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Plant Resources from the Bronze Age and the first Iron
Age in the northwestern arc of the Mediterranean Basin
Natàlia Alonso, Laurent Bouby
To cite this version:
Natàlia Alonso, Laurent Bouby. Plant Resources from the Bronze Age and the first Iron Age in the
northwestern arc of the Mediterranean Basin. Comptes Rendus Palevol, Elsevier Masson, 2017, 16
(4), pp.363-377. �10.1016/j.crpv.2017.01.004�. �hal-03107602�
C.R.Palevol16(2017)363–377
ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirect
Comptes
Rendus
Palevol
www . s c ie n c e d i r e c t . c o m
Human
Palaeontology
and
Prehistory
(Palaeobotany)
Plant
Resources
from
the
Bronze
Age
and
the
first
Iron
Age
in
the
northwestern
arc
of
the
Mediterranean
Basin
Ressources
végétales
de
l’âge
du
bronze
et
du
premier
âge
du
fer
dans
le
Nord-Ouest
du
Bassin
méditerranéen
Natàlia
Alonso
a,∗,
Laurent
Bouby
baGIP-GRAPHA,Departamentd’Història,Fac.deLletres,INDEST,UniversitatdeLleida,Pl.VictorSiurana,1,25003Lleida,Catalonia,Spain bUMR5554,CNRS-INEE,Institutdessciencesdel’Évolution(ISEM),UniversitédeMontpellier,placeEugène-Bataillon,34095
Montpelliercedex05,France
a
r
t
i
c
l
e
i
n
f
o
Articlehistory: Received6August2016
Acceptedafterrevision20January2017 Availableonline28March2017 HandledbyMarcelOtté Keywords:
Archaeobotany
NorthwesternMediterranean BronzeAge
FirstIronAge
a
b
s
t
r
a
c
t
ThispaperupdatesthequestionofplantresourcesduringtheBronzeAgeandFirstIron AgeinthenorthwesternMediterraneanBasin.Amongthecereals,six-rowhulledbarleyis dominantthroughouttheterritory,whereasnakedandhulledwheatstakeongreateror lesserrolesfromregiontoregion.MilletcultivationdevelopedduringtheBronzeAgeand becamewidespreadintheFirstIronAge.Apartfromcereals,pulses,oilspeciesandfruit appeartobesecondary.Resultsfromthestudyofarchaeobotanicalremainsonwetland sites,however,leadustoquestionthisfinding,asoilplantsandfruitsaremuchbetter representedinwaterloggedconditions.ThecultivationofvinebeganintheFirstIronAge. Inspiteofanumberofcharacteristicscommontoplantsthroughoutthestudyarea,regional differences,evidentintheBronzeAge,seemtodissipateintheFirstIronAge.
©2017Acad ´emiedessciences.PublishedbyElsevierMassonSAS.Allrightsreserved.
Motsclés: Archéobotanique Nord-Ouestméditerranéen Âgedubronze
Premierâgedufer
r
é
s
u
m
é
Cetarticleproposeunenouvellesynthèseconcernantles plantesexploitéespourleur intérêtéconomiquedansl’arcnord-occidentaldelaMéditerranée,aucoursdel’âgedu bronzeetdupremierâgedufer.L’orgepolystiquevêtues’imposedanstoutleterritoire, alorsqueblésnusetvêtusprennentunrôleplusoumoinsmarquéenfonctiondesrégions. Laculturedesmilletssedéveloppeaucoursdel’âgedubronzeetsegénéraliseaupremier âgedufer.Laprésencedeslégumineuses,desoléagineusesetdesfruitsapparaîtsecondaire. L’étudedesitesdemilieuhumideconduitcependantàrelativiserquelquepeuceconstat, lesoléagineusesetlesfruitsétantbienmieuxreprésentésdanslematérielgorgéd’eau queparmilesrestescarbonisésparrapportauxcéréales.Laculturedelavignedébuteau premierâgedufer.Au-delàdecescaractéristiquescommunes,desdifférencesrégionales apparaissentclairementaucoursdel’âgedubronze.Celles-cisemblentlargementsediluer aupremierâgedufer.
©2017Acad ´emiedessciences.Publi ´eparElsevierMassonSAS.Tousdroitsr ´eserv ´es.
∗ Correspondingauthor.
E-mailaddresses:nalonso@historia.udl.cat(N.Alonso),laurent.bouby@umontpellier.fr(L.Bouby).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2017.01.004
364 N.Alonso,L.Bouby/C.R.Palevol16(2017)363–377
1. Introduction
Thenorthwestern Mediterranean is characterisedby rivervalleysandlowlands,borderedbysaltwaterlagoons (Fig.1).Itstwomainrivers(andtheirtributaries)arethe RhônetotheeastandtheEbrotothewest.ThePyrenees massif,orientedeast–westandroughlyperpendicularto thecoastline, is the main mountain range. The Albères Massif,itseasternmostextension,variesinaltitudefrom over2000mtosealevel,andliterallyrunsintothe Mediter-ranean.This range divides the study area in two main sectorsthatroughlycorrespondtoCataloniaintheSouth andLanguedocintheNorth.
This region’s agrarian economy in historical times wasMediterraneanwiththemostcommoncropsinthe plains being vine, olives, a variety of fruits and winter cereals(naked wheat,barley).Thisagriculturaltradition can be traced to Neolithic settlements dating back to 5800–5600calBCinLanguedocandtoabout5500calBC inCatalonia (Antolín, 2016;GuilaineandManen,2007). Theseearlypopulationsalreadycombinedthecultivation of crops and livestock husbandry withthe exploitation ofnaturalresources.Mostofthearchaeobotanicalrecord dating back to the Neolithic consists of cereals: naked wheat(Triticumaestivum/turgidum),emmer(T.dicoccum), einkorn(T.monococcum),nakedbarley(Hordeumvulgare var. nudum),and hulled barley(H. vulgare var. vulgare) (Antolin,2016;Antolínetal.,2015;Buxó,2007;Marinval, 1993).Localcroptraditionsandspecificitiesseem there-foretohavetheirrootsinPrehistory,3000yearsbeforethe BronzeAge.
Thegoalofthispaperistoidentifyandstudythe con-tinuities,changesandregionalspecificitiesofagricultural resourcesthroughouttheregioninferredfrom archaeob-otanical analysesfrom the end of the Neolithic to the beginningofAntiquity.Thisperiodcorrespondstoaperiod ofabout1500yearscomprisingtheBronzeAgeandFirst IronAge.TheendoftheFirstIronAgewaschosenasthe study’sstoppingpointbecauseitcoincideswiththearrival of the first Greek, Etruscan and Phoenician colonies in bothCataloniaandLanguedoc,settlementsthatusheredin westernMediterranean’sintegrationintotheagricultural economyofAntiquity.
Thestudyoftheregionalcharacteristicsofagricultureis particularlyinterestingbecause,besidesgeographical dif-ferences,thisterritorywassplitupintodifferentcultural unitsthatvariedovertimeandoftenexperienceddifferent externalinfluences(Py,2012).Itmustbenotedthatthese archaeobotanicalanalysespresentanumberofchallenges stemmingforthemostpartfromthespatialandtemporal heterogeneityofthecorpus,aswellastheheterogeneous natureofthedata.
