A preliminary annotated bibliography on muskeg

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A PRELIMINARY ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OM MUSKEG

compiled by ANALYZED TABLE OF COMTENTS Page

...

Introduction 1

Section A. Extent of Organic Terrain

...

4

...

Section B. Origin of Organic Deposits ₅

Section C. Classification

...O...

_...

7

Seotion D. Surface and Subsurface Characteristics 8

...

Section E. Properties of Organic Soils 12

...

Section I. Road Construction over Organic Terrain 15

Section Go Bog Blasting

...O..

24

Section H. Trafficability Problems

...~.~~~~..~..~...

27

...

Section J, Miscellaneous Engineering Problems 27

...

Section K. Utilizatfon of Organic Soils 30

APPENDIX A Index sf Authors or Sources.

September 1955

Copies of shorter articles Ibted In this Bibliography may be obtained through the photocopying servlce of the National R-ch

Council. Rates for this service are as follows: To users In Canada-50 cents for a photoprlnt of any article of not more than 10 pages,

an additional 50 cents Is necessa for each additional 10 pages or fraction thereof1 To usem outside Canada-50 cents for any article of not

more than 5 pages, an a d d l t i o n ~ 50 centa la necessary for each additional 5 pages or fraction thereof. Requests for photoprints should

be addressed to the National Research Councll, Ottawa, Canada. i

Coupon8 are issued by the Council valued at 5, 25, and 50 cents. These can be used In payment for this m i c e as well as cash (damps not acceptable), money order or cheque ( ayable at par in Ottawa credit Natlonal Research Council). Coupons can be used for the

INTRODUCTION

This annotated bibliography has been compiled as

a preliminary to a research program into'the physical and

mechanical properties of muskeg

-

or "organic terrain" as it

has become known

-

to be carried out by the Division of Buildbg

Research. The references included herein are selected as bebg somewhat representative of' the much larger number which is

available, and serve to indicate the relatlve abundance or dearth

. II of information which exists with regard to the m y aspects of

organic soils and organic terrain.

It was the original intention to consider only that Literature which pertains to engineering aspects of muskeg or peat. This program necessarily underwent some revision as research proceeded and it was realized that the engineering properties of

an

organic soil are related to those factors giving rise to the formation of the deposit, as well as tci the

botanical, ecological, morphological and other features of the

soil constituents. The scope of the literature review was

broadened, therefore, to include these aspects of ~rganic soils,

which has resulted

in

a bibliography covering a much wider field

than was envisioned initially, These appears to be no paucity of published material on peat and muskeg and associated aspects. It has become evident that whereas certain features have been fairly thoroughly investigated, others have been almost entirely neglected,

For the sake of clarity and convenience, the

references have been grouped into ten general sections, When I

it was f ~ u n d that the broad scope of discussion of a particular paper would warpant its inclusion in two or more sectionsp it

has been included in that section which is representative of the I

majority of the subJect matter.

In

a few cageso howeverp a

single paper is listed in two sections, and is appropriately

noted.

Published material on the extent of organic terrain is rather scarce. No accurate figures are at present available on the extent of such deposits in Canada, but the four refekences listed I n sectionnA" give an estimate of the extent of muskeg in this country and in Alaska. Papers dealing exclusively with the origin of organic deposits are also somewhat infrequent,

although the subject is often discussed iw papers dealing

primarily with another aspect of organic soils, The five papers of section"Bn are concerned with a discussion

of"

those factors which promote the for(matfon of organic deposits,

Classification of organic soils and o~ganfc deposits

systems are used, each country usually having its own system which was devised to fulfil a particular need. The five papers of

section"Cf' indicate the philosophies of research workers in this field

in

the U.S., Canada, Ireland, and Scotland.

Section "D", which has been termed "Surface and Subsurface Characteristics", represen&a large amount of available material. The eleven papers included therein are largely concerned with descriptions of a single area of organic terrain

-

or a number of areas

-

resulting from investigation8 carried out by individuals or organizations for some specific

purpose, In some cases the references represent preliminary

information leading up to a system of classificatfon, in others

they pepresent information subsequent to a classification system,

i Frequently the investigations are carried out to determine the

utilization value of the peaty soil.

Perhaps the greatest scarcity of useful information is in the field of properties of organic soils, particularly physical and mechanical properties. Except for some work which has been done in Ireland

-

and

a

few scattered tests elsewhere

-

this %s practically a pioneer field of study. The ten references included in section "Etf appear to be practically all that presently exists on this subject.

A large number of reports have been published on

road construction over organic terrain. The twenty-seven refep- ences of section "Fff give an indication of the construct9on

techniques employed in Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States ahd Europe.

Closely associated with road construction problems is bog blasting as a means of expediting constmction. The ten reports in section "G" discuss bog blasting te@hnfquess

particularly those in use in Britain and Europe,

Little published information is available on

trafficability problems of organic terrain. Most of the research

in this field has been carried out by the armed forces9 so that reports are generally of a classified natwe. Section "H"

includes only one reference which pertains to a new type of tracked vehicle designed to traverse muskeg.

The eleven references of section "Jn deal with a number of miscellaneous problems such as railway, pipeline and airport construction on organic terrain; drainage; etc.

Published material on dfainage problems and techniques for organic terrain are all too infrequent.

Utilization of organic soils represents a field of study practically all its own. The six references of section

"K" are but a small representative fraction of the large

amount of material which is available on the many aspects of

this subject: utilization of peat as a fuel, its use as

insulation or packing material, agricultural and horticultural

uses, etc.

In

this regard, the Bord Pla Hone (Peat ~oard) l n

Ireland renders an invaluable service 'in that they prepare translations of foreign language papers (including Russian) having to do with organic soils or organic terrain, and make available abstracts and a bibliography,

This annotated bibliography on muskeg is only a prellntinary work. As has already been pointed out, the refe~ences included herein by no lneans represent all those which are available. It is hoped that I n due course further references can be read and abstracted and the bibliography extended.

A

.

EXTENT OF ORGANIC TERRAIN

A.l Brown gold of Alaska muskegs. Scientific American,

vol.

166,

April 1942, p

.198,

The 110 million acres of peat muskeg deposits in

Alaska are a veritable "Klondike" ff they could be inexpensively packed and shfpped. -Many of the bogs, with a depth of peat of' 4 to

6

feet or more, are

ac~essible from the Coast and are easily dug. The short Alaskan summers constitute a serious drawback to successful peat operations,

A.2 Dachnowski-Stokes, A.P. Peat resources in Alaska, U , S .

Department of Ag~fculture, Washington, Technical Bulletin No.

769,

April

1941.

A

comprehensive survey of the main peat bogs exist-

ing in Alaska. The primary concern of thls paper is with the agrfculturab And industrial aspects of

peat. Almost everywhere the peat areas are called "muskegs". These muskegs are grouped into three classes

-

sloped muskegs, raised muskegs, and flat

(or valley) muskegs. The terns woody peat, fibrous peat, sedimentary peat and muck are.defined. A

discussion is included of methods of cutting peat, marketing, etc.

