The Lexical Notebook as a Means to Develop Vocabulary in EFL Classes:

The People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Djillali Liabes University of Sidi Bel-Abbes

Faculty of Letters Languages and Arts

Department of English

The Lexical Notebook as a Means to Develop Vocabulary

in EFL Classes

:

The Case of First Year Benmaissa Bachir

Secondary School, Sidi Bel-Abbes

Dissertation submitted to the Department of English in partial fulfillment

of the requirement for the degree of Magister in Didactics

Presented by: Supervisor:

Mrs. Bouroumeid Arab Kheira Dr. Bouhass Benaissi Fawzia

Board of Examiners:

Pr. Melouk Mohamed MC-A President UDL, Sidi Bel-Abbes Dr. Bouhass Benaissi Fawzia MC-A Supervisor UDL, Sidi Bel-Abbes Pr. Merbouh Zouaoui MC-A Examiner UDL, Sidi Bel-Abbes

Dedications

―Words are singularly the most powerful force available to humanity. We can choose to use this force constructively with words of encouragement, or destructively using words of despair. Words have energy and power with the ability to help, to heal, to hinder, to hurt, to harm, to humiliate and to humble‖

Berg, Y.

I dedicate this modest work to all those who chose to use their most powerful force constructively to help and heal me with their words of encouragement.

In memory of my father and my brother, may Allah bless them.

To my beloved mother.

To my tender husband Zouaoui for his endless patience, understanding and support and to my dearest children Taib Hichem, Achraf and Hadile Rachida.

To my family and friends and all those who supported me all along the way,

Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I would like to express my warm thanks, deepest appreciation and profound gratitude to my teacher and supervisor Dr. Benaissi Bouhass Fawzia for her continuous support. I am deeply indebted to her also for reading all my drafts and providing professional advice and constructive feedback on almost every aspect of the study. Without her valuable supervision and words of encouragement, this research work would not have been possible.

I would also like to extend my sincere thanks to the honourable members of the jury who accepted to specify some of their precious time to examine and evaluate this modest work, namely, Pr. Melouk Mohamed and Pr. Marbouh Zouaoui from the University of Sidi Bel-Abbes.

My deepest gratitude also goes to all the teachers who have instructed me at the University of Djillali Liabes, namely my supervisor Dr Benaissi, Dr Mostari, Dr Guerroudj, Pr Merbouh, and with a special thank to Pr. Melouk for his fairness and rigorousness at work.

I must also express my appreciation to all my classmates of the « Magister-Didactics » 2012/2014 for their constant support and solidarity, namely Miss Sehli Naima, Miss Amari Samia, Miss Bentamra Soumia, and Mrs. Bouchougrane Zohra. I would like to thank Mr. Baraka Abdellah for believing in me and Miss Baghli Esmaa for her interminable support that made me not to give up.

I also owe a debt of gratitude to the EFL teachers at Okbi Ali and Benmaissa Bachir secondary school, above all, to Mrs. Djellouli Fatima, who accepted to take part in this study and provided me with useful insights of the EFL teaching situation in the secondary education.

Last, but by no means least, I would like to express my special thanks to the first year scientific stream pupils of Benmaissa Bachir, who participated in the experimental work and whose collaboration did so much to the elaboration of the present study.

Finally, I am grateful to the University library staff, particularly to Mrs. Miloua Nadjet for her valuable help.

Abstract

The last five decades or so witnessed a fundamental shift in the beliefs concerning foreign language learning. Results concerning the traditional teaching methods were unsatisfactory and scholars started to target communicative competence as the primary objective of foreign language learning in response to the needs of the globalized society. Likewise, Algerian EFL pupils study foreign languages, namely English, for communicative purposes. Yet, such objective seems to be far beyond the actual proficiency level of our EFL pupils.

The present research has been conducted to shed light on the difficulties that hamper the pupils from using EFL effectively. In this respect, the current study assumes that pupils‟ limited vocabulary is the major cause of their weak proficiency level in English. The lack of vocabulary not only prevents the pupils from participating in the lesson or expressing themselves in writing, but it also obstructs their listening and reading comprehension. As such, vocabulary plays a significant role in the teaching/learning process of EFL. The study also seeks to demonstrate the positive effect of the vocabulary notebook in helping the pupils‟ to develop their English repertoire which in turn would enhance their proficiency level in the four language skills.