2. Materialsandmethods
The vast arc-shaped study area between the Ebro andRhone Riversincludesboth coastaland inlandsites throughout what are currently the administrative dis-trictsofLanguedoc-Roussillon(Gard,Lozère,Hérault,Aude, andthePyrénées-Orientalesdepartments)andCatalonia (Girona,Barcelona, Tarragona,and Lleida)(Fig.1).Most
ofthearchaeobotanicaldatacomesfromexcavations car-riedoutinthefourfollowingregions(Table1):Languedoc, Pyrenees,easternCatalonia,andwesternCatalonianplain. Thechronologicalframeworkincludesallthesitesdated tobetweentheearlysecondmillenniumBCandthe mid-dleofthefirstmillenniumBC,roughlyfrom2100to500 BC.Thistimeframecorrespondstoseveralchrono-cultural periodsthatvaryinnomenclatureandrangefromregion toregion:
• SouthofFrance:EarlyBronzeAge(2100–1700calBC), Middle/LateBronzeI(1600–1400calBC),LateBronzeAge II–III(1400–725calBC),FirstIronAge(750–500calBC); • eastern Catalonia: Initial Bronze Age (2300–1300cal
BC), LateBronzeAge (1350–750calBC), FirstIronAge (700–550calBC);
• western Catalonian plain: Full Bronze Age (2100–1650calBC),Segre–CincaGroupI(1650–1250cal BC), Segre–Cinca Group II (1250–1000cal BC), Segre–Cinca Group III (1000–800/750cal BC), First IronAge(750–550calBC).
Tofacilitatetheanalysis,thesitesweregroupedinthe followingbroadchronologicalperiods:
• Period 1 (2100–1350/1250cal BC): corresponding roughlytotheEarly/MiddleBronzeAge, InitialBronze Age,andFullBronze/Segre–CincaGroupI;
• Period2(1350/1250–750calBC):correspondingroughly, dependingonthearea, totheLateBronzeAge orthe Segre–CincaGroupIIandIII;
• Period3(750–600/500calBC):correspondingroughlyto theFirstIronAge.
Thearchaeobotanicalsampleswerecollectedon67sites over the last severaldecades.Some of thesesites have multiple levelsofoccupation withdifferent chronologi-calphasescorrespondingtothelistofperiodscitedabove
(Fig.1andTable2).Opensettlements,sometimesfortified,
arethemostcommontypeofsite.Theirnumberincreases in thelater chronologicalphases, while cavedwellings declinetoonly9%intheFirstIronAge(Fig.2).
Themethodologyandthesamplingsystemsalso var-iedfromsitetosite,givingrise,insomecases,touneven results. In fact, 35%of theanalysesare basedona sin-glesample(forthewholesiteorforspecificlevels),while 40%oftheanalysesdonotsurpass10samples.The meth-ods ofsample processing generallyallowedrecovery of alltypesofremains.Yet,thesizeofthesmallestsieving meshwasnotspecifiedinthepublicationsofadozensites. Furthermore,finesievingattensiteswasnotundertaken, leadingtoincompletearchaeobotanicalregisters.Mostof theseedsandfruitsrecoveredarepreservedinacharred form.Yetwell-preservedwaterloggedremainsatseveral settlements in southernFrance (LaConque, LaFangade, LaMotte,PortAriane)affordamorecompleteviewofthe plantresources.
From the methodological perspective, this paper presentsanoverviewoftheplanttaxaofeconomicalvalue fromthedifferentstudies.Theseplantsarelisted accord-ingtotheirubiquitybychronologicalphaseandbyregion
N.Alonso,L.Bouby/C.R.Palevol16(2017)363–377 365
Fig.1.BronzeAgeandFirstIronAgesitesinthenorthwesternMediterraneanarcwitharchaeobotanicalstudies(seeTable2forlisting).
Fig.1. Sitesdel’âgedubronzeetdupremierâgedufer,avecétudesarchéobotaniques(voirTableau2pourlaliste).
Table1
Tablesummarisingofthenumberofsitesparperiodandregion.
Tableau1
Tableaurésumédunombredesitesparpériodeetparrégion.
Languedoc Pyrenees EasternCatalonia WesternCatalonianPlan
Numberofsites 29 11 18 9 67
Period1(2100–1350/1250calBC) 3 9 5 4 21
Period2(1350/1250–750calBC) 18 5 6 3 32
Period3(750–600/500calBC) 14 2 13 3 32
35 16 24 10
(Table3).We alsoconducteda deeperanalysisonhow
thecarpologicaldataisstructuredchronologicallyand geo-graphically based on a Correspondence FactorAnalysis (CFA) following themethodproposedby Bouby(2014). Yettoconductthisresearchandattainreliableresults,it wasnecessarythatthedataset,gleanedfromworkof dif-ferentresearchers,bestandardisedandpurgedof“noise”.
Therefore,priortotheanalyses,itwasnecessaryto stan-dardisetheterminology(Colledge,2001;Valamoti,2004). Forinstance,ifacertainspecieswascommonamongthe data(e.g.,Triticumdicoccum),thenotherlessprecise iden-tifications(e.g.,Triticumcf.dicoccum)due,forexample,to problemsofpreservation,weremergedintothegroupso astonotcreatetwodifferenttaxa.
366 N. Alonso, L. Bouby / C. R. Palevol 16 (2017) 363–377 Table2
SitesrepresentedinFig.1andgeneralarchaeologicalandarchaeobotanicaldata.Region:L:Languedoc;P:Pyrenees;EC:EasternCatalonia;WCP:WesternCatalonianPlan.Chronology:EBA:EarlyBronzeAge; MBA:MiddleBronzeAge;IBA:InitialBronzeAge;GSC:Segre–CincaGroup;LBA:LateBronzeAge;IA:FirstIronAge.
Tableau2
SitesreprésentéssurlaFig.1etdonnéesarchéobotaniquesgénérales.Région:L:Languedoc;P:Pyrénées;EC:EstdelaCatalogne;WCP:Plaineoccidentalecatalane.Chronologie:EB:Bronzeancien;MB: Bronzemoyen;IB:Bronzeinitial;GSC:GroupeduSegre–Cinca;LB,Bronzefinal;IA:premierâgedufer.