8.3

Leahey,A. A survey of the extent 0% organic soils fn

Canada. Seminar Abstracts, Experimental F a m Service 1950-51, Department of Agriculture,

Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Aug.

15,

1951. p.150.

Soil surveyors estimate that the extent of organic soils in Canada is

435,000

square miles, ~r L1,8$ of the entire country. This is a,rough estimate based on incomplete informatLon, and includes only that terraln where the organic layer is a foot or

more in depth. The classification of organic soils by soil surveyors is lbited to peat, muck, peaty muck and mucky peat.

A.4

Levesin, H.A. Peat moss deposits in Eastern Canada,

M e m ~ Series No.

80,

March, 1941; peat moss

Jan. 1944. Bureau Of Mines, Mines and Geology Branch, Department of Mines and Resourcesp O t t a w a .

A d e s c r i p t i o n i s given of t h e g e o g ~ a p h i c a l

l o c a t i o n and general f e a t u r e s of s e v e r a l peat bogs investigated i n Eastern and Weatern Canada, Economic f a c t o r s a r e considered, such as market value of t h e peat, i t s a c s e s s i b i l i t y t o market and i t s combustible p r o p e r t i e s

.

B. ORIGIN OF O R G M I C DEPOSITS

B.1 Dachnowski-Stokes, A.P. Peat pso%%les of t h e Everglades i n Florida: t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c f e a t u r e s of t h e

'upperf Everglades and c o r r e l a t i o n with environ- mental changes. Journal of t h e Washington Academy

of Sciences, vol. 20, no. 6, March 19, 19309

p .89-107.

The primary purpose of t h i s paper i s t o t r e a t iaa a

preliminary fashion t h e general o r i g i n and nature of t h e upper portion of t h a t l a r g e s t k e t e h 0% sedge moor, t h e rnesglades of Florida, one of t h e l a r g e s t subtropical peat a r e a s i n t h e world, extend- ing from Lake Okeechobee t o t h e Gulf of Mexico. T h e e d i s t i n c t but g e n e t i c a l l y r e l a t e d s e r i e s of peat

p r o f i l e s a r e pointed out. The peat p r o f i l e s show a remarkable dependence upon inundations and o s c i l l a - t i o n s of water l e v e l awd corresponding changes i n shoae l i n e d w i n g a time r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t ,

B . 2 Lewis, F , J , and E.S. Dowding. The vegetation and r e t r o - gressive changes of peat a r e a s (91muskegs') in

a e n t r a l Alberta. Journal of Ecology, vol. 14, 1926, p.317-341.

The vegetation; h i s t o r 3 and c e r t a i n r e t r o g r e s s i v e ekanges of t h e small well-defined peat a r e a s ( c a l l e d

'muskegs'in ~ a n a d a ) i n t h e Edmonton d i s t r i c t , a r e discussed. Until more recent tirmes, sphagnum has dominated t h e auskegs, but i s now tending t o d i s - appear* t h e implfcatfonaa ~f which a r e considered. Retrogressions due t o f i r e , desiecat%on, and t h e inflow of springs highly charged with mineral matter a r e described.

B.3 MacMillan, C. On the formation of circular muskeag in tamarack swamps. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Clubr vol

.

23,

l8ggr p ,500-5Q7.

This early paper calls attention to the tension-

line between sphagnummoors and the higher forest-clad ridges surrounding such moors as they exist in

Mfmeaota. Sphagnum f ormatione with the various

attendant plants are commonly designated as "Muskeag" by the woodsmen of Minnesota, The sphagnum moors, or muskeags, are regarded as glacial ponds or lakes

I n the process of conve&bsion to fore&. Various

stages in the. transition are described (with accompany- ing photographs) from personal observations of the

author,

B . 4 Rigg, GOB. and C.T. Richardson. The development of sphagnum bogs in the S m Juan Islandso American Journal of Botany, vol. 21, Dec. 1934, p.610-622. This paper gives the profiles of eight sphagnm

bogs and discusses thelr development in Postglacial

timeso emphasizing the general course of b ~ g develop-

ment in the San Juan Islands by pointing out the

features common to all bogs, No pollen ma1ysi.s was made in this study, The Von Post scale is utilized to designate the degree of disintegration of' the peat.

B.5 Swinnertons A.A.* Peat i n Canada. Canadian Geographical Journal, vole 31, no. 1, July

,1945,

p.18.

Peat bogs are deposite of' plant materials that have

accumulated in lakes, ponds, marshes asad swamps, Such deposits form in aseaa where a lack sf drainage and consequent lack of aeration p e m i t ~ an accmula- tion of organic acids. Growth of peat bogs is very slow, varying from

a

few inches to 2 to

3

feet per century. This paper gives coaas%dsration to the

principal faoto~s prompting formation of peat, types

of peat forming plants, and a strata of an ideal peat

bog. A discussion is included on the uses of peat,

and a description is given of peat mmar%actta~"e from excavation to the finished bales.

C, CLASSIFICATION

C.1 ~ a k r ~ , T.A. Some considesation a f f eoting t h e c l a s s i f i - c a t i o n of t h e bogs of Ireland, and t h e i r peats,

Papep? Presented a t t h e Pntematf onal Peat S p p s s i m , Section B.2, Dublin, J u l y 1954.

A b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n i s given of t h e cll.m8t%c9 topo- graphical, and geological f e a t u r e s of Ireland, The

main types of bog a r e described in general t e r n s of

average depths, p r o f i l e s and appearance, with a map provided t o show t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of those types $aa r e l a t i o n t o r a i n f a l l and r e l i e f ' , ~ ~ s s % d e r a t % o n %B

given t o t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n syatems of various peat

a u t h o r i t i e s , Referenee i s made t o a tmmbek of ? W % t e ~ s , t h e elucidation of which would be of importance t o a l l those i n t e r e s t e d i n p e a t ,

C.2 Dachnowski, A.P. Peat d e p o s i t s in t h e United S t a t e s m d t h e i r classificat80amo S o i l Science* vol, 1Q9 no, 6 , July-Dec 1920, ~~4.53-465,

Consideration is given t o the area, d i s t r i b u t % ~ n and

general c h a r a e t e r i s t i e s of peat d e p o ~ i t s b. t h e

United S t a t e s . The philosophies of t h e vaaioua systems of classificatio9a, 0% peat deposits a r e discussed:

( 1 ) system of c l a s s f f Ing peat deposits based on surface vegetat ion; (2Y t opographio c l a s s i f i c a t f on of peat depositso ( 3 ) Europeaxi system of e188sifying peat deposits;

( 4 )

c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of peat deposits based on chemieal ma1yses; and (5) the s t r a t i g r a p h i c system of classf$y%ag peat deposits, The author

Favours t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c aystem aa a b a s i s f o r c l a s s i f y i n g peat d e p o s i t s %n t h e United S t a t e s ,

C .3 Dachnowski, A. P. The s t r a t i g ~ a p h f c study of peat d e p o s i t s , S o i l Science, v o l ,

1 T 9

J m 0

-

June 1924, polQ7-133, The t e n d i f f e r e n t kinds of peat m y be placed

generally i q t o 3 chief gsoupas pulpy peat l a g e r s , f i b r o u s peat l a y e r s and woody peat l a y e r s , To these might be added muck and hmub, the former being

r e l a t e d t o d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of peat and the l a t t e r i s the

r e s u l t of decomposition 0% p s a t s o i l s , An extensfve

dkacription I s given f o s examining peat deposits with

a suggestion of t h e obser~atdbons~ and re~okadeg t o makec

The paper c o n ~ l u d e s with 5 p l a t e s showing photographs of examples of t h e vasfoue types of p s a t l a y e ~ s ,

C.4 Fraser, G.K. Classification and nomenclature of peat and peat deposits. Papers Presented at the

International Peat Symposium, Section B , 2 , Dubl$ra, July 1954.