This research work is split up into four chapters; the introductory chapter is concerned with the methodological approach being adopted in this study. Its main focus is on the description of the target population, the research design and procedure used for data collection. The second chapter is rather reserved to the literature review of the vocabulary knowledge and the lexical competence; through discussing their definitions and importance in both comprehension and communication. Particular attention is being paid to the use and benefits of the lexical notebook. Chapter three tries to display the data gathered using two questionnaires and three tests. The findings are then analysed and interpreted with reference to the research problematic and in the light of the vocabulary teaching principles. These principles are afterwards summarized and presented in chapter four. The last chapter also suggests some recommendations regarding the organization of the vocabulary notebook, the importance of continuity in EFL and vocabulary teaching, i.e. the gap bridging between middle and secondary school and the roles teachers and pupils should assume to assure the success of EFL learning.

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

AEF: Algerian Framework of Reference

ALTE: Association of Language Testers of Europe BAC: Baccalaureate

BEM: « Brevet d‟Enseignement Moyen » (Middle school certificate) BNC: British National Corpus

CBA: Competency Based Approach

CEFR: Common European Framework of Reference CFL: Common Framework Levels

CFR: Common Framework of Reference CLT: Communicative Language Teaching

COCA: Corpus of Contemporary American English EFL: English as a Foreign Language

ELT: English Language Teaching ESL: English as a Second Language FL: Foreign Language

GE: « Gestion et Economie » (Economy and Management Stream) GTM: Grammar Translation Method

HFW: High Frequency Word

L&PH: « Lettres et Philosophie » (Literature and Philosophy Stream) L1: First Language

LE: « Langues Etrangères » (Foreign Language Stream) LLS: Language Learning Strategies

M: Mathematics Stream

MT: « Math Technique » (Technical Mathematics Stream) SCFR: Saskatchewan Common Framework of Reference SE: « Sciences Experimental » (Experimental Sciences Stream) SL: Second Language

VKS: Vocabulary Knowledge Scale VLS: Vocabulary Learning Strategies VLT: Vocabulary Levels Test

List of Tables

Chapter One

Table 1.1. Time Allowance of ELT for First Year Secondary School . . . 11

Table 1.2. Time Allowance of ELT for Second and Third Year Secondary School . . . .11

Table 1.3. Final Checklist of Teaching Principles . . . 15

Table 1.4. CEFR Global Scale . . . 24

Table 1.5. A Sample of the AEF . . . 25

Table 1.6. English BAC Results of Benmaissa Bachir Secondary School, 2013 . . . .. 27

Chapter Two

Table 2.2. Dimensions of Vocabulary Assessment . . . 70

Table 2.3. Features of Language Learning Strategies . . . .72

Table 2.4. Schmitt‟s Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies . . . .74

Chapter Three

Table 3.2. Teachers‟ Evaluation of the English Level Through Generations . . . 84

Table 3.3. The Importance of Language Components According to EFL Teachers. . . .84

Table 3.4. Teachers‟ Answers about Aspects of Word Knowledge . . . 86

Table 3.5. Teachers‟ Use of the Teaching Techniques . . . .87

Table 3.6. Teachers‟ Answers for the Used Vocabulary Learning Strategies . . . 89

Table 3.7. Teachers‟ Suggested Causes for Pupils‟ Failure in English . . . .94

Table 3.8. Pupils‟ Attitudes towards English . . . 98

Table 3.9. Frequency of Pupils‟ Listening Comprehension . . . 99

Table 3.10. Pupils‟ Difficulties in Listening Comprehension . . . 100

Table 3.13. Pupils‟ Difficulties in Reading Comprehension . . . .103

Table 3.14. Pupils‟ Difficulties in the Writing Skill . . . .104

Table 3.15. Pupils‟ Reported Causes of Their Weak Achievement in English . . . 107

Table 3.16. Pupils‟ Suggested Solutions for the Enhancement of their English Level . . . . 108