Site Municipality Region/DepartmentChronology Bibliography Typeofsite No.remains No. samples
Volume samples(liters)
Smallest mesh(mm) 1 Brégoule Soyons L:Ardèche(07) LBA/IA Marinval,1988,Bouby,
2010
Openairsettlement 3522 1 Indet 1o2 2 Pontiar VallonPont
d’Arc
L:Ardèche(07) IA1(late) Erroux,unpublished Cave/abri Indet 1 Indet 2? 3 Saint-Marcel
(Gte)
Saint-Marcel-d’Ardèche
L:Ardèche(07) LBA2 Erroux,1988 Cave/abri 21 1 Indet Indet 4 StEtienne
Dions
StMarcel d’Ardèche
L:Ardèche(07) IA1(late) Bouby,2010 Fortifiedsettlement 5 1 0.1 0.5 5 Prével
supérieur
Montclus L:Gard(30) LBA2a Erroux(inRoudil, 1972)
Cave/abri Indet ? Indet ? 6 Hasard Tharaux L:Gard(30) LBA2b Erroux,1993 Cave/abri 335 1 Indet 2? 7 Marduel
Saint-Bonnet-du-Gard
L:Gard(30) LBA3b Marinval,1988 Fortifiedsettlement 18 1 Indet 0.5 7 Marduel
Saint-Bonnet-du-Gard
L:Gard(30) IA1(late) Marinval,1988 Fortifiedsettlement 112 1 Indet 0.5 8 Sables Théziers L:Gard(30) IA1(late) Bouby,2010 Openairsettlement 227 1 10 0.5 9 MasVignole10 Nîmes L:Gard(30) IA1(late) Bouby,2010 Openairsettlement 227 3 90 0.5 9 MasVignole9 Nîmes L:Gard(30) MBA Figueiral,unpublished Openairsettlement 2 1 25 0.5 10 Arriasse(L’) Vic-le-Fesq L:Gard(30) IA1(early) Marinval,1985 Openairsettlement 67 2 >5 0.5i2 11 Liquière Calvisson L:Gard(30) IA1(early) Erroux,1984 Fortifiedsettlement >573 5 Indet 2? 12 BaumeLayrou Trèves L:Gard(30) LBA2b Boubyetal.,2005 Cave/abri 159276 6 19.5 0.5 13 Abri-St-Étienne
St-Étienne-de-Gourgas
L:Hérault(34) LBA2 Erroux,1981 Cave/abri 18 1 Indet Indet 14 Cougourlude Lattes L:Hérault(34) IA1(late) FigueiralandBouby,
unpublished
Openairsettlement >10000 8 49 0.5 15 Lycée
Technique
Montpellier L:Hérault(34) IA Erroux,1966 Openairsettlement Indet 1 Indet Indet 16 PortAriane Lattes L:Hérault(34) LBA Alonsoetal.,2007 Openairsettlement 27299 5 347 0.5 16 PortAriane Lattes L:Hérault(34) IA1(early) Alonsoetal.,2007 Openairsettlement 701 8 450 0.5 17 Conque(La) Mèze L:Hérault(34) LBA2b/3a Boubyetal.,1999 Openairsettlement 35 2 0.75 0.5 18 Fangade(La) Sète L:Hérault(34) LBA2–3 Boubyetal.,1999 Openairsettlement 1720 10 25.5 0.25i0.5 18 Fangade(La) Sète L:Hérault(34) LateMBA/LBA1 Boubyetal.,1999 Openairsettlement 3600 6 21.05 0.25i0.5 19 MontJoui Florensac L:Hérault(34) IA1(late) Bouby,2010 Fortifiedsettlement 1055 3 26 0.5 20 Garennes(Les) Tourbes L:Hérault(34) IA1(late) Figueiralunpublished Openairsettlement 180 1 Indet 0.5 21 Acropole(Rue) Villeneuve/
Béziers
L:Hérault(34) LBA2b/3a Bouby,2010 Openairsettlement 3632 1 8 0.5 22 Motte(La) Agde L:Hérault(34) LBA3b Bouby(inMoyatetal.,
2007)
Openairsettlement 70 1 Indet 0.5 23 PortalVielh Vendres L:Hérault(34) LBA2b/3a Boubyetal.,1999 Openairsettlement 586 6 >64 0.5i2 23 PortalVielh Vendres L:Hérault(34) LBA3b Boubyetal.,1999 Fortifiedsettlement 5074 7 >45 0.5i2 24 Cayla Mailhac L:Aude(11) IA Erroux,unpublished Openairsettlement Indet Indet Indet Indet 25 Buffens
Caunes-Minervois
L:Aude(11) MBA Hopf(inGuilaineand Hopf,1984)
Cave/abri 221 1 Indet Indet 26 Cazals(Gte
des)
Sallèles-Cabardès
N. Alonso, L. Bouby / C. R. Palevol 16 (2017) 363–377 367 Table2(Continued)
Site Municipality Region/DepartmentChronology Bibliography Typeofsite No.remains No. samples
Volume samples(liters)
Smallest mesh(mm) 27 Carsac Carcassonne L:Aude(11) LBA3 Errouxunpublished Fortifiedsettlement 6 1 Indet Indet 27 Carsac Carcassonne L:Aude(11) IA1 Errouxunpublished Fortifiedsettlement Indet 1 Indet Indet 28 Gravette(La) Cavanac L:Aude(11) LBA3a Marinvalunpublished Openairsettlement 3 Indet 1 29 Laouret(Le) Floure L:Aude(11) LBA3a Marinvalunpublished Openairsettlement 78 1 Indet 2 30 SousRideaux Lespugue P:HteGaronne
(31)
IA1(early) Bouby,Ruas unpublished
Cave/abri 1093 9 71 0.5
31 Khépri Ganties P:HteGaronne (31)
MBA Bouby,unpublished Funerariencova 5793 27 >10.3 1 32 Grottedes
Églises
Ussat P:Ariège(09) EBA/MBA Erroux,1982 Cave/abri Indet 1 Indet Indet
33 Bélesta Bélestadela Frontière
P:PyrenéesOr (66)
MBA Buxó,1993 Cave/abri 4 1 10 1
33 Bélesta Bélestadela Frontière
P:PyrenéesOr (66)
LBA2/3 Buxó,1993 Cave/abri 228 2 120 1
33 Bélesta Bélestadela Frontière
P:PyrenéesOr (66)
IA1 Buxó,1993 Cave/abri 138 1 30 1
34 Carrerrassa Perpignan P:PyrenéesOr (66)
EBA Bouby,unpublished Openairsettlement 173 16 448.5 0.5 35 Montou
Corbère-les-Cabanes
P:PyrenéesOr (66)
EBA Buxo,2006 Cave/abri 5309 138 Indet 2 35 Montou
Corbère-les-Cabanes
P:PyrenéesOr (66)
MBA Buxo,2006 Cave/abri 566 92 Indet 2 35 Montou
Corbère-les-Cabanes
P:PyrenéesOr (66)
LBA Buxo,2006 Cave/abri 373 113 Indet 2 36 Covad’Anes Prullans P:Cerdanya
(Lleida)
IBA Alonso,1995 Cave/abri 99 1 Indet Indet
37 LeMenhir Eyne P:PyrenéesOr (66)
LBA3 Bouby,Ruas unpublished
Openairsettlement 328 7 Indet 2 38 Lo-LoLadre Llo P:PyrenéesOr
(66)
LBA3 Ruasetal.,2009 Openairsettlement 13428 5 12 0.5 39 Cova120 Sadernes P:Garrotxa(Gi) IBA Agustíetal.,1985 Cave/abri 27 1 Indet 0.5 40 BaumaSerrat
delPont
Tortellà P:Garrotxa(Gi) IBA BuxóandCatalà,1997 Cave/abri 7 1 75 0.5 40 BaumaSerrat
delPont
Tortellà P:Garrotxa(Gi) LBA BuxóandCatalà,1994 Cave/abri 130 33 961 0.5 41 Institutde
Manlleu
Manlleu EC:Osona(B) IBA Buxó,1997 Openairsettlement 226 15 728 0.5 42 SantMartí d’Empúries St.Martí d’Empúries EC:Alt Empordà(Gi)
IA Buxó,1999 Hàbitat:fortificat 1223 39 Indet 0.5 42 SantMartí d’Empúries St.Martí d’Empúries EC:Alt Empordà(Gi)
LBA Buxó,1999 Hàbitat:fortificat 85 5 Indet 0.5 43 Illad’enReixac Ullastret EC:Baix
Empordà(Gi)
IA Buxó,1997 Hàbitat:fortificat 458 2 140 0.5
44 Torrebonica Terrassa EC:VallèsOcc. (B)
IBA López,2007a, unpublished
Openairsettlement 33 2 32 0.5 45 Bòbila
Madurell
St.Quirzedel Vallès
EC:VallèsOcc. (B)
LBA Buxó,1997 Openairsettlement 79 9 109 0.5 45 Bòbila
Madurell
St.Quirzedel Vallès
EC:VallèsOcc. (B)
368 N. Alonso, L. Bouby / C. R. Palevol 16 (2017) 363–377 Table2(Continued)
Site Municipality Region/DepartmentChronology Bibliography Typeofsite No.remains No.samples Volume samples(liters)
Smallest mesh(mm) 46 CanRoqueta Sabadell EC:VallèsOcc.
(B)
IA Rovira-Buxó,1999 Openairsettlement 301 15 242 0.5 46 CanRoqueta Sabadell EC:VallèsOcc.
(B)
BAI Rovira-Buxó,1999 Openairsettlement 12 4 22 0.5 46 CanRoqueta Sabadell EC:VallèsOcc.
(B)
LBA Rovira-Buxó,1999 Openairsettlement 1512 19 542 0.5 47 CanGambús2 Sabadell EC:VallèsOcc.