Consideration is given to various aspects of the classification of peat as a soil type, with special attention paid to those factors that promote its formation. A classification system is proposed for peat boge, dividing them broadly into two types;

1) Climatic or zonal bogs and 2) Topogenic or .

intrazonal bogs, Some terns used in peat classifi- cation are discussed.

C.5 Radforth, M.W. A suggested classification of muskeg for the engineer, National Research Council sf Canada, Associate Committee on Soil and Snow Meahwicso Technical Memorandum Noo 249 d m o 1953, Reprut from The Engineering Journal, vol. 35# noo 11, NOV. 1952, pmllgg-121Qo

The term "muskeg" oovera a wide variety of peat- like soil conditions, The author discusses the problems involved in trying to claseify such soils and intsoduces the term " o ~ ~ g m l c terrain" to

designate muskeg, peat, and muck deposits, A

classification system is suggested, which ia based on surface m d subsurface characteristics of" the organic terrain, Relevant surface charaetesistfcs include vegetation, topographyo atsd colow, Sub- surface characterfstfos are determined from micro- .&copid examha%ione by a palaeobotanist who

interprets the results in terns OF use to engineers,

D. S U W A C E AND SUBSURFACE CHARACmRBTZCS

D.1 Brooks, M. Muskeg farthest south

-

Crrnberg?~~ Glades, West Virginia. Audubon Magaz%aae, voab. lkTp May

-

J~aae

1945$

~ ~ 2 1 6 - 2 2 3 ,

This article is chiefly concerned with desc~fb9ng the birds which make the Cranberry Glades their habitat. The author gleves a brief descript%on of the vegetation of the Gladesg which he consfdegds to be typical for muskeg country as found much farther north, in Canada.

D,2 Dachnowski-Stokes3 A , Po The botanical compoaitfon and laorphological f e a t u r e s of I h i g h o o r ' peat p r o f i l e s

i n Maine. S o i l Safence, v o l e 27, Jan,

-

June 1929,

P a 379-388.

This.paper presents t h e r e s u l t s of t h e examination and a n a l y s i s of t h e p r o f i l e f e a t u r e s of t h r e e r a i s e d bogs9 o r h i g h o o ~ s ~ i n Maine. It c o n s t i t u t e s an endeavour t o give t h e botanical and morphological p r o f i l e record r e f l e c t i n g t h e succssaion of f o m e s vegetation u n i t s now forming peat d e p o s i t s ,

D . 3 HcCool, MOM. and A.G. Weidernam, A study of s e v e r a l organic s o i l p r o f i l e s . s o i l Soience, v o l e 18,

July

-

Dec. 1924, p . l l 7 , '

A number of organic s o i l p r o f i l e s were ex&edP

tests being conducted a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s t o d e t e r - mine the r e l a t i v e water-holding and wategd taking-up

c a p a c i t i e s of t h e peat.

D.4 Nicholsr GeE. Raised bogs i n s a s t e ~ n Blaine. The Geographical Reviews v o l e 7, no,

39

March B9l9, paB59-lbT.

A survey was undertaken i n 1918 t o Locate r a i s e d bogs in e a s t e r n Maine, which would be a source of s u r g i c a l sphagnum f o r t h e Amer%cm Bed Cross, A

d e s c r i p t i o n i s given of t h e geographical locat%on and general b e a t w e s of s e v e r a l bogs along t h e MaUe Coast, wjlth a discussion as t o t h e i s merit f o r t h e desired purpose,

D.5 Radforth, N O W o The use of p h m t material in the

r e c o g n i t i a i of n o r t h e m organic t e r m i n character- i s t i c s . National Research Council 0% Canada,

Associate Committee on S ~ f l and Snow MeePaanfce3 Technical Memorandum BIG; 28,, Masch, 1954, Reprint fsom Trmsaetions of t h e Royal Society of Canadao vol. XLVII, s e r . I % H 9 s e c t .

5s

June 1953# p.53-71, This paper demonatrates how aseae may be mapped aceosdfng t o surface vegetatLon, A d e s c r i p t i o n i s given of t h e valuable a i d ina i n t e r p r e t i n g and

assessing organic t e r r a i n c h a r a e t e ~ provided by

t h e occwsence of zonation in coverage vegetation

-

t h e z o m t i o n being based on "fom c o m m % t i e a " r a t h e r than on f l o r i s t i c c o m m i t i e a , Microfossil a n a l y s i s providers t h e basisa of ~ r g m $ c tekxaain

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , since it Indicates organization f o r the v e r t i c a l and horizontal axes i n t h e organic matter. D e t a i l s of the means of cor9oelating surface and subsurface d a t a a r e outlined.

D.6 Radforth, N .We Palaeobotmical method i n t h e predictfon of sub-surface summer i c e conditions i n northern

organic t e r r a i n , National Research Council of Canada, Associate Committee on S o i l and Snow Me@hani@sp

Technical Memorandum No. 34, March 1955- Reprint from Transactions of t h e Royal Society of Canada, v o l e XLVIII, s e r , 111, s e c t , 5, June 1954* p.51-64.

An I l l u s t r a t e d d e s c r i p t i o n i s given of various i c e

phenomena which occur in northern organic t e r r a i n 9 following the r e t r e a t of winter conditions. The cor- r e l a t i o n between these subsurface i c e c ~ n d i t f ~ n s and t h e vegetal coverage i s discussed. It 1s suggested t h a t subsurface i c e phenomena c m be predicted and charted Prom t h e coverage c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t e r r a i n mapping and i n i n t e r p r e t i n g a e r i a l records.

D.7 Rigg, G O B o Some sphagnum bogs of t h e North P a c i f i c Coast of America. Eco~o&;$, vol.

6,

no, 3, J u l y 1925,

~ ~ 2 6 0 - 2 7 8 .

