 2,11,;, s oci r.L J.evelopmbnt? Vhat if.) the level of In- vestment to be maue in ouuc.iti on? '\!That is the optimum rol,_,tion bctwocn .( 1) .r:',l..lotCQ by Ou 'I'aui, Chen, La ductrine pedagogi'lio c;.c John Dewey,
L'i br-airi « Ph i.Lo s ophi vuc , J. Vrin, Paris, 1
'i58.
E/CN. 14/CfI.P. 6 IDEP/ET/R/257 Page 16
the difficult levels and sectors of the educational system? How can educational productivity be improved? How is education to be financed? What are the returns on investment in education? (1)
4. - NATURE OF THE OBJECTIVES AND METHODS OF QO..OlllllNATION Nature of the objectives,
According to Debeauvais (2) we must distinguish between the different kinds cf objectives which sometimes tend to be ccnfused if they are
regarded as a field reserved for experts. The planning of education in fact inoludes technical aspects, but it is primarily the instrument of an educa- tional policy. The planning technicians merely translate political choices into detailed targets. Educationists also have an essential part to play in connection with setting the pedagogical norms and
~orking.out reforms in the methods, the curricula apd the structure of education.
We
m~therefore distinguish between the political objectives, the technical objectives and the pedagcgical objectives. All are of course
closely interrelated: the.political choices have to be prepared by planners, who demonstrate the long-term implications of the choices and the possible priorities and alternative solutions. The Ministry of
~inancealso comes in, in connection with the determination of the finanoial resources allocated to the education plan, since planning must be based on
~analysis of what is possible and what is desirable.
The setting of detailed objectives is mainly a matter for educators, particularly as regards the qualitative objectives (productivity, reforms).
The pedagogical norms and reforms fixed by the educators must take into account the available resourceS and the"constraints'" estimated by the tech- nicians as well as the priorities decided upon at the political level.
(1) UNESCO: AD/AS/6, Jan. 1964, Section 4, p.13.
(2) Debeauvais Michel: La determination des objectifs dans la planification regionale : Institut d'Etudes et de Developpement Economique et
Social, Universite de Paris.
E!CN.14!C,'l.P.6 IDEP!ET!R!257 Page 17
Methods of
co-ordinatin~1~cationalplanning with development
plarming.No planning and programming, since they involve evaluating the effects of al ternati ve types of action, can be effective unless the aims to be aohieved are clear. Unfortunately, the educational objectives are not al-
¥~'s
as well defined as some of the other objectives of development poli- cy, and governments; educators and civic leaders need in many countries to make a more precise formulation of educational aims. Before planning as
OJ,
technical operat'ion starts, the socio-economic and cultural goals should
be set irt'a normative sense.As rOGa:!:'as rlq.nninB' te0h:1.2Q.UGS;; a Un:::sco study
(1)
::'3::J,t::O::S s evez-a.Ldifferont methods and techniques used or re6oIiomended
b~'',-",C'leus,'specialists to co-ordinate educational
planni~gwith development planning. It notes that several of these methods are usually used in conjunction.
One of these methods is that known as the "manpower requirements
approaoh". it is based on the fact that the most direct and obvious contri- bution of education to economic development is through the skills it pro- duces in the labour force. This method attempts to forecast the occupational structure of the eccnomy and to plan the educational system in such a way that it plovides qualified people in the right numbers and places.
B~tthis methods has its limitations. Some of these
li~itationsare inherent in the approach itself. First, manpower forecasts can seldom be made reliably beyond a period of five to eight years. Secondly, the occupational skills required ohange with technical progress and the rise in general educational
standards. Moreover, the occupational needs of the economy do not representthe whole ot:
society~sneeds for education, and the objectives of education cannot be obtained as "by-products" of vocational training.
Another approach is what may be called, according to the Unesco study, the "social approach". In this we take the needs of different educational levels,and we make forecasts on the basis of popuLa
tion increase, age
(1) Unosco, 1J.D!llS!6, January 1964', Education and Devo.Lopmcnc by H.M.Phillips.
Seqtion V, p.18-19
, •.... -
E/CN.14/CAP.6 IDEP/ET/R/257 Page 18
age distribution, long-term national and social goals '(inarticulate or defined) and on'the basis of what is known about state and "consumer" pre- ferenoes for education. Among such goals and preferences are universal literacy, universal compulsory primary education, and culDural objectives.
The stress is upon education as social infrastructure for development, . purposes, and as an end in i tselL (1)
This method corresponds to some extent to one which is called in another study, for
Luckof a more appropriate term, the'!01:1tnrlll.1!"
approach (2). It involves
t~ecalculation, in units that are difficult to ,define, of the "quanti ty" of education necessary to the country, without
trying to specify whether this necessity isdic}"t.ated by the desire to
promote individuak self-fulfilment, or citizenship, equality of opportunity, a more rapid economic growth, social and political stability, or
anyother goal for which education may be the means.