(B)
IA HinojoandLópez,2008 Openairsettlement 658 13 919 0.5 48 SitgesdelaUAB Cerdanyoladel
Vallès
EC:VallèsOcc. (B)
IA AlonsoandBuxó,1991 andAlonso,2008a
Openairsettlement 417 15 288 0.5 49 CanSadurní Begues EC:Baix
Llobregat(B)
LBA Kraus-Kashani,1991 Cave/abri 11 1 Indet 0.5 50 Sta.Mariadels
Horts
Vilafrancadel Penedès
EC:AltPenedès (B)
IA López,2010a, unpublished
Openairsettlement 81 2 97 0.5 51 ElBordellet Vilafrancadel
Penedès
EC:AltPenedès (B)
IBA López,2010a, unpublished
Openairsettlement 6 3 134 0.5 51 ElBordellet Vilafrancadel
Penedès
EC:AltPenedès (B)
LBA López,2010a, unpublished
Openairsettlement 62 3 232 0.5 52 CincPonts Vilafrancadel
Penedès
EC:AltPenedès (B)
IBA López,2010b, unpublished
Openairsettlement 50 9 840 0.5 53 Masd’enBoixos Pacsdel
Penedès
EC:AltPenedès (B)
IBA López,2007b, unpublished
Openairsettlement 224 16 337 0.5 53 Masd’enBoixos Pacsdel
Penedès
EC:AltPenedès (B)
IA López,2007b, unpublished
Openairsettlement 178 7 181 0.5 54 Solicrup Vilanovaila
Geltrú
EC:Garraf(B) IA López2005, unpublished
Openairsettlement 154 3 404 0.5 55 TuróFontdela
Canya
Avinyonetdel Penedès
EC:AltPenedès (B)
IA López,2004 Fortifiedsettlement 10134 7 1109 0.5 56 Olèrdola Olèrdola EC:AltPenedès
(B)
IA AlonsoandCanal,2009 Fortifiedsettlement 24 2 Indet 0.5 57 ElsVilars Arbeca WCP:Les
Garrigues(Ll)
IA Alonso,1999 Fortifiedsettlement 271 29 771 0.5 58 Minferri Juneda WCP:Les
Garrigues(Ll)
IBA Alonsoetal.,2006 Openairsettlement 5884 58 4559 0.5 59 ElVilot Alcarràs WCP:Segrià(Ll) GSCI Alonsoetal.,2002 Openairsettlement 207 1 300 0.5 59 ElVilot Alcarràs WCP:Segrià(Ll) GSCIII Alonsoetal.,2002 Openairsettlement 4303 20 1371 0.5 60 Genó Aitona WCP:Segrià(Ll) GSCII Alonso,1999 Openairsettlement 171 1 40 0.5 61 Vincamet Fraga WCP:Baix
Cinca(Hu)
GSCII Alonsoetal.,2006 Openairsettlement 1336 12 375 0.5 62 CovadePunta
Farisa
Fraga WCP:Baix Cinca(Hu)
GSCI AlonsoandBuxó,1995 Cave/abri 993 1 82 0.5 63 Masadade
Raton
Fraga WCP:Baix Cinca(Hu)
GSCI Alonso,1999 Openairsettlement 1182 4 192 0.5 64 LaCodera AlcoleadeCinca WCP:Baix
Cinca(Hu)
IA Alonso,2008b Fortifiedsettlement 323 2 404 0.5 65 Tozaldelos
Regallos
Candasnos WCP:Baix Cinca(Hu)
IA Alonso,1999 Openairsettlement 115 5 143 0.5 66 Barrancde
Gàfols
Ginestar EC:Ribera d’Ebre(T)
IA Cubero,1998 Openairsettlement 60 6 10 0.5 67 SantJaume Alcanar EC:Montsià(T) IA Lópezetal.,2011 Fortifiedsettlement 1318 20 562 0.5
N. Alonso, L. Bouby / C. R. Palevol 16 (2017) 363–377 369 Table3
Ubiquityoftaxawitheconomicvaluerepresentedbyperiodandbyregion(onlycharredremains).(Period1:2100–1350/1250calBC;period2:1350/1250–750calBC;period3:750–600/500calBC).
Tableau3
Ubiquitédestaxonsàvaleuréconomiqueparphasechronologiqueetrégion(seulementrestescarbonisés).(Période1:2100–1350/1250calBC;période2:1350/1250–750calBC;période3:750–600/500cal BC.).
Region LANGUEDOC PYRENEES EASTERNCATALONIA WESTERNCAT.PLAIN TOTAL
Period Period1 Period2 Period3 Period1 Period2 Period3 Period1 Period2 Period3 Period1 Period2 Period3
Numberofsites 4 17 14 9 5 2 6 5 12 4 3 3 84
Cereals,seeds
Hordeumvulgarevar.nudum 1 3 1 7 2 1 1 3 3 – – – 22
Hordeumvulgarevar.vulgare 3 13 13 6 5 2 6 5 13 4 3 3 75
Hordeumsp. – 2 1 3 2 – 2 2 1 1 – – 14 Panicummiliaceum – 5 5 3 1 1 – 2 8 3 3 3 34 Secalesp. – – – – 1 – – – – – – – 1 Setariaitalica – 2 2 1 – 1 – 1 9 3 2 2 23 Triticumaestivum/turgidum 2 11 7 7 4 2 5 3 11 4 2 2 59 Triticumdicoccum 3 10 9 7 3 1 4 3 11 4 3 3 60 Triticum monococcum 3 8 5 2 2 – 1 1 4 – 1 – 26 Triticumspelta – 1 – – – 1 – – – – – – 2 Triticumsp. 1 7 8 4 2 1 3 1 1 1 1 2 32 Cereals,chaff Hordeumvulgare 2 6 2 – 1 1 – – 1 4 – 2 19 Triticumaestivum/turgidum – 3 1 – 1 – – – 1 3 1 2 12 Triticumdicoccum 2 7 7 2 – 1 – 1 3 3 1 1 28 Triticummonococcum 1 5 1 – – – – – – – 1 – 8 Triticumspelta – 2 – – – – – – – – – – 2 Triticumhulled 1 5 4 1 – 1 1 – – 2 – 1 16 Triticumsp. – – – – – – – – – 2 1 1 4
Pulses,oilplants
Lathyruscicera/sativus – 3 1 – 1 – – – 2 – – – 6 Lensculinaris – 1 4 1 – – – 2 7 1 – 2 17 Medicagosativa – – – – – – – 1 1 – – – 2 Pisumsativum – 1 – 1 3 1 – 1 6 1 – – 13 Viciaervilia – 1 2 – – – 1 – 1 – – – 4 Viciafaba 1 2 – – – – – 1 2 – – – 6 Viciasativa – – – – 1 – – – 2 – – – 3 Oil plants Camelinasativa – – 3 – – – – – – – – – 3
Linumusitatissimum,seeds 1 1 – – – – – – 2 2 – 1 7
Linumusitatissimum,capsule 1 – – – – – – – – – – – 1
Papaversomniferum – 3 – – – – – – – – – – 3 Fruitsgathered Arbutusunedo – 1 – – – – – – – – – – 1 Cornusmas – 1 1 – – – – – – – – – 2 Corylusavellana – 2 – 1 2 1 – – – – – – 6 Ficuscarica – – 1 – – – 1 – 3 – – 2 6 Malussp. – – 1 1 – – – – – – – – 2 Oleaeuropaea – – – 3 1 – – – 2 – – – 6 Pistacia lentiscus 1 – – – – – 1 – 1 2 1 – 6 Prunussp. – 1 – – – – – – – – – – 1 Prunusspinosa – – – – – – – – – 1 – – 1 Quercussp. 1 4 3 4 4 2 – 1 4 1 1 1 25 Rosasp. – – – – 1 – – – – – – – 1 Rubusfruticosus – 1 – – – 1 – 1 1 1 – – 5 Sambucusebulus – 2 2 – – 1 – – – – – – 5 Sambucussp. – 2 – – – – – – 1 – – – 3 Vitisvinifera – 5 4 2 3 1 2 1 8 1 1 2 29
370 N.Alonso,L.Bouby/C.R.Palevol16(2017)363–377
Fig. 2. Stacked histogram indicating the number of sites with archaeobotanicalstudiesbychronologicalperiod(a)andregion(b).