Some 78 bogs along t h e North P a c i f i c Coast were

investigated over a 15-year period, from 1988 t o 1923, t h e r e s u l t s of which a r e discussed i n t h l s paper, The term 'tsphagnm bogt1 i s defined. Special a t t e n t i o n was paid t o t h e f l o r a of t h e bogs m d t o t h e change i n t h e f l o r a ah3 t h e bog matures. That bogs e x e r t a s e l e c t i v e influence on t h e f l o r a , i s pointed out, Depth of t h e bogs, t h e i r s u b s t r a t a , o r i g i n and development are a l l considered,

D . 8 Rigg, GOB. Motes on a sphagnum bog a t Fort Br%gg9 California. Science, v o l e

77,

no, 2805 June 2 9 19339 P-535-536,

A bog a t Fort Bsagg, 125 miles north of S m F ~ ~ C ~ S C O , is, I n t h e experience of t h e author, t h e f a r t h e s t south

sphagnum bog on t h e P a c i f i c Coast. It e o n s i s t s of t h r e e layers: l i v i n g sphagnum on the surface; a l a y e r of sedge peat; a mixed l a y e r of mud clay, s m d , m d wood. The bog has much i n cornon with c o a s t a l bogs

of Oregon and Washington, with respect t o some vegetation, f o r e s t s u c ~ e s s i o n and a l s o t o c l l m t i c

D.9 Rigg, GOB, Some r a i s e d bogs i n southaaatem Alaska with notes on flat bogs and muskegs. American J ~ u r n a l of ~ o t a n y , V O ~ . 24, April 1937, ~ ~ 1 9 4 - 1 9 8 .

The three-layeredaphagg~mbog near Juneau i a typical. of t h e r a i s e d bogs of southeastern Alaska, F l a t bogs somewhat similar t o these of western Washingt~n, Oregon

and B r i t i s h Columbia a l s o occur ~ c e a s i o n a l l y in south- e a s t e r n Alaska. The author concludes t h a t no sharp d i s t i n c t i o n can be drawn between sphagnum bogs

muskegs, o r between muskegs and tundra i n t h e c o a s t a l region of Alaska.

D . 1 0 Riggo Q,B, and C,T. R$chardaon. P r o f i l e s sf some sphagnum bogs of t h e P a c i f i c Coast of' North h e ~ i c a , Ecologyp vol. 19, 193e9 p .408-434,

The l o c a t i o n and general character ~f 19 sphagnum

bogs i n western Washington, Oregon and B r i t i s h Columbia a r e discussed with a sketch. map m d p r o f i l e of each. The general pro e r t i e s of t h e 11 kinds of m a t e r i a l

(mainly organic7 t h a t form t h i c k l a y e r s i n these bogs a r e s t a t e d , and t h e occurrence of a t h i n l a y e r of volcanic ash i n 1 2 bogs i s discussed, Some f e a t u r e s

of the u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e bogs a r e considered,

D . 1 1 Thompson, T.T,, J.R. Lorah, and G.B. Rigg. The acLdftg Q% t h e waters of some Puget Sound bogs. Journal of t h e American Chemical Society, v o l e 49, no, 2, duly

-

D e ~ o 19279 p.2981-2988.

The waters from 4 bogs i n t h e m e t Somd a r e a ware investigated t o determine t h e cause, degree and e f f e c t of a c i d i t y . The r e l a t i o n s h i p s between a c i d i t y and

organic tnatterp colour, stage of' bog su@@ession and

amount of watek were a l l iaaatest%gated. Some of the a c i d i t y in t h e waters was found t o be caused by

c a ~ b o n i c a c i d , but r e a u l t a i n d i c a t e that other cause8 a r e involved as well.

E. PROPERTIES OF ORGMIC: SOILS

E.1 Colley, B.E.+ Constructfan of highways over peat and

muck areas. America Highways, vol. 29, no. 1,

Jan. 1950, p.3-6.

This paper is based -on research conducted in

1948

Wid

1949

by the University of Floridap in co-operation with the Florida State Road Department, Methods of

road const~u~tion over peaty areas are reviewed with

special kefe~enes to the use of ve~tical sand drains,

Methods of exploratfon and sampling are described,

Physical properties such as moistwe content, organic

materialo shrinkage, specific gravity, density and

permeability are briefby discussed, and some considera-

tion is given to c~nsolfdation, direct shear and tri-

axial tests on peaty s'oil~,

E . 2 Cuperus3 J.L.A. Permeability of peat by water. Proc,

Second International Conference ~n Soil Mecbnies

and Foundation Engineering, Rotterdam,

1948,

vol, 1,

p

.258-2616,

A description is outlined 0% a special apparatus

devised to measure the pemeability of peat by water.

With this infomation at hand, a better insight is

obtained of the behaviow 0% soft peat when it has a

load of s m d brought t 8 bear upon it,

E.3 Feustel, I.C. arid H.Q. Byera. The physical and chemical

characteristics of certain Ame~ican peat profiles.

U.S. Dept. of Agricultwe, Bureau of Chemistry and

Soils Teeh. Bulletin No. 214, Washington, Mov. 1930, A comparison is presented of certain physical and

chemical eharacte~isties of peat profiles from

several' deposits, which differ widely as to type of vegetation and geographical location. Bnifom

methods are used for exmination of a wide range of physical and chemical propei?ties and are described

in detail. The properties and characteristics deter-

mined were: apparent and true specific gravity,

moisture relations (moisture equivalent and maximum

moisture holding capacity), a fractional analysis of the organic matter, elementary and psoxbaate composi-

tion, mineral con~tituents of the asho and behaviow

of certain peat samples when submerged under anaerobic conditions.

E.4 Hmrahan, E.T. The mechanical psoperties sf peat with s p e c i a l reference t o road c o n s t ~ u c t i o n . B u l l e t i n , I n s t i t u t i o n of C i v i l Engineers of Ireland, v o l e 78, no. 5, April 1952, p.179-215.

A b r i e f description i s given of the conditions of e x i s t i n g roads in bogs, f011med by a presentation of t h e r e s u l t s of an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e relevant mechanical p r o p e r t i e s of peat. Consfderat.Son i s given t o t h e following p r o p e r t i e s and c h a r a c t e r i s - t i c s : water content, voids r a t i o , s p e c i f i c gravity, density, compressibilityo time of consolidation, shear

t h (quick-trfaxial a d unconfined compression

,

shrinkage on drying, California bearing r a t i o and pewneability. The problem of drainageo r o t a t i o n a l $hear f a i l w e , v a r i a b i l i t y of bogs and t h e e f f e c t of t r e e s and vegetation a r e a l s o discussed. The pager concludes w i t h Bone p r a c t i c a l re@omendations f o r t h e design of bog roads.

E.5 H-anrahan, E.T. An i n v e s t i g a t i o n of some physical proper- t i e s of peat. Geotechnique, vol. 4, no. 3, Sept

.

1954, p .108-123.

This a r t i c l e d e a l s mainly w i t h the r e s u l t s sf a laboratory i n v e s t i g a t i o n of certain p r o p e r t i e s of peat. The v a r i a b l e nature of t h i s lkiaterial i s

described and r e s u l t s a r e given of index-property, permeability, shear and o o n s o l i d a t i m t e s t s . The decreases i n permeability e f f e c t e d by load and time a r e cons9dered. A r e l a t l ~ n s k b i p was established between s t r e n g t h and water content. It i s congiluded t h a t t h e s t r e n g t h of peat i s of a vholbly oohesive n a t w s and depends primarily on t h e water content. From an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e compressib%lity and r a t e of

consolidation, it i s concluded that for layerg of vary- ing thickness t h e magnitude arwd time of settlement

depend on the r a t i o of t h e thickness, and t h e square of t h e r a t i o of the thickness mapectively, f o r a considerable period a f t e r t h e completion of t h e phase of pore water p r e s s w e .