The sooial or oultural approaoh is less precise than the first-men- tioned (the manpower requirements approach) when the purpose is to provide a frame of reference for the formulation of certain quantitative targets corresponding to employment needs and opportunities. But it enables us to take into account the qualitative needs which are so important for the countries that are trying to emerge from nnder-development, for example the need'in Africa to stimulate the development of an African culture, the awa- kening of citizenship and national consciousness as opposed to exolusive tribal loyalties and the development of personal initiative and of the qualities that qre conducive to innovation.
same time
Ii.judicious planning ought to use both these approaches at the/" since neither is logically sufficient in itself. The soci&l or cultural approach is neQQ8sary beoause economic growth is not the only goal of sQcieties and no one would hold that the sole function of education is to contribute to it. Conversely, manpower requirements cannot be disregarded, since, how- ever the social role of education is interpreted, it has occupational re-
percussions.(1) Unesco, AD/AS/6, January 1964, Op. cit. p.18
(2) OZCD, Besoirn scolaires et d eve
Loppernen teconomique et social
i'p. 15- 16
E/CN. 14/C'l.P. 6 IDEP/ET/R/257 Page 19
The formulation of an educational development plan can only usefully be started once the first results of all types of preliminary studies (sta- tistical, pedagogical, sociological, etc.) are available. The studies must be pu~sued concurrently with the planning work. As regards the sequence of operations, Phillips, in the Unesco study already mentioned (1), indicated thirteen principal points to be taken into account in attempts to plan education in relation to overall development. These thirteen points corres- pond to some extent to different stages of planning and may be summed up as follows ,
1/- Projections have to be made of the future size and demogaphic struc- ture of the population for a period of fifteen to twenty years. If possible the school and university age groups should be shown on a year by year basis.
2/- On the basis of the data thus obtained, a social minimum demand for education may be postulated. This minimum may be taken as compulsory schoo- ling for every child for a certain number of years; or it may be, in a very poor country, some more modest tarco3. The minimum objective, whatever it may may be, will need to have a target date set to it for its achievement.
3/- The next requirement is to obtain the long-term plan or the best possible long-term projections of the 'economy by sectors and sub-seotors.
A period of fifteen to twenty years should be envisaged. Failing detailed projections, some future profile of the eoonomy will have to be assumed.
4/- The levels of activity emerging from this study will then have to be analyzed in order to c~lculate.themanpower requirements which flow from them.
5/-
The occupational data so obtained need to be translated into their educational component.(1) Unesco, AD/AS/6, Op. cit. p.24-30.
E/CN.14/ CAP.6
IDEP/ET/R/257 Page 20
fo;regoing
6/- Tre;analysis will thus have produced estimates of the sooial mini- mum d ernand plus the vooational training requirements over the planning period. It is now neoessary to aQd additional needs not hitherto taken into aooount, inoluding adult eduoation and literaoy oampaigns.
7/-
The quantitative ohanges required at the different eduoational levels to meet the estimated demand have now to be assessed. This involves translating the total eduoational demand into the outputs required from the difi'erent levels of the eduoational system. Those outputs have tbsl:l to be provided for by enrolment inputs, taking into aooount antioipated rates of wast age and dropout, and rates of movement between eduoational levels. A time period has then to be allotted to 8eouring the expansion of the eduoa- tional system needed to absorb these inputs. This period depends on the logistios of the eduoational prooess, that is the time periods required to train teaohers, to build schools, and for the pupils to move through the various levels. Out of this analysis there should emerge one or more pro- jeoted pyramids. of educational expansion with time sohedules attached to thew.oS/-,mile these pyramids will oonstitute tho broaQ basis for the overall planning of the education in terms of numbers af pupils at the different levels, and So indioate the number of primary, secondary and university
plaoea need~d, detailed assessment is required of the relative impor- tance of different subjeots at each level or the qualitative ohanges re- quired. (Some subjects of stUdy will require speoial physioal equipment and varied training periods). The choices made in this field will affeot the subsequent cost estimates.
9/-
Other qualitative aspects to be assessed at this stage are' the degree of efficiency to be expected from the eduoational system in the pedagogic and sooial environment , whether the oontent of ourricula and selection criteria for the different eduoational levels are effective, eto ,E/CN.14/CAP.6 IDEP/ET/R/257
P~e
21.
10/- The oomparative cost and efficiency of .alternative techniques of teaching and
teach~rtraining methods to produoe the same output has
then to be studied. The techniques of teaching chosen and the number of teaohers per class will influence the amount of teacher training
required and the amount of mechanical equipment needed. The unit costs of different types of educational facilities as well as the cost of all the changes - both quantitative and qualitative - which have emerged as necessary for education, will need to be assessed.