Fig.2. Histogrammeempiléindiquantlenombredesitesavecdesétudes archéobotaniquesparpériodechronologique(a)etrégion(b).
Theunitofanalysistocarryout theCFAof thesites wasthechronologicalphase ifthesite wereto contain morethanone.Eachphase bringstogetherallthe sam-plesthatanalysedatthesiteforthatpeculiarchronological period.Inordertoobtainarepresentativerangeofdata, onlythephaseswithaminimumof50plantremainswere retained(vanderVeen,1992),reducingthenumberofCFA assemblagesfrom84to52.Bythesametoken,soasto assuretheproperperceptionofthestructureofthedata,it wasnecessarytoeliminateunusualtaxaproducing detri-mental “noise”.Therefore, only theplants present inat least5%oftheassemblageswereretained(Valamoti,2004;
vanderVeen, 1992)thus restricting theanalysesto32
taxa,ofwhich fiveweresupplementary(chaffofhulled wheat,chaffofundeterminedwheat,grains of undeter-minedwheatandbarley,seedsofcultivatedpulses).These were,infact,inaccurateidentificationsthatcouldleadto biasduetothediversityofencodingmethodsofthe differ-entresearchers.
Furthermore,theCFAcouldnotbeappliedtothetotal numberof remains since itreflects aboveallthe quan-tity of samples carried out at the sites, as wellas the randomnatureofpreservationofplantremains(Pearsall, 2000).Therefore,thenumberof remainswasconverted into percentages and then transformed into scores of
abundanceaccordingtoa semiquantitativescaleoffour classes (1=up to 2%; 2=2–15%, 3=15 to50%, 4≥50%), a method that allows a bettercomparison of the vari-etyoftypesofsitesandsamplingprocedures(Boubyand
Marinval,2004;Jacomet,2006;Robinson,2003).
Asecondapproachwasalsoconductedusinga Princi-palComponentAnalysis(PCA)ondataquantifiedbythe IndexofRelativeAbundance(IRA)followingtheresearch
ofHastorfetal.(2005).Theadvantageisthatitcombines
theconceptsoftaxaabundanceandubiquityintoa sin-gleindex.ThePCAresultsarenotpresentedbecause,on theonehand,theuseoftheIRAwouldreducetherange ofdatatoonly29assemblages,andsecondly,theresults confirmtheCFAwithoutofferingmore.
3. Results
3.1. Preliminaryregionalandchronologicalapproach Basedontheplantsremainsfromthedifferentsites,we canmakeheadwayintounderstandingthegeneralchanges ofcultivatedplantsaccordingtotheirregionaland chrono-logicalubiquity(Table3).
3.1.1. Languedoc
Although the number of sites with seed and fruit remainsisscarceinLanguedocintheEarly/MiddleBronze Age (Period 1), this period offers a variety of cereals such as hulled barley (Hordeum vulgare), naked barley (Hordeumvulgarevar.nudum),nakedwheat(breadwheat ordurumwheat,Triticumaestivum/turgidum),andhulled wheat (emmer,Triticum dicoccum and einkorn, Triticum monococcum).Hulledbarleyandhulledwheatare predom-inantduringtheLateBronzeAgeandtheFirstIronAge, whereas nakedwheatis equivalenttoemmer.TheLate BronzeAge(Period2)seestheintroductionofcultivated millet,especiallycommonmillet(Panicummiliaceum) fol-lowed by Italian millet (Setaria italica). The emergence ofspelt(Triticumspelta),recoveredinlargequantitiesat BaumeLayrou(Boubyetal.,2005),isnoteworthy(Fig.3). Naked barley(Hordeum vulgare var. nudum),in turn, is residual.Chaff,inparticularthatofemmerandeinkorn,is alsoconsiderablethroughoutallthechronologicalphases. Barley andnaked wheatchaff,onthecontrary,are less common.
Broadbean(Viciafaba)istheonlypulsethathasbeen identifiedintheEarly/MiddleBronzeAge(Period1)sites, whilethisvarietyintheLateBronze(Period2)andFirst IronAge(Period3),althoughmorecommon,israndom, andapparentlydoesnotplayanimportantrole.Lentil(Lens culinaris)andgrasspea(Lathyruscicera/sativus)are proba-blythemostcommonpulses.Flax(Linumusitatissimum) isfoundintheEarly/MiddleBronzeAge(Period1)andthe LateBronzeAge(Period2)intheformofseedsandcapsules. Furthermore,opiumpoppy(Papaversomniferum)isknown intheLateBronzeAge(Period2)andcamelina(Camelina sativa)intheFirstIronAge(Period3).Theselasttwotaxa havebeendetectedonlyinLanguedocpartlyduetotheir presenceatwetlandsites.Inthisregion,theirubiquityis similartothatofpulses.
N. Alonso, L. Bouby / C. R. Palevol 16 (2017) 363–377 371
Fig.3.(1)Hulledbarley,Hordeumvulgare(LattesPortAriane)[photo:L.Damelet];(2)nakedwheat,Triticumaestivum/turgidum(Minferri)[photo:SRI,UDL];(3)nakedbarley,Hordeumvulgarevar.nudum(La Brégoule)[photo:L.Bouby];(4)emmer,Triticumdicoccum(Grésine)[photo:L.Bouby];(5)spelt,Triticumspelta(BaumeLayrou)[photo:L.Bouby];(6)wheatandbarleychaff(ElVilot)[photo:SRI,UDL];(7) millet,Panicummiliaceum(CovadePuntaFarisa)[photo:MAC];(8)Italianmillet,Setariaitalica(CovadePuntaFarisa)[photo:MAC];(9)Poppy,Papaversomniferum(Grésine)[photo:L.Bouby];(10)lentils,Lens culinaris(TuródelaFontdelaCanya)[photo:SRI,UDL];(11)peas,Pisumsativum(Llo)[photo:L.Bouby];(12)charredgrapepips,Vitisviniferassp.vinifera(TuródelaFontdelaCanya)[photo:D.López];(13) waterloggedgrapepips,Vitisviniferassp.vinifera(Cougourlude)[photo:L.Bouby];(14)flax,Linumusitatissimum(Minferri)[photo:SRI,UDL];(15)acorns,Quercus(‘boulevardpériphériquenord’,Lyon,France) [Photo:A.Guey].
Fig.3. (1)Orgevêtue,Hordeumvulgare(LattesPortAriane)[photo:L.Damelet];(2)blénu,Triticumaestivum/turgidum(Minferri)[photo:SRI,UDL];(3)blénu,Hordeumvulgarevar.nudum(LaBrégoule) [photo:L.Bouby];(4)bléamidonnier,Triticumdicoccum(Grésine)[photo:L.Bouby];(5)épeautre,Triticumspelta(BaumeLayrou)[photo:L.Bouby];(6)chaffdebléetd’orge(ElVilot)[photo:SRI,UDL]; (7)millet,Panicummiliaceum(CovadePuntaFarisa)[photo:MAC];(8)Milletdesoiseaux,Setariaitalica(CovadePuntaFarisa)[photo:MAC];(9)pavotsomnifère,Papaversomniferum(Grésine)[photo:L. Bouby];(10)lentille,Lensculinaris(TuródelaFontdelaCanya)[photo:SRI,UDL];(11)peas,Pisumsativum(Llo)[photo:L.Bouby];(12)pépinsderaisincarbonisés,Vitisviniferassp.vinifera(TuródelaFontde laCanya)[photo:D.López];(13)pépinsderaisinimbibés,Vitisviniferassp.vinifera(Cougourlude)[photo:L.Bouby];(14)lin,Linumusitatissimum(Minferri)[photo:SRI,UDL];(15)glands,Quercus(boulevard périphériquenorddeLyon)[Photo:A.Guey].