E.6 Hanrahan, E.T. Factors a f f e c t i n g s t r e n g t h and defamation

of peat. Papers Presents6 a t the Xntermtional Peat Symposium, Section B. 3, Dublin, J u l y 1954.

T h i s paper d e a l s with a laboratory investigation, by s o i l mechanics methods, of t h e behaviow of peat under s t r e s s . The peat was studied a t high water contents such as obtained in drained bogs QT i n peat compressed

by roads or embankments, The use OF the trimcia1 I

compression apparatus for investfgation of sksa~$ng strength is described, and results given of tsiaxial tests, during which pore water ppesswe measurements were made, The conclusion was drawn. that peat is wholly cohesive in character, depending primarily on water content aceording to an established relation-

ship. Results of consolidation tests are given,

demonstrating the behaviow of peat under compression

in both primary and secondary phases of one-dimensioqal consolidation,

E . 7 Henry, D.C. Misc~llmeous highway kssation a d construction problems. Contractor's Record, v01. &CIS no,

3,

1949, p.22-24. Road Abstracts, v01. 3.7, no.

94,

1950.

This article, the first fn a series concerned with location and construetion problems OF highways,

discusses the constitution and engineering properties of peat, and methods of constructing soads across peat,

E . 8 Smith, A.H.V. A survey of s ~ m BrLtish peats and their

strength characteristfca. Axmy Operati~abal Research Group, Report No. 32/49, London, February,

1950.

Undertaken in

1949,

this survey was carried out with the purpose of m e a s w i ~ g the shearing ~esiatance of peata, for the production of tsafficabflity maps and

to provide data %or the designers Q% tracked vehicles,

The strength of the peats was measured with a vane apparatus. The peat deposits investigated were

classified into three categories: blanket bogs raised bog and fen peat. The factom %f%@~ting the shearing resistance of peats are discussed. The average ultf- mate beashg; capacity of all the peat8 examined 9s estimated t~ be about 10 p.s,%. It is ehom that peat deposits, especially those of the raised bog type, are easily recognizable from aerfal photographs,

E . 9 Thonpson, J.B. and L.A. pa be^. Report of consolfdatfon

tests with peat. Symposium on Consolidation Testing of Soils, A.S.T.M. Special Technical PublicatSon NO. 126,

1952,

p.4-8.

Extrene settlement of two earth-filled concrete

barricades built on a site reclaimed from a tidal

marsh prompted

a

study o r the coneol'9dation character- istics of the underlying peat. Results indicate that

thepe is no line of demrcatfon between primary and secondary consolidation, the primary phase apparently being completed in less than one minute. The authors, conclude that regardless of the thickness of the

sample, the rate of strain is the same. A further conclusion is that using vertical sand drains to

stabilize a stratum of peat soil is futile9 since the rate of consolidation is independent of the distance of flow 0% the pore water,

E.10 Ward, W.H. A slip in a f l ~ o d defence b cOnst*u@ted On

a

peat bog, Pk06. Second International Conf'erence on Soil Mechmics and Bsmdation Engineering,

Rotterdam,

1948,

vol. 2, p,19-23.

This paper discusses the causes of slip in dikes

constructed on a peat bog base and from peat dug From borrow pits alongsf de

.

Some coabaidekation is given to certain physical and mechanical chsacteristics,

such as: water content, unconfined compressive

strength and shear strength. Stability of the slip was malysed to provide a rational basis $or design

of ~emedial measures, giving a check on the use of

unconfined aompseaaiva strength in assessing immed- iate stability, The author eoaacludes that an

appreciable change in the water content of peat has little effect on its strength, variation in strength

.being largely due to different plant fibre structwea and degree of hm66"icatione

F.1 Baiseo W.V. Hydraulic fill causeway replaces floating road, Construction Methods9 vole 27, no.

7,

July 1945, p .88-900

184,

186,

188*

Serious subsidence of the eastern approach road to Elizabeth Citys N.C, led to the construction of a new causeway in 1942. The reaonat~uction is described of the road) whfch crossed a swamp

consisting of 18 to 30 feet sf' inundated peat over-

lying a solid s ~ i l $oundat%on, Construct%on

procedure was to dredge out the peat and muck to % o m a trench

60

feet wide, This was subsequently filled with sand, brought from nearby borrow pits in. the

form of a slurry9 tbough pipe lues, which reached a mile in length in some irastmces,

See also: Dredges build a swamp road* En ineering

117.

8

Mews-Record, vol.

135,

no.

4,

July

26, 19

5,

p.114-

F.2 Blmer, A. A road on an unstable subgrade. Schweizerzeit ,

Strassenwesen, Bd. 209 NP.

14, 19349

5.145-152 (in German).

Road Abstracts, vol, 1, no.

488,

1934-35,

The author describes an Lnvestigation carried out on the subgrade of a typical st~eteh of the Bilten

-

Ussbuhl Road between the Wallensee and the Lake of Zurich in S w i t e e ~ ~ m d . The soad was underlain principally by peat, interspersed with lenticular

deposits of loam. Seismogsaphic investigations carried out on the road before and after peeonstruction are described. The variation of the groundwater level and the acidity of the water are discussedp and the cow- clusion dram that the bearing power of the peat varies with the degree of aatu~ation., The paper concludes with

an outline of the method of ~econstruction of the m a d to counteract the effect of the weak subgrade.

F . 3 Bruce, Robert. The Great North Road over the Grmpiaahs.

Min. of Proc, of InstitutBon of C%vil Engineers,

London, vol. 232, part 2,

1930-31, ~~113-154,

This paper e~nstitutes a thorough report QI the history, design, and details of' the re~~nstsaactfoaa of a road

over the Grampian Mountains of Sootland in 1924. The road was carried across peat bogs for a t ~ t a l distance of 1 mile, 110 yards in its

7 8 - ~ % ~ e

length. The

greatest depth of peat eneomte~ed was

15

feet,

Desfgn details are given for the reinforced concrete rafts used to traverse the bog;s.ad the method of field construction 1s described, ,

F.4 Burton, V.R. and A.C. Benkehm, pus the^ study of $111

settlement in peat marshes. Good Roadss vsl.

72,

no.

3,

March

1929,

p.142-14ss

155,

156.

Unusual trouble in the conatx?uction andl mintenmce of roads over peat marshes in Michigan prompted a survey of the existing roads over peat bogs, Those factoss which were consideked to have an effect upon the depth of penetration and lateral displacement of fills were: 1) chakaoter~ and depth of peat layesings;

2) character of fill material; 3) method used in construction of fill. Analysis of the results of the survey shows that pavement eettlement is proportional to the depth of the peat prcifile, and also to the degree of penetratLon of the peat by the fill materials.

F.5

Butters, A.E. Construction of roads and culverts over soft peat bo

.

Highways, B ~ i d g e s and Aerodromers,

%

vol. 15, p.7 1, Supplement i-ii; Discussionsp vol.