Table 3.17. VKS Scoring Procedure . . . .110

Table 3.18. Adapted VKS Scoring Procedure . . . 111

Table 3.19. Pupils‟ Pre-test Results . . . . . .111

Table 3.20. Pupils „Post-test Results . . . 112

Table 3.21. Pupils’ Written Expression Results . . . .113

Chapter Four

Table 4.2. A sample from Oxford Wordlist . . . 132

Table 4.3. Types of Collocations . . . 134

Table 4.4. Collocates of the Verbs Make and Do. . . . .134

Table 4.5. Example of an Elementary Level Collocation Exercise . . . 134

Table 4.6. Collocational Grid of Adjective + Noun. . . .135

Table 4.7. Recording of Single Words on VNB . . . 138

Table 4.8. Recording Collocation on the VNB (A Sample Sheet) . . . 139

Table 4.9. Recording Lexical Chunks on VNB (A Sample Sheet) . . . .139

Table 4.10. Rubin‟s Characteristics of „Good Language Learners‟ . . . 145

Table 4.11. Rubin and Thompson‟s Characteristics of a Good Learner . . . .146

List of Figures

Chapter One

Figure 1.1. Algeria According to Kachru‟s Outer and Expanding Circle Framework. . . .7

Figure 1.2. The ALTE Guided Teaching Hours to Achieve CEF Levels . . . .10

Chapter Two

Figure 2.2. Vocabulary Types . . . .54

Figure 2.3. Word Aspects . . . 58

Figure 2.4. Vocabulary Acquisition Funnel . . . 66

Chapter Three

1. Pie-charts

Pie-chart 3.2. Teachers‟ Evaluation of Pupils‟ English Proficiency Level . . . 84

Pie-chart 3.3. Teachers‟ Answers about the Teaching of the VNB Organization . . . 91

Pie-chart 3.4-5. Pupils‟ Attitudes towards English . . . .98

Pie-chart 3.6. Pupils‟ Evaluation of Their Level in English . . . .99

Pie-chart 3.7. Pupils‟ Evaluation of Their Writing Skill . . . 104

2. Bar-graphs

Bar-graph 3.2. Percentage of the Teachers‟ Use of the Teaching Techniques . . . 88

Bar-graph 3.3. Teachers‟ Answers for the Used Vocabulary Learning Strategies . . . 90

Bar-graph 3.4. Teachers‟ Control of Vocabulary Notebook . . . 91

Bar-graph 3.5. Teachers‟ Answers about Vocabulary Testing . . . 92

Bar-graph 3.6. Teachers‟ Use of Vocabulary Test Types . . . 92

Bar-graph 3.7. Causes of Pupils‟ Difficulties in the Speaking Skill . . . 102

Bar-graph 3.8. Frequency of Pupils‟ Reading Comprehension . . . 102

Bar-graph 3.9. Pupils‟ Interest in Developing Language Aspect . . . 105

Table of Contents

Dedications . . . I Acknowledgements . . . II Abstract . . . III List of abbreviations and Acronyms . . . ..IV List of Tables . . . VI List of Figures . . . VIII Table of Contents . . . .IX

General Introduction . . . .