372 N.Alonso,L.Bouby/C.R.Palevol16(2017)363–377
Flaxandpoppyarerepresentedmainlybywaterlogged remainsinwetlandcontextsandrarelyinacharredstateon drysites.Thewaterloggedremainsdatetothelaterphases oftheMiddleBronzeAgeandtheLateBronzeAgeonthe banksofThauBasin(Periods1and2)(Bouby,2014;Bouby
etal.,1999).
Preservationduetowetconditionshasalsoresultedin awide variety offruit inthis area, notably manytypes thatarenotpresentelsewhere.Thisisthecaseof straw-berrytree(Arbutusunedo),corneliancherry(Cornusmas) anddanewort(Sambucusebulus).Themostcommonfruit harvested,foundmostlyincharredconditions,areacorns (Quercussp.),hazelnuts(Corylusavellana)andgrapes(Vitis vinifera).TheydatespecificallytotheLateBronzeandFirst IronAge(Periods2and 3).ThecharredacornsatPortal Vielh(Bouby,2014)isthemostremarkablefruit concen-tration(Fig.3).
Thedioeciouswildgrapevineisindigenoustothe west-ernMediterraneanandEuropeandstillpresenttodayin Languedoc(Thisetal.,2001).Thedomesticformofgrapeis identifiedatLaCougourlude(550–475BC)by morphomet-ricanalysesofthepips(FigueiralandBouby,unpublished). Modernwildanddomesticatedgrapevinesbearpipsof dif-ferentshapethatcanbedistinguishedwithahighdegree ofstatisticalconfidencebygeometricaswellastraditional morphometry(Boubyetal.,2013).
3.1.2. Pyrenees
ThedataavailableforthePyreneesaremainlyfromthe BronzeAge.Thereare,infact,onlytwositeswith archaeob-otanicalremainsfromtheFirstIronAge.Cerealsdominate intheEarlytoMiddleBronzeAge(Period1)andpersistin laterperiods.Theycompriseforthemostparthulledand nakedbarley,nakedwheatandemmer.Itisnoteworthy thatnakedbarleyisjustascommonasothercereals,yet suffersacleardeclineintheLateBronzeAge(Fig.3).Millet, bothcommonandItalian,ispresentfromtheEarly/Middle BronzeAge(Period1).Chaff,especiallybarleyandemmer, are sporadicand less frequent in thePyrenees than in Languedoc.Theabsenceofchaffcouldbeexplained,atleast inpart,bythefactthatsievingwitha0.5mmmeshwasnot carriedoutsystematicallyinthePyrenees.
Tracesofrye(Secalecereale)arerecordedintheLate Bronze Age (Period 2) at Llo (Ruas et al., 2009).These remains,probablyweeds,are,todate,theonlyindication ofthiscerealintheLateBronzeAge(Period2).Spelt,in turn,isidentifiedinIronAge(Period3)context.
Pulsesarefairlydiversified.Vetch(Viciasativa)isonly knownin theLate BronzeAge (Period 2)of the north-westernMediterraneanatMontou(Buxó,2006).Thissingle example,asinthecaseofrye,isprobablyadventitiousand notindicativeofcultivation.Themostcharacteristic Pyre-neanlegumeispea(Pisumsativum),knownfromtheEarly totheMiddleBronzeAge(Period1).Itwasrecoveredina concentration(correspondingtostorage)inaLateBronze AgecontextatLlo(Ruasetal.,2009)(Fig.3).
Acornisthemostcommonfruit.Aconcentrationfrom theFirstIronAge(Period3)wasbroughttolightat Abri-sous-les-Rideaux (Bouby and Ruas, unpublished) along withhazelnutsandgrapes.Wildapplewasalsoknownin
theEarlyBronzeAge(Period1)andisrepresentedbyafruit
atCova120(Agustíetal.,1985).
3.1.3. EasternCatalonia
Samplingtookplacefairlysystematicallyineastern Cat-alonia,especiallyatsitesoftheFirstIronAge(Period3).As notedabove,thesesitesareconcentratedspecificallyinthe centralcoastalregion.
Cerealsarewellrepresentedespeciallybyhulled bar-ley.Emmerandnakedwheatarebalancedfromthepoint of viewofubiquity. Asinthecase of Languedoc,millet andItalianmilletwereintroducedintheLateBronzeAge (Period2).Thesetwotypesofmilletwere,infact,strongly representedatmostsitesofthisareaintheFirstIronAge (Period3),whereasnakedbarleyandeinkornarerare.
Chaffisrarelyrecorded.Itisonlypresentintwocases (hulledbarleyandnakedwheat).However,intheFirstIron Age(Period3),thequantityofemmerchaffincreases.Yet itsnumberisinsignificantwhencompared,forexample,to numbersinLanguedoc.
Thesituationoflegumesinthisregionismorecomplete. Althoughonlybittervetch(Viciaervilia)hasbeen identi-fiedduringtheInitialBronzeAge (Period1),intheLate BronzeAge(Period2),andespeciallyduringtheFirstIron Age(Period3),legumesincreaseinnumberanddiversity. Themostimportantarepeasandespeciallylentils, recov-eredinlargeconcentrationsatTuródelaFontdelaCanya
(López,2004)(Fig.3).Fabaandvetch,inturn,haveonly
beenidentifiedinthisareaatFirstIronAgesites.Thesame appliestoalfalfa(Medicagosativa),whichintheLateBronze Ageisonlyidentifiedinthisarea.
Oilplantsareonlyrepresentedbyflax,aspeciesthatis documentedforthefirsttimeintheFirstIronAge.Among thefruitismastic(Pistacialentiscus)andacorns.Thislast species,inparticular,isstillmostcommonlyrepresented byconcentrationsfromtheInitialBronzeAge(Period1)at CanRoqueta(RoviraandBuxó,1999)andintheFirstIron Age(Period3)atBarrancdeGàfols(Cubero,1998).
Oneofthemostinterestingfactsobservedineastern Catalonia,whichwewillexplorefurtherinthisstudy,is theprogressiveincreaseofthevine,bothinubiquity–itis presentinmorethan50%oftheFirstIronAgesites–and inimportantconcentrationsdatingbacktothe7thcentury BCatTuródelaFontdelaCanya(López,2004).Thisfruitis presentnotonlyintheformofpips,butalsoasfragmentsof pedicelsandmesocarps,wasteproductsindicativeofwine making(Fig.3).
3.1.4. WesternCatalonianplain
Thisarea,theleastextensiveandwiththelowest num-berofsampledsites,providesnonethelessawidevarietyof cerealsfromthemiddleofthesecondmillennium.Hulled barley, nakedwheatand emmer, and largenumbers of milletand Italian milletarerecovered atsitesfromthe Segre-CincaGroupI(Period1).Thisbalancebetween cere-alswillremainalmostunchangeduntiltheFirstIronAge (Period3).Nakedbarley,however,hasnotbeenidentified andeinkornisresidual.Chaffofhulledbarleyand,above allnakedwheat,iswellrepresented(Fig.3).