%5#

p.765, Supplement iv and xiip

1949,

Road Abstracts, vol, 17, no. 113, 1950.

The actual constsuction is described of a road and

culverts across a soft peat bog in Bedfordshireo England. The depth of the peat was almost 20 feet, The road was c~nstructed on an embankment approximately

6 feet deep. First a 6-inch reinforeed concrete mattress was laid on the @;rdund surface, and on this was spread a 12-inch layer of brick rubble. Sand fill-

. ing was placed on the rubble in 12-inch layers and compacted. Settlement m e a s w m e m t s were taken dw%ng

constmactfon. Factors influencing the design of beinforced concrete culverts are fully described, as are the site condit$ons md.methods sf const~~uctioa.

F.6 Colley, B.E.+ Construetion of highways over peat and muck areas. American Highways, vol, 29, no, 1, J m o 19509

p.3-6.

This paper is based on r e s e m c h conducted in 1948

and 1949 by the University of Florida in co-operation with the Florida State Road Department. Methods of road construction over peaty areas are reviewedp with special refers~ce to the use of vertical sand drains. Methods of exploration =P,d sampling are desc~ibed. Physical properties such as mofstwe content, o r g m f e mate~?ial, shrinkage, specific gravity, density and

permeability are briefly dfacussedo and some consfdera- tion is given to consolidat~on, direct shear a d trf- axial tests on peaty soils.

B . 7 Gushing, J.W. and 0.L. Stokstad, Nethods and costs of

filling of highway over swmgs. Engineerfag Mess-.

a Record, vol. 114, no.

4$

Jan.

-

June 1935, po126-129.

This article presents the psactfces of the State

Highway Department of Michigan 9x1 buildfrag roads over

swamps. Emphasis is placed oqthe kind of fill material to be used and the proper. timing of steps

in the construction of an embankment, sather than on the excessive use of explosives, Included is a discussion of various methods of construction over peat, with details of excavation and water- jetting. Cost data are outlined,

F

.8

De Bussy, Le C. Holland1 s roads. Ingeni#ren, vol.

56$

no.

5, 1947,

~ ~ 8 1 7 - 8 2 1 ; Road Abstracts, 1701.

15,

no, 127,

1948,

Road requirements in Denmark and Holland are briefly compared, and the planning and construction of roads in Holland are dfscussed with regard to administrative and financial problems. Particular attention is paid to conditions p~evailiarg in west Holland where %he

subsoil consists of alluvial clay or mud and large peat deposits with very low bearing capacity. Methods of constr~uction of roads over such unsuitable material are described, Included is a discussion of the

present state of Holland's roads, with a brief account of the items to be taken into consideration in

estimating the value of a motor road.

F.9 Dibbits, H.A.M.C. Road constkuction on soft subsoil. Pssc,

Second International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Rotterdam,

1948,

vol.

6,

p .42-45.

In the western part of the Hetherlmd~a~ the subsoil consists of peat and clay layers of a thickness up to 18 metres in some placea. The low bearing capacity of these soils imposes difficult problems in road construction, This paper" discusses in detail the

methods utilized in building roads over soft subsoils, dividing them into three main groups: (1) compression of soft subsoil by weight of: roadbed; ( 2 ) partial

removal of soft soil layers and replacing with sand;

(3)

transfer of roadbed weight to underlying sand strata by wooden or reinforced concrete Foundation elements.

F.10 Ddcker, A, Vertical sand drains:as a m e m s of accelerating settlement and of securing the stability of road

embankments in districts with peaty soils. Strassen u o Tiefbau,Bcl. 4, Nr. 11,

1950,

S.279-283 (in German).

Road Abstractsp vol.

$9,

noo 23, 1952.

"This technique has been suceessfully applied to a

of the construction of a by-pass on peaty soils in Schleswig-Holstein. Constmctiom methods used

and results obtained are described and are compared

It

with American experience, .

F.11 Dryburgh, F.B. and E.R. McKillop. Construction and main- tenance OF roads over peat. National Research

Council of Canada, Associate Committee on Soil and Snow Mechanics, Technical Memorandum Mo. 29,

July

1954,

14p. (Publfshed with permission of the Director, Road Research Laboratory, D.S,L.R. Great ~ritain) ,

This memorandum includes 8 paper by each of the

authors

-

and subsequent discussions

-

as presented to a conference (sponsored by the British Road

Research ~aboratory) at Bvekness, Scotland, in

March,

1953.

Practical aspects of construction and maintenance of roads over peat are discussed in some detail: design of roadway embankment and surfacing, drainage, construction of culverts, etc. The need

is expressed f ~ r more basic knowledge of peat behaviour

.

F.12 Fine, Manuel 8 , .Roads over muskeg. A n unpublished thesis of the Faculty of Applied Science a d Engineeringg Department of Civil E-ag%nserfng

,

Unfve~sity of Toronto, Dec.

1951.

This thesis attempts to c~llect and correlate information on the substasface characte~istics of muskeg, the physical and me~hanical properties and the classiffcation of organic soils employed. From

\ this information, the engineering pkoblem involved

in road construction ovep muskeg or organic ter~ain

is analysed and the methods of crossing under various conditions are discussed.

F.13

Groschopf, P. Bogs and peat I n road construction. Strassenbau, Bd. 27, NP.

14,

1936,

5.20 -211 (in

B

ema an).

Road Abstracts, vol.

3,

no,

3

4,

1936-37.

From 4 to

5

per cent of the total area of Germany

consists of bogs which oscw most frequently in the northwest provinces. Ia flat bogs, the actual depth of the peat varies from

6

to 14 feet, but the peat is generally underlain by highly organic mud or ooze of low organic content, constituting unstable deposits

must be preceded by extensive soil surveys.

Sphagnum peat bogs occur in areas of high rahfall and vary in depth from

18

to

26

feet. Such deposits can frequently be removed as a preliminary to road construction.

_.

F.14 Hanes, C.R. Grading job overruns 1500 per cent. mginees- in News-Record, vol.

144,

no.

17,

April 27,

19509

fi

P.

3.

happarentlysimple 30-day job of raising the grade of 1500 feet of State Highway 18 near Wellington, Ohio, involving

8,397

cu.yd. of fill, developed into a 15-month job, involving

135,000

cubic yards. The embanbent was built of clay material and when it was subjected to heavy traffic, extreme settlement was experienced, coupled with violent upheaval of the peat alongside and cracking of the road surface. Fill was added until the accelerated settlement desisted. Airfield landing mats were then placed over the cracks in the embankment and a layer of compacted earth laid, followed by a sand-gravel mix. F.15 How Erikson uses vertical sand drains to stabilize fomda-

tion for fill. Pacific Builder and Engineer, vol.

51,

no. 10,

1945,

p.56-57* Road Abstracts, vol. 13, no. 629,

1946.

"A description of the successful use of vertical sand

drains in constructing a stable embankment across a swamp without removing the peat.

"

F.16 Huizinga, T.K. Design of cross section of earth embwkmenta. Highway Research Board, vol.