11/- These costs have now to be studied in terms of the availability of future resources, and their competition with other expenditure required for the development plan.
12/- At this point arises the most difficult problem of all. It involves the reconciliation of the education programme with the overall development programme. This reconciliation requires that ,
a) the education programme is not so high in real cost as to be incon- sistent with the achievement of other targets in the development programme;
b) the physical capacity of the "education industry" is such that all the education requirements of the overall development programme can be
met.13/- Given an adequate pattern of development with regard to
teaching facilities, the next stage is to study the incentives or othermeasures required to
~lidepupils into those particular studies, and school leavers into those occupations, including questions of the wage structure and prestige of the different occupations. Students' and
parents' preferences have to be foreseen and guided. The actual and pos-
sible flows betwoen thG different educational lovels and sectors havG
also to be studied, having regard to pedagogical standards and seloction
criteria at present in operation or deisred.
E/CN.14/CAP/8
IDEP/BT/R/257Page 22 6. PROBLEMS OF ORGANIZATION AND IMl'LEMENT.A.TION
Institutional organization
n We have seen that, if the educational "evelol,ment plan is to be amp l euonced and to give the results anticipated, it must be all integral c.omj.onent of government po l i cy , The res:poDsibili-cy ~'or educational planning must be assumed by
the Government as a who Le , all the more sv because this }Jlanning is to be carriel out within the context of overall development.
Nevertheless i t is the l7inister of Education i.ho has, within the Government~ Sl:.-,ocial r'e apon s i.biLaty for the planning and expansion of education.
']ihis activity is a collective en.leavour _ not only because of its .interLiscipl i nar-y ua ture (collaboratiun bet1~een educators, sociolo 6ists/ e~onornists, manpower specialiats, statisticians, etc •.•Q) 7 but also bevCluse the NlinistrJ of B"Lucation f're,-_uentl.Y shares tile T80j,ioilsi'uility for education 'hith other Ministries which are in Jlc"I'be of training activities, an.I «ith yrivate or semi-priv -GO 'co d.i e s also dealing with educ ati.on anu training.
Moreover, since a plan is not an acaliemic dOGument but a means of action involving programmes to be implemenced, i t is impor-
tant to 8iL';;-LJI'G the collaboration of the teachers as weLL as the
SUP1)OI't of the "_,ublic in general.
I t f'oLlouafr,~m these considerations, firstly that apart from the cen tr8.-1 a&,encies for overall rlevelopment planning, it would seem nccess0ry to set up, at government level, an inter- ministerial c(jmmittee for edur.a tional 'planninc: secondly,
I'rithin the MiniGtry of Education, while the !'linister will natu- rally rely on the professional advice of the ~irectors and other t echn i.ca.L staff of hi s services i t is important, in
oonnecioion wi th the formulation of overall e(~ucational policy, for him tv benefit frvm the views of personalities both insiCle and. outsiJ.e the Government, including representatives of gover- nment and priV2vte organizations concerned lvith educa'ti on , and also those el'Gr)ns "I-{ho, though not engaged in education, are
•
E/CN.14/ CAP/6
IDi:P/Ul/R/257Page 23
interested in the cultural,' social and ec cncrm.c development of the Gountry. ror this purpose, it is clesiralJle~ where one :loes not exi si, c.Lready , for a National Higher Council of Educa- tioD to be 83tablished outside the interllal organization of the l~illistry but as part cf its overall str-uc tur-e ,
In orelaI' to fulfil the role uh i.ch J.evl.'lves upon it in e.ruc a tional 1~,J.ai1ning9 the Minis try of Ecluca tion must work closely with the c ent.ra.L agencies of overall jLannanr: an., -'" i th the
economic an.I ;::;ocial :lepartIdents of the government, as well as the Lnt er-cminlctc r-La L pl ann i.n., comrni ttes re.o.erl'ed to above.
'I'h i.s liaison functi cn should be en t.r-u ste d to a Unit or Division set up vi thin tho r:'iini.stry and worki.ng un.ce.r t!.18 I"linister of E,--,-ucation or -~hc Directox· General. or Gecre-Gary General. 'lhi s uni.t woulc. he..V8 the task of stimulating and co-ord.inating the planning activici e s of the various branches of the I\~inistr;y", and also those of tho J)rivate or pubi i c bodies dC2.lin[, with education.
It lb obvious thEct this Unit would be EDilble to assume sale responsilJili ty for formulating det.i.i.Led edu cati oria.L develop- ment plans. E~ch department or division of the Ministry should be responsible ror plannini; the sector of education Hith which they are concerned.. In this connexion there should be an inter-departr,1CD,al or inter-service committec of the Ministry c orrrpo e c d of "[:110 vo.ri oue heads of department.