Pulsesintheformoflentilsandpeas,onthecontrary, arerare.Itmustbenotedthatthefewfindsareverypoorly
N.Alonso,L.Bouby/C.R.Palevol16(2017)363–377 373
preserved,makingthisfamilydifficulttodeterminewhen recoveredamongothercommonunidentifiablelegumes. Theonlyoilplantisflax,identifiedatMinferri,asitedating backtotheFullBronzeAge(Period1)(Alonsoetal.,2006) (Fig.3).Theprincipalfruitisacorn,recoveredina concen-trationasisoftenthecase,atTozaldelosRegallos(Alonso, 1999).Masticandgrapesstandoutamongtheotherfruit. Mastic,inparticular,datestotheFullBronzeAge(Period1) andmayinfacthavenorelationwithfruitconsumption,as itsbranchesareknowntohavebeencollectedforfirewood
(Alonsoetal.,2015).
3.2. ResultsoftheCorrespondenceFactorAnalysis(CFA) Asnotedabove,aCFAwascarriedoutsoastoobserve the chronological and geographical structure garnered fromthecarpologicaldatafrom52sitesand32taxa follow-ingthestandardsexplainedabove.Comparedtotheresults oftheubiquityoftaxapresentedabove,CFAisrootedon abundancevaluesallowingacomprehensiveanalysisofthe datafromallphasesavoidingpreconceptionsregardingthe chronologicalorgeographicalgroupingofsites.
ThefirsttwoaxesoftheCFAexpressed23.8%ofthe iner-tia.Thesitesarefirstorganisedaccordingtogeography,and secondlyaccordingtochronology(Fig.4).
Axis1demarcatesthesitesofthePyrenees(linkedto thepositivepole)fromthoseofLanguedoc,(inthe nega-tivespace).ThePyreneessitesareassociatedwithnaked barley,nakedwheatandpea, whereasthose in Langue-docarelinkedtocerealchaff(mainlyhulledwheat),millet, Italianmillet,and poppy.Axis2initiallymarksa differ-encebetweenLanguedoc(inthepositivespace)andthe westernCatalonianplain(attractedtothenegativepole). Thislastregionis linkedtomastic,nakedwheat,hulled barleychaff,Italian millet,andflax.EasternCatalonia is halfway betweenthewesternCatalonian and the Pyre-nees/Languedocgroup.Insum,a fairlycleangeographic north-east/south-westgradientstandsoutbythespread ofsitesaroundtheoriginofthegraph.Axis 3(8.85%of inertia,notseeninthefigure)canbeaddedtothisdesign sinceitrevealsadisparitybetweenthewesternCatalonian plain(associatedwithnakedwheat,lentilsandfig)andthe PyreneesandLanguedoc(forthemostpartlinkedtoacorn, hazelnut,poppyandfava).
Theeffectofchronologyisaddedtothatofgeographyin thedistributionofthesitesinthefirstCFAplot.Thereisa gradientfromancienttorecentsitesthatstretchesfromthe positivetothenegativepoleofaxis1,andfromthenegative tothepositive poleofaxis2.Therefore,the chronologi-caleffectisnotidenticalfromoneregiontoanother.In Languedocand thePyrenees–andalsoperhapseastern Catalonia–Period1ismostlylinkedtonakedbarleyand naked wheat,while other plants suchas hulled wheat, milletandpoppyinparticulararegaininginimportance over time.Yetthereisa lagbetweenthesetwo regions asseenbyearlierinnovativedevelopmentstakingplacein Languedoc.ChronologyinCataloniaismarkedonaxis2.In easternCatalonia,thesituationduringtheearliestphase isdifferentfromthatintheNorth,especiallybecauseof thelackofnakedbarley.Yetthetrendisforthemodelto proceedinthedirectionofthatofLanguedoc.Thewestern
Catalonianplainalsorevealsa differentsituation, espe-cially duetotheabsenceof nakedbarleyand theearly arrivalofmillet.DuringtheFirstIronAge(Period3),its ten-dencyistoapproachthesituationofeasternCataloniaand Languedoc.
4. Significance,distributionandchronological changesofplantresourcesinthenorthwestern Mediterraneanarc
Fromthedataobtainedinthisstudy,wecaninferthat theCFAprovidesinterestinginformationaboutearlyplant exploitationintermsofspatialorganisationand chrono-logicalchanges.
Tobeginwith,theoverallresultscorroboratethe impor-tantroleof cerealscompared tothat ofothertaxasuch aspulsesandfruit.Ofcourse,itmustbeborneinmind thatcharringfavoursthepreservationofcereals. Further-more,thereisamarkedincreaseintheuseofhulledbarley throughouttheterritory,whilenakedbarley, characteris-ticofthePyreneesandLanguedocinthePeriod1,suffersa cleardeclinetowardthebeginningofthefirstmillennium. Asimilarsituationoccurs ineasternCatalonia,although nakedbarleyisnotasprevalentintheearlierchronological phases.ThewesternCatalonianplain,inturn,is charac-terisedbyitsabsence.
AnincreaseinhulledwheatsthroughouttheBronzeAge andtheFirstIronAgeisgenerallyrecognisedthroughoutall theterritory.Thesecereals,especiallyemmer,in Langue-docaremostoftenrepresentedbychaff.Nakedwheatis characteristicofthePyreneesandthewesternCatalonian plainwhereitschaff,inadditiontothatofhulledbarley,is alsoabundant.Einkornisresidualandothertaxa,suchas speltandrye,appearsporadicallyinLanguedocandinthe Pyrenees.
Inspiteofthefrequencyofcerealchaffatsomesitesand incertainareas,itisnothomogeneousinthe archaeolog-icalrecord.Thislackofuniformitymayberelatedtothe taphonomyoftheremainsandtheirmeansofprocessing (parchingornot,carriedoutinbulkoutsideofthe settle-mentorlittlebylittleday-by-dayindoors,etc.)and/orthe useoftheirby-productsafterharvesting.Inaddition,an importantfactorinthequestionofthepreservationofchaff remainsdependsontheirarchaeologicalandsedimentary contexts.Charredremainscan,attimes,beabundantand willincreaseinnumberinwaterloggedconditions.
MilletandItalianmillet,springcereals,areintroduced fromthemiddle ofthesecondmillenniuminthe west-ernCatalonianplainandinthePyrenees(Period1),and fromtheLateBronzeAge(Period2)ineasternCatalonia andLanguedoc.Althoughthesecropsareabundantinthe westernCatalonianplainintheSegre–CincaGroupIphase (Period1),itisintheFirstIronAge(Period3)thattheywill spreadthroughoutalloftheterritory.
Pulses,ingeneral,canbeconsideredcomplementary, since,withafewexceptions,theyareneitherubiquitous nornumerous.However,severaltypesmarkdifferences betweengeographicalareas.Thisisthecaseofthepeain thePyreneesandthefavainthePyreneesandLanguedoc. Nonetheless,thelargestdiversityofpulsesoccursduring theFirstIronAge,especiallyineasternCatalonia.Yetthe
374 N.Alonso,L.Bouby/C.R.Palevol16(2017)363–377
Fig.4. GraphicrepresentationatthefirstfactorialleveloftheresultsoftheCorrespondenceFactorAnalysisconductedontaxawitheconomicvalue.A: Taxa.B:Sites.(Period1:2100–1350/1250calBC;Period2:1350/1250–750calBC;Period3:750–600/500calBC).
Fig.4. Représentationaupremierplanfactorieldesrésultatsdel’Analysefactorielledecorrespondanceréaliséesurlestaxonsàvaleuréconomique.A. Projectiondestaxons.B.Projectiondessites(période1:2100–1350/1250calBC;période2:1350/1250–750calBC;période3:750–600/500calBC).
lentilremainsthemostfrequentandabundantthroughout thewholearchaeologicalrecord.
The only oil plant present throughout the different regions is flax. It is known since the second millen-niuminthewesternCatalonianplainandinLanguedoc. Duetopreservation,itismoreabundantanddiversified onwetlandsites inLanguedoc, where it coincides with poppy.