18,

no. 2,

1938,

p.81-92. This paper refers particularly to embankment construc- tion in the western Netherlandso where the soil

consists mainly of peat and marine clay, resting on sand. Such soils are characterized by low density and high compressibility. The depth of the unstable material may reach

60

feet with the groundwater level near the surface. Design of embankments is discussed

on the basis of results of a series of cone penetro- meter tests carried out in the subsoil,

F.17 Markwick, A..H.D. Road cons3tsuction on peat foundations. Roads and Road Construction, vol. 27, no, 203, HOV

.

.

1939,

p

.343-345.

ii * p s l r n

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rl O Q 1 @ O @ k & P s s i c c l

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m a r l

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0 %

$

td a m k r l si" Pi&'

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outlined %or c o n s t ~ u c t f n g roads acposs peat, t h e method emplopd generally depending rapon l o c a l eondit ions.

P.21 Richardson, H.W. l l c m

-

her%c&rls Glory Woad,

Bn ineering Hews-Record, v01b 129, nos 25, Dec, 17, 19

!t

2, p.859-$72; vol. 129, no. 2 q 9 Dee, 31, 1942,

p.907-914; v o l e 130, noo 2 9 Jan, 149 1943,

p.63-70.

D u p i n g t h e conrst~uetfota 0% the AIcm H%ghway, muakeg

deposits were g e m e ~ a l l y sk i r t e d when e r n s ~ u n t e ~ e d , so succeasfukly that f o r one 265-mile s t r e t e h only 4 miles of knuakeg were c r s ~ s e d , andl that with B f t t l e difficaillty. When muskeg eouBd not be avo%Bsd,

corduroy conatruct%on o r gravel f i l l was used to

cross i t , although in so10 cages 1% was excavated by dragline.

B.22 Sand drains -stalled a t marsh aoossbg, m t t e k Roadss v o l e 19, no,

6,

Jme

1949,

po39-40. Road A b s t r a c b o vol, 18, no.

346,

1951,

The emb-ent approach t o a new bridge carrying

Hew Jersey Route 35 across t h e I + & m s s q u R%ver i n l e t waEa constructed over marshy g r ~ m d , in which a f i m

strat- of ~ a m d w d e r l i e ~ a b ~ ~ ~ 30 f e e t OF grey s i l t y mud and 10 fee$ o f wet peat, V e ~ t & @ s l , esmd

drains t o t a l l i n g 1570888 I-, ft , were placed t o s t a b i l i z e t h e emb-ent foupdation, B e t s i l a of t h e

method of finstalling these s m d drains ape d e s c ~ f b e d . F.23 S c h e i d e ~ , J. Roads i n peat a o m t r y , Stmsse u, VeHPkeh~~

Bd, 27, Hr, 21, 1941, S,

401-408

(in. Ge

1

Road Abstracts, v o l ,

9,

no. 251, 1942,

This paper presents an i l l u s t r a t e d description of measures taken in Switzerland t o ensure e t a b i l i t y of macadam-surfaced roads 0n pea$$ ~ s i L s , The

method~s of e s n s t ~ u e t f o n adopted f o r new ~ o a d s vaz"%ed according t o the t k f c b e s s ~f t h e peat and Included:

1 ) replacing the peat bx a t a b l e material; 2 ) c o v e r b g

very deep peat w i t h a c r i b of pft-gropes, on which ia

b u i l t a low ennbadment;

3)

pbac-g t h e s~bankmeat i n peat coveped with

an

l ~ s u 1 a t f o n ~ 8 ~ of ~ 3dandy 6

gravel. A d e t a i l e d descrfptionn f e given. sf t h e proBlems encoutntssed fn t h e a o n s t ~ u ~ t % o n of a m a d on a t h i n l a y e r of pest resting on boulder @lay.

F.24 Stoddart, H.A. The probleasla of Alaska road-builders, Western Construction, vol, 27, no. 2, 1952, p.71-73. Road Abstracts, vol. 19, no.

6V9

1952.

A brief Burvey is given of the difficulties arising out of building roads acksss makeg and permanently frozen ground in Alaska. Organis soil deposit8 vary in depth from 2 to 20 feet and may be 3000 feet

across, Methods 0% road constrta@t%on across such

unstable material include: 1) exeavatiag e~bd

replacement by granular mtesisel for ashablow depths;

2) g ~ m u l a r fill placed on top Q% the o~ganfc deposit $or greater depths. A sketch map sf roads

in Alaska is included.

F.25 Taber, S. Some problems QE road eonstsuetion and mainteraanae I n Alaska. Public Roads9 vol. 23, no,

9,

July

-

Sept

.

1943, p

.

247.

This report is a dfscucssion of' the p~oblems whish confront the smgihra@e.r who is building m d maintain- ing roada in Alaeh, Some 0% the moat outstanding

difficulties encountered are; p e m f k o s t , which presents ex@avation g~oblema; asg~egation of water

in the f o m 0% ice dwisae; the $P~@z- of ~ ~ f l ~ j differential fkost heaving) whfch can be vepy

damaging to roads; high moisture content of the extensive "spongy" orgeuai.6 as%lss which ~staigl tlaefr moistwe d w i n g thawing 3.a the summer; b w % a l of highways under ice; and % P o o d ~ .

~ . 2 & Walsh, A. California coast road projeet. Roads and

Streets, va1.

85,

no.

7,

1942, ,19-23. Woad

t

Abstracts, vol. LO9 no. 162

,

19

3.

A pealigned portion of the a ~ a s t m a d between Watsonville and Rob Roy Ju@t%b;an, Calif'omfap

crossed several areas conaiating of alluvial soil

and semi-fluld peat, A dletaiBsd description is given-of the rneth~d of In~taBling sand drains to stabili ze e~bankmeats on them matable soils.

B .27 Zill, E. Consrtructf on of motor k ~ a d ~ throra h moorlands.

t

Die Bautechnik, Ed. 23, lp, 2g9

1935,

S. 00-402,

Road Abstracts, vole 2, no. 432$ 1935-36. When roads are to be built lnoo~laUBd~

soils should be removed to the proper width and replaced by an adequate filling. Details are given for methods of excavation

of

mosrrlmd9 including dredging, b1ast-g and jetting, with a discussion of the relat%ve merits of eaah fop different types of moors. The paper concludes

with recommendations for transporting and dumping the soil excavated.

Go BOG BLASTING

G.1 Bog blasting. The Engineer, voL. 166, A u g ,

59

1938,

p*1400

The technique is diseuaaod of excavating a bog

once the fill has been placedg by placing ohargea beneath the fill and blasting, The underfill metbod only i a c ~ n s i d e r e d , Several. examples are cited of bog blasting ope~atiosas~ chiefly Bn

Germany.

6.2 Bog blasting l n Worthern Ireland. Roads a d Road C O ~ S ~ ~ U C ~ P O ~ ~ V Q ~ . 27, 3-949, .322-364*

t

Road Abstracts, v o l .

lao

no. BBp

3.950.