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1.1.Introduction . . . 5

1.2.Status of English in Algeria . . . .6

1.3.Teaching English in Algeria . . . 7

1.4.Teaching English to Middle School Pupils . . . 9

1.5.Teaching English to Secondary School Pupils . . . 11

1.5.1. Description of 1SS Textbook . . . .12

1.5.2. At the Crossroads and Vocabulary Teaching . . . 13

1.6. The Algerian English Framework . . . .23

1.7. Expected Proficiency Level of Algerian EFL Pupils . . . 24

1.8. Rationale of the Study . . . 26

1.9. Statement of the Problem . . . 29

1.10. The research Sample Population . . . .30

1.11. Pupils‟ Profile . . . .30

1.12. Research Design . . . 31

1.12.1. Learners‟ Questionnaire . . . 32

1.12.2. Teachers‟ Questionnaire . . . 33

1.12.3. Vocabulary Pre-test and Post-test . . . .34

1.12.4. Implementation of the Vocabulary Notebook . . . .35

1.12.5. Written Expression Test . . . 35

1.13. Conclusion . . . .. 36

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2.1. Introduction . . . 39

2.2. Language and Communication . . . .40

2.3. Language and the Role of Vocabulary . . . 41

2.3.1. Vocabulary and Listening . . . .43

2.3.2. Vocabulary and Speaking . . . .44

2.3.3. Vocabulary and Reading . . . 45

2.3.4. Vocabulary and Writing . . . .47

2.4. Defining Vocabulary . . . .48

2.5. Vocabulary and the Lexical Approach . . . 50

2.6. The Lexical Chunk . . . 52

2.7. Types of Vocabulary . . . .53

2.8. Degree of Word Knowledge . . . .55

2.9. Selecting Words to Teach . . . .55

2.10. Defining word knowledge . . . .58

2.10.1. Vocabulary Depth . . . .58

2.10.2. Vocabulary Breadth . . . 59

2.11. Vocabulary Size and Lexical Coverage . . . 60

2.12. Teaching Vocabulary . . . 61

2.12.1. Incidental Learning . . . 61

2.12.2. Explicit Learning . . . 62

2.13. Recycling Vocabulary. . . 63

2.14. Memorization and Vocabulary Acquisition . . . . . . .65

2.15. Assessing Vocabulary. . . 67

2.16. How to Assess Vocabulary . .. . . 68

2.17. Language Learning Strategies . . . .71

2.17.1. Vocabulary Learning Strategies . . . .73

2.17.2. Schmitt‟s Taxonomy . . . .73

2.18. Note Taking and Vocabulary Learning . . . .75

2.18.1. The Vocabulary Notebook . . . .76

2.18.2. Benefits of the Vocabulary Notebook . . . 77

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3.1. Introduction . . . 81

3.2. Analysis of the Teachers‟ Questionnaire . . . .82

3.3. Interpretation of the Teachers‟ Questionnaire . . . .95

3.4. Analysis of the Pupils‟ Questionnaire . . . .97

3.5. Interpretation of the Pupils‟ Questionnaire . . . 108

3.6. Analysis and Interpretation of the Pupils‟ Pre-test . . . .110

3.7. Analysis and Interpretation of the Pupils‟ Post-test . . . .112

3.8. Analysis and Interpretation of the Written Expression Test . . . 112

3.9. Conclusion . . . .114

4.1. Introduction . . . .117

4.2. Importance of Vocabulary in the Algerian ELT Context . . . 118

4.3. Importance of Continuity in Vocabulary Teaching . . . .119

4.4. Vocabulary Teaching Principles . . . 122

4.4.1. Explicit vs. Implicit Teaching . . . 122

4.4.2. Repeated Exposure . . . 125

4.4.2.1. The Teacher . . . 125

4.4.2.2. The Pupils . . . .127

4.4.2.3. The Course Book . . . 128

4.4.3. Vocabulary Testing . . . 128

4.4.3.1. Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT) . . . 129

4.4.3.2. High Frequency Words (HFW) . . . 131

4.4.4. Teaching Collocations . . . 133

4.4.5. Memorization . . . 135

4.5. Vocabulary Notebook . . . 136

4.5.1. Implementation of the Vocabulary Notebook . . . 137

4.5.2. Organization of the Vocabulary Notebook . . . 138

4.6. Teachers‟ Role . . . 140 4.6.1. Nation . . . . . . 141

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4.6.2. Lewis . . . .142 4.6.3. Laufer . . . . . . .142 4.7. Learners‟ Role . . . .144 4.8. Conclusion . . . 147 General conclusion . . . 149 Bibliography . . . 152 Books . . . . . . .152 Articles . . . 157 Unpublished Documents . . . .162 Webliography. . . . . . 163 Appendices . . . .167

Appendix 1 : Pupils‟ Questionnaire . . . 168

Appendix 2 : Teachers‟ Questionnaire . . . 171

Appendix 3: The Pre-test . . . .175

Appendix 4: The Post-test . . . 177

Appendix 5: 1SS1 Pre-test and Post-test Result . . . 179

Appendix 6: 1SS2 Pre-test and Post-test Results . . . 180

Appendix 7: 1SS3 Pre-test and Post-test Result . . . 181

Appendix 8: 1SS4 Pre-test and Post-test Results . . . .182

Appendix 9: CEFR Global Scale (SCFR) . . . 183

Appendix 10: Schmitt‟s Taxonomy of VLS, Complete Version . . . 184

Appendix 11: The Algerian English Framework (AEF) . . . .186

General Introduction

Learning another language, besides one‟s mother tongue has become a necessity in an international community where transactions in the different domains of life are becoming increasingly important. Obviously, such interconnected community seeks to find means that facilitate communication between its different members. For numerous reasons, English seems to be the de facto international language that holds the required characteristics to fulfill this objective.