Flan~1inc,>- units exist or are being organized in a large nurnce r of Afrieo'!1 countries. .In many cas c a those bo .ies are in an ernb.ryo st(~·~te. A pLann i.n.; unit ought to include a sti:.l.tis- tical section •
.Lo
Uuca.tioral Study and Re s ear-c h section shouldex:i,st
be established in the ~;inistI'Y if one J.oes not already/. If i t is not attached. to the l'lanning Unit, i t should Hork closely with tha t unit. Both the tlanning Unit anu the Jtuccy and Hesearch 0ection need the services of a: uocument.a tion unit.
In conr.cxi cn ·",i th the forei;oing, it should however be poin- ted out that there is no rigid system 01 organi~ation for
educa tional p.Lnnn a.ng ,
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Administration as an instrument for implementinB the Plan EJuca tional planning is not confined to the ,lrafting of ~lans. Tile dev~lopment ~lan suggests specific projer;ts to be (;'i..:'trrieu. cut , The solutions to the various pr-o b Lens that a r-e piopo3e::-~ or c on t.ernpLa ted have to be implemented in the o ontexL of rca Lity. SOllie of the assumptions behind the measures -,:.:;rovided for in the pl.an may lose their valio.ity
through c1l2l1Cir:..S' circumstances. Lnexpe cted situations can call fcr rea,lJustmonts of the plan. Hence the p l ann i.ng of education
i s a c c n ti n u o u s -iJ1'OC888 w h i c h r - e . ui r - c s a n 8c,ually c o nt i . n u o u s
check anti a ":,orloclic eva.Luati on conai st i.n.; .of a compari- son of thc cOh,leted operations 1fith the targets incluJ.ed in the plan.
But tho iwplementaticm of a j.Lan involves more than checking, evalua tion ",:-J:}:L revision. 'l'he r o is the specific anti detailed
appLa cat i.on, U,i1y by day and month by month, of the measures and opera-Gio:~,G to ensure the achievemont of the u.esired objec- t.i.ve s , 'l'h e rc i1re the ,:roblcms of the establishment of new schools, of school buildings y the recruitment and training of tcach i.r.g c',,-,ff, the reform of structures and curricula, the use of n ev teaching methods, schuol textbooks, school dropouts, t.h e c a.Loul
at
i on of the cost anti reduction of the oost ofe>..tu.1-~-_tion, etc •• 0 There are other matters th~·,t arise out of certain al!.L~idi3trativeprinciples such as the J.ecentralization of operatiU;1~-; ariu t.hc ini tia tive to be left, TTithin .reasonable limits , to GGli-~:L'al anu. regional officers, while maintain- ing adee,uB- to toc.hnical ann administrative control. Es bab La shing
,,"
,a parallel bot .een this vast enterprise vrhi ch education represents Z~i1G.. the prouuction en t.e.rp rit.e s in the economic
sector, Professor Robert lJottrens of the Institute of bducational Sciences of tho University of Geneva rovisued, in a s tudy enti- tIed "Vers Uile pedagogie prospective",
,
the elements entering into each tn)e 01 management:-the objectives of the enter-prise the raw material
tho c.u i.pment
•
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25
the organization cf labour the system of control
research for means of improving and increasing productivity.
But whereas the production enterprises in the economic
sector are oonstarrt Iy end e avo u.r-i ng to .in'pr-ove and modernize their methods:Jf production and management, 1'i8 note that1 as regards education, there is a tendency towards an Qut-dated conservatism in the adrni ni st r-a.ti ve field. ~Ie have therefore a problem cf
re-assessing th c prinoiples and met.hod s of educational administra- tion and the concept cf the qualifications demanded from the tech- nical and. administrati ve personnel : ) f the educational TTinistries and Qepa~tmcnts.
In many 1~nd8r-cieveloped countries - and the African countries are no exo epti.rn - thp structure of education::l administration
dOGS not ne et the: roquirements of atl axpanditlg eduoational
system. A.II too often , some aspects of modern administration, as for exal"ple school accounting, the preparaticn and administration of the budget9 the analysis and costing of the various aot i,viti ess leave some~hing to be desired. The staff is often insufficient in nunb e r-s and in quality ..." There are too few c ornpetont civil servants and these are:.'loighed d o wn by an a nc r-ee.s i.ng number of problems. The eenior grades are,,1.lsually dsprived of the suppor-t tbey should ,normally obtain from the intoruediatG o~=fui.cr=an8.the
jUZlior st",ff. "ho are Ili ther too few in number7ih thout the ,n'lces- sary GOmpRt8J<Dc. f..lL·tbis 'makes it",d~fficult to apply the principles of administration (delegation of authoritY9 fref:dom of initiative within the requisite limits, docentralization of operation, etc,)
It f'o Ll.ows from the above considerations t.ha.t t~le
questicn of the implel"8ntation of plans and in particular 't.na't of administration as an instrument of in~lementation is a problem inseparable from tLat of formulating the plans.
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