An experiment in bog; bhaatkng was eaat?r%ed out in Northern Ireland, USUAQ the undesFiEl. blasjtMg and toe-shooting methods. Ih both methods, the peat is displaced when the cha~gss are fireds and the embanhnsnt then settles i n t o the oavfty so formed.

G.3 Casagsandep L. The blaatmg of marshes, Stmasea

Bd.

6,

Mr. 1,

1939,

5.20-23 (in Oemm Road Abstraats, vsl. Q s no.

299,

1939-

"An illustrated account is given sf the use of the blasting process in road aonstruction through mar~shes, The author surveys the development of the methods employed and eatmatea the redu@tisn in the cost in m0v3ng unstable mate~lal~ which bas been made possjbble with the introduction of the process."

~ . 4 Duncanp R e C e r J.S.K. DaPz~2.1, and F o H e P e W$llfms, A full-seals experiment i n bog blasting for road const~uction. The Ust$tut%oa% 0% Cfvfl

Engineers, London, Road FagJt;neermg Division, Session 1950-51, Road Paper No. 32,

A review is given

OF

the development of the bog

blasting process, where the construction ok stable

embankments oves peat or silt is achieved by the displacement of' the weak material by means of

explosivees m d its replacement by a suitable filling. A series of full-acale.experiraasnts in.

Northern Hselmd is described in Qetaiab. Results indicate that the esst of the operation @~mapoza"es

favourably with no-1 excavation methods. A

comprehensive bibliography 1s included,'

G.5 Jeffries, J.M. Building soads tbsugh unstable ksxmations,

civil Engineering

~ N , Y , B ~

vo8, Go no,

5B

May

1936,

p.

317-328.

A desc~fpt%~n fa given sf methods 0% pb86iI3g m

embmkmemt aver a peat bog sr swamp, util$z%ng

dmam9te to diapbace the matable sef~. Two

methods of settlement a% the fill are outlined in detail: the wedge aaaethod a d the toe-dmping method. The coat of excavating i o s a fill %a often less than the over-aLB cost of mainta3aing

the grade of a m a d floated on. the swamp surface,

G

.6

~ ~ e s e . A. The removal of peat by blasting in the

constmction of the ' G e ~ d m mastor soada. Verkehrateebiik, M 0 NP, 17,

1935,

53.459

(in ~ e m m H a ) , Road Abatraots, v o l , 2, no, 489,

1935-36

Entirely aat%sfaetomj results are reported in the

use of explosives l o r the emo oval of a peat

deposit underlying the $mbankment for the Berlin

to'F~aWust-on-the- ode^ not8~3 roadc The f % P l

was placed on the peat, then marginal blasts

followed by the main central blasts displaced the

peat, pemnittbg the fflb to settle to a more

stable foundation.

G.7 Parsons,

A.W.

Accelerated settlement sf embankments

by blastLng, F%.~blfc Roads, V Q ~ , 209 noo 109

The use of blasting is desc~fbed i n effecting the settlement of a fill en a section ~ f ? the Wa~hington Primary State Highway between Quilcewe and Sequ%aaz. The swamp deposit consisted of alternate layers of

peat and clayI attaining a total depth sf 3.5 ts

26

feet, The method of blasting is outlined, with details of spacing and depth 0% ahargesa etc.

G.8 Usinger, C, and A, Gmraa, The esonomy of the marsh

blasting process ( ~ f e W%~tachaft%ichkeit des

~oorsprenguesfahrens), Bors~hwgsgesellschaft

fur das St~assenwesen e,v, Borse

aus dem Strassen~esen~ Bd, 4, Berlin,

1937

Qvslk

und Reich TTerlag) &in ~ e Road Abatapacts, ~ ~ ,

vol. ,!jO no, 286,

1938-39,

"In the construction of embankments for the German

motor k0adss blasting bas been employed %or

obtaining satisfactory foundations in swapso peat, ooze and similar soft g ~ o m d , An earth e m b m e n t is built on the soft material, which

is then dPspPaced by exploding oharges beneath the embankment. The methods used and experience galned ape reported $gay detail and the economic

value of the process is exmined,"

G.9 Von Gottsteao E, The blasting sf peat, Strassenbau,

Bd.

29,

MP. 1,

1938,

Sol-4 (in h3e

9,

~ o a d

Abstractss vole 5, noo

1938-39,

Some areas of G e m n u kave matable strata consisting of peat, ooze o r silt attaining a thickness of up to 60 feet, A b~ief e~itieal review is given of the standard methods ~f k ~ a d

conatmction ac~csss such mate~ial, The use sf

explosives for dealing w f t h large peat deposit8 is considered in some detail, particularly the

underfill method, PaPa~ti~al exwpLes of the blasting process are dessr%bed a d illustrated, G.10 Zavity, H.B, A method of quick settlement of fills,

Canadian Engineerp vole

76,

no, Igs

19351~

p,4-6, Two variations are desc~ibed in the blasting method to bring about the quick settlement of'

fills, One method ks to place the e m b m e n t on the swamp and blast the peat fnaom underneath; the other is to blast a t r e n ~ h ahead of the

H. TWFICABUaITH PROBLEM

H . l All-track vehicles f o r use i n muskeg azbssas. C i v i l Engineering, v o l e 24, no,

86

August $9543 p088.

Discussion: vol. 24, no, LOs Oct. 1 9 5 b p.66.

A brief description i s given 0% t h e muakeg

t p a c t o r developed by t h e Gulf Oil Corp, for o i l exploration fgz muskeg aleeaa during the a

Two tandem wheal t r a c k s 29 iaa@hee wfds present

5,000 sq. in, 0% surface t o the groundg exerting

a maximum preeawe of la p,s.i. w i t h a load of

2508 l b o jlaa addition t o f t a o m weight 0% 5008 Ibo

The length i s 12 feet, the width 7 b e e t .

See also: "Muskeg buggy aids Canadian explorationt', The Petroleum Engineero v o l e 26, no. 9, Aaag. 1954, p. 106-108.

J.1 Amy builds on a r c t i c afrbase. EaaginsrLng News-Records

vole 125s no. 172 19409 pq558-559 0

Certain d i f f i c u l t i e s are deswibed i n the c o n s t m c t i s n 0% the U , S , A a%srbase a t Ladd

F i e l d o Alaska. An 18-i.mh layep of muskeg

covered t h e 1000 acre s i t e , providing an h s u l a - t i o n blanket t o keep the m d e ~ b y i n g s o i l p e m e n t l y ,frozen, The blanket was stpipped off and the frozen

ground excavated by blasting, Detafba sf ~ m w a y

layout, ' aubgrade constsfuat%~a and c o n e ~ e t e pouring a r e out lined.

- 5 . 2 Brown, H.D. Conatructbon of the Eadssn Bay Railway.

The Canadian Englmeer, vsl. 61,

Aw0

25, 1931, p o l B a

A discussion of some 0% the problems encountered i n t h e constmct$on 0% the Hudaon Bay Railway,

with a brief histor%ea$ baekgromd. The ~ a % l w a y

i s 510 a l e s long, 315 miles sf which i s mu~ksg embankment. The muskeg was stripped i n l a y e ~ s

(by hand) from the ground ad$acelrat t o the lines