Nevertheless, the comparison between people‟s performance in acquiring their mother tongue and learning a foreign language mirrors the difficulties facing foreign language learners. People do not achieve the same success when learning another language as they do when acquiring their mother tongue. Researchers explain such conundrum by arguing that the two processes are different. In first language acquisition, people are constantly exposed to their language whereas in FLL, learners‟ exposure to the target language is limited to the educational setting. As such, researchers describe the first process as almost an unconscious, natural and effortless one while the second as a conscious, explicit and planned process.

Even so, the mother tongue and the foreign language are both means of communication. Hence, to understand and speak a language is to use a whole system of communication which means knowing the morphology, phonology, syntax and discourse as well as the vocabulary of that language. In first language acquisition, listening and speaking are the first activated skills. Vocabulary is undoubtedly the first language component a child starts to acquire, and grammar follows spontaneously. Conversely, in learning a foreign language, importance is generally given to the reading and writing skills and hence to grammar as a means to assure their accuracy.

Nevertheless, things had to change. Dissatisfaction in the FLL field and the raising interest in speaking the foreign language effectively rather than accurately, i.e., using it as a means of communication, ended up by integrating the four skills in the same way language is used in real life. As such, interest in vocabulary started to spread among language specialists as the key component in learning any language. The role of vocabulary is more accentuated in foreign language learning. This belief is supported by the difficulties encountered by the EFL learner in using the foreign language for communication due to their limited vocabulary

Researchers as well as educators agree that education in Algeria is facing challenging problems which are reflected in the weak results of the BAC and BEM exams. This low achievement is mainly felt by the EFL teachers. Almost every year, English besides mathematics, are the two teaching subjects in which pupils get the weakest results.

Consequently, different researches have been conducted in an attempt to solve or at least explain the challenges facing Algerian English teachers and learners. Most of these studies focused on either the productive skills or the receptive skills as a tentative explanation for pupils‟ failure in English. As stated before, the four skills are interrelated and naturally integrated in real life communication. People shift spontaneously from one skill to the other as they can practise two skills at the same time; the case of writing while listening and speaking while reading. This implies that improvement in one skill generally leads to enhancement in the other skills. Therefore, when investigating the low achievement of learners in using English, the focus should be rather on what makes learners face difficulties in communicating using their four skills. The common element shared by these skills is the meaning, which is conveyed through vocabulary. Accordingly, vocabulary knowledge is the cornerstone in listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

Truly, learning a foreign language is different from learning any other subject since the FL is used as a tool and an end of study at the same time. This led researchers to emphasize the importance of the first stages in foreign language learning, i.e. the beginning and intermediate stages (middle and secondary school in Algeria). During this period, learners need to acquire the basic vocabulary of the target language that facilitates the learning of advanced lexicon afterwards. But, though recognized as being a prerequisite in comprehension, vocabulary knowledge as well as vocabulary instruction are not given much attention in the Algerian schools.

Vocabulary is important in learning any language, without words, we cannot express our ideas and beliefs and vocabulary is no longer “a neglected aspect of language learning” as it was designated by Meara in 1981. Grammar is also important to convey our messages in an accurate way, but even grammar is taught through vocabulary. This latter is then of paramount importance in communication. For this purpose, this study endeavours to demonstrate the importance of a rich vocabulary in enhancing the learners‟ comprehension and ability to communicate in English. Thus, the core attempt of this research is to provide satisfactory answers to the following questions:

1- Is pupils‟ low achievement in learning English, in secondary school, caused by their limited vocabulary knowledge?

2- Do the vocabulary learning strategies; namely the vocabulary notebook, have a positive effect on the pupils‟ acquisition of vocabulary?

3- Does the acquisition of vocabulary enhance the pupils‟ writing skill?