Regardingfruit,acornsappeartostandoutinallthe dif-ferentregionsandcertainconcentrationscanbeattributed tostorage.The13fruittaxarevealtheirgreatdiversityand thefactthatfruitharvestingplayedanimportantroleinthe economyoftheearlypopulations.Duetotheconditionsof preservation,fruitsareprobablyunder-representedatdry sites.WetlandsitesalongLanguedoc’scoast,forexample, provideamoreaccurateportraitthancharredfindsfrom
N.Alonso,L.Bouby/C.R.Palevol16(2017)363–377 375
drysites,particularlyinthecaseoffig,mastic,bramble, elder,andgrape.
Two species, olive and grapevine, are particularly importantduetothevaluetheircultivationwillattain dur-ing theIronAge. Olives intheFirst IronAge(Period 3) areonlyknownattwosettlementswithevidenceofGreek influence,notablySanMartíd’EmpúriesandIllad’en
Reix-ach(Buxó,2008).Althougharchaeobotanicalremains of
olives arescarce, it cannotberuled out thattheywere cultivatedatthistime.
Dataregardinggrapevinearenowmoreabundantand informative. The number of charred grape pip finds is progressivelyincreasingattainingubiquityvalues compa-rable tothoseof minorcereals (millet)duringthe First Iron Age (Period 2). This points out to a growing eco-nomicsignificanceofvine.Thepresenceofthisfruitfrom the7thcenturyBCinlargequantitiesatindigenoussites withPhoenicianinfluencessuchasTuródelaFontdela CanyaorSantJaume/Masd’enSerrà(Lópezetal.,2011), and/orinassociationwithcertainseedswithclear domes-ticmorphologynotably atCougourludeoratSantMartí d’Empúries(FigueiralandBouby,unpublished;Buxó,2008) indicatesthatitscultivationalready playedasignificant roleatthetime.
OtherimportantconcentrationsofVitisintheEbro Val-ley,severalhundredkilometresinlandfromthestudyarea, date to the 7th century BC. This is the case of Cabezo dela Cruz(Zaragoza)(PérezJordà 2009)and Altodela Cruz (Navarra)(Cubero,1990).These examplesserve as evidenceoftherapidspreadofviticultureintheIberian Peninsula. Thesefindsreinforcetheideathatviticulture wasalready establishedinthe7thcenturyintheregion andthatitsincreaseinubiquity,althoughnotinallcases quantifiedbyahighnumberofremains,cancorrespond toitsgeneralexpansion.Thisspreadvariesintimefrom sitetosite.GrapecultivationinsouthernFrance,notably intheRhoneValleyandthecoastalplainofLanguedoc,for example,isnotrecordedbeforethesecondhalfofthe6th orpossiblythe5thcenturyBC(Bouby,2014;Boubyetal.,
2014;PyandBuxó,2001).
Grapevinecultivationalsomarksaturningpointinthe developmentofagriculture.Infact,throughoutallofthe BronzeAge,despiteseveralinnovations,theagricultural systemremainedbasicallyunchanged.Fruittrees,initially intheformofgrapevinesandlaterolive(andfig)trees,are specieswithadelayedreturnthatbreakwithan agricul-turalrhythmthat,uptothen,wasrootedonlyonobtaining immediatereturns,intheformofgrainsandpulses.The addition of arboriculture by the northwestern Mediter-raneanpopulationthereforeimplieslong-termtiestotheir territorybecausethesetypesof cropsrequireperennial plantations.
Thequestionofwhetherthecultivationand domesti-cationofgrapesresultedfromthedynamicsofindigenous agricultureorasaconsequenceofMediterraneancolonial influenceiscompelling.Thearchaeologicalrecordatthis stagecannotprovideaclearanswer.Nonetheless,itcannot beruledoutthatthetraditionofindigenousarboriculture wasexploitedbycolonialcontactsforwineproduction.
Theincreaseinrelevanceofviticulture,togetherwith theexpansionofmillets,andtheconsolidationofhulled
barley,suggestsauniformityoftaxacultivatedinthe north-westernMediterraneanarcbetweentheEbroandRhone RiversduringtheFirstIronAge.AsgleanedfromtheCFA analysis,thesitesofthis periodaregroupedinthe cen-treofthegraph,whiledifferencesbetweenthedifferent regionsaremuchmorepronouncedduringtheBronzeAge (Fig.4).
Thechronologicalchanges incropplants thatcanbe trackedfromonemicro-regiontoanotherinCataloniaand Languedocareinaccordancewiththeglobalpictureofcrop plantsatthewesternMediterraneanandEuropeanscales. MostofthechangesidentifiedduringtheBronzeAgein thesesouthernregions,suchasthespreadand prolifera-tionofmillets,spelt,hulledbarleyandoilplants,takeplace earlierandaremorepronouncedtothenorthoftheAlps asevidencedinSwitzerlandandnortheasternFrance(e.g.,
Bouby,2014;Boubyetal.,inpress;StikaandHeiss,2013).
Ontheotherhand,thereisnoevidenceofcultivationof fruittreesin theseregionsnorthoftheAlpsduringthe BronzeAgeandtheFirstIronAge.
ThesituationinItalyseemstomirrortosomeextentthat observedinCataloniaandLanguedocwiththeoccurrence ofsimilarchanges(Castellettietal.,2001;Fiorentinoetal.,
2004;Mercurietal.,2006,2015;StikaandHeiss,2013).
SpeltseemstoplayasignificantroleonlyintheAlpinearea ofnorthernItaly,whilemilletsappeartoincreasein promi-nenceduringtheFirstIronAge.Astotheroleofemmer, thereexistslikelyasimilaritybetweennorthernItalyand southernMediterraneanFrance(Bouby,2014).
Althoughthepictureisnotentirelyclear,grape cultiva-tionappearstohavebeenintroducedearlierinItalythanin southernFranceoreveninCatalonia.Certainauthorshave evenproposedthatitwascultivatedinnorthernItalyas earlyastheBronzeAge(Bellinietal.,2008;Mercurietal., 2006).Hardevidencefromthemorphologyofpipsleadsus tosupposeitwasalsocultivatedinSardiniaabout1300BC (Orrùetal.,2013).
TurningtothesituationofcerealsintheSouth,thatis, in theregionofValencia andAndalusia, there are little changes asnaked wheats and barleys remain predomi-nant.Atransitionfromnakedbarleytohulledbarleyalso takes place in the Bronze Age. This changeis not syn-chronouswiththatoftheregionofValenciaasitdisappears inthemiddleofthesecondmillennium,whilein Andalu-sia it remains an important crop until the Late Bronze Age. However,after this period, nakedbarleyalso van-ishes(Pérez Jordà,2013; Rovira,2007; Stika and Heiss,
2013).
Emmer,althoughpresent,beginstowaneandthereis noevidenceofspelt.Millet,meanwhile,isveryrareuntil theFirstIronAge,appearingsparselyinAndalusia(Rovira, 2007)andunknownintheregionofValenciauntilthe8th centuryBC(PérezJordà,2013).
Aprofoundtransformationoftheagrarianstructureis onlydiscerniblefromthe8thand7thcenturiesBCalong the Mediterranean coastline south of the Ebro. This is markedmainlybytheimportantpivotalintroductionof fruittrees,forthemostpartgrapevine,fig,oliveaswellas pomegranateandapple/pear.Thisindicatesadiversified fruitproductiontightlylinkedtothePhoeniciancolonial presence(Pérez,2013,268).
376 N.Alonso,L.Bouby/C.R.Palevol16(2017)363–377
Acknowledgements
The authors express their gratitude to D. López, N. Rovira,R.Buxó,I.Figueiral,and P.Marinval for provid-ingunpublisheddata.TheyalsothankM.-P.RuasandD. López forphotographsof Lloand Turódela Fontdela Canya.ThetranslationisbyT.J.Anderson.NatàliaAlonso’s participationtakesplacewithintheframeworkofprojects HAR2016-78277-RandSGR2014-273.
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