The ultimate aim of this research work is mainly to find out the primary causes of first-year secondary pupils‟ low achievement in English. Therefore, the following hypotheses were put forward:

1- Pupils‟ limited vocabulary is the major cause of their poor performance in the four skills, i.e. in comprehension and communication.

2- The use of VLS, namely the vocabulary notebook has a positive effect on pupils‟ vocabulary acquisition.

3- The acquisition of vocabulary leads to the enhancement of pupils‟ performance in the writing skill.

To tackle the former problematic issues, a quasi-experimental study was conducted with first year pupils from the secondary school education where pupils are put at a „crossroads‟ in their educational career. The researcher started by examining the pupils‟ and teachers‟ attitude towards the role of vocabulary in the EFL classes, their viewpoints about the main causes behind the poor achievement in the English subject as well as their suggestions to overcome such difficulties. Two sets of questionnaires were administered to the participants; pupils and teachers so as to gather the relevant data. They were then, followed by the implementation of the vocabulary notebook, advocated as a useful learning strategy to improve the learners‟ vocabulary knowledge. To verify this assumption, a pre-test, a post-test and a written test were assigned to the pupils. The findings were then analyzed seeking arguments that would prove or disprove the stated hypotheses.

1.1. Introduction . . . 5

1.2. Status of English in Algeria . . . .6

1.3. Teaching English in Algeria . . . .7

1.4. Teaching English to Middle School Pupils . . . 9

1.5. Teaching English to Secondary School Pupils . . . .11

1.5.1. Description of 1SS Textbook . . . .12

1.5.2. At the Crossroads and Vocabulary Teaching . . . .13

1.6. The Algerian English Framework . . . 23

1.7. Expected Proficiency Level of Algerian EFL Pupils . . . .24

1.8. Rationale of the Study . . . 26

1.9. Statement of the Problem . . . .29

1.10. The Research Sample Population . . . .30

1.11. Pupils‟ Profile . . . .30

1.12. Research Design . . . .31

1.12.1. Learners‟ Questionnaire . . . .32

1.12.2. Teachers‟ Questionnaire . . . 33

1.12.3. Vocabulary Pre-test and Post-test . . . 34

1.12.4. Implementation of the Vocabulary Notebook . . . .35

1.12.5. Written Expression Test . . . 35

1.13. Conclusion . . . .36

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1.1. Introduction

Since the independence, Algeria has struggled to improve the chaotic situation that resulted from the French colonization in the different aspects of life. Education, which is the primary factor for life development, was highly affected as it was restricted to the French colonist. Indeed, very few Algerians had got the possibility to join the French schools. Then, developing education has always been a chief objective of the Algerian government. The different reforms witnessed by the educational system are a reflection of a strong will to attain an international level in education which, in turn, would lead to improvement in the different aspects of life.

As English is recognized as the language of technology, economy and politics, it is therefore, assumed that the Algerian Ministry of education devotes great consideration to the teaching of this language. Hence, to cope with the new expectations in ELT and to meet the needs of Algerian EFL pupils, the ministry has implemented different approaches and methods, and has designed different programmes, textbooks and other teaching material.

This chapter tries to shed light on the current status of ELT in Algeria with an overview of vocabulary teaching across EFL methodology in the Algerian educational system. The chapter also describes the educational system, giving importance to the middle and secondary cycle where all pupils are required to study English as a third language, in addition to Arabic and French. It describes the objectives of EFL teaching in the two levels with reference to the Algerian English Framework (AEF) and the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). These frameworks set the guidelines for foreign language learners and describe the expected level of achievement for each grade.

The second part of this chapter explains the rationale of the current study by exposing the different reasons behind conducting this research. It also describes the research design including the population addressed and the different tools used for data collection.

1.2. Status of English in Algeria

After one hundred thirty two years of French colonization, Algeria inherited the French language that became one of the significant features of the Algerian linguistic diversity at the extent that Algeria is considered the second largest speaking French country after France (Rezig, N., 2011:1329, Sénat: 2014).During the colonization, French was the language of instruction and Arabic was considered a foreign language as avowed by Maamri, M.R.:

―However instead of promoting equality with the French settlers as propounded by Napoleon III, the French government went so far as to pass a law in the 1930s which classified Arabic as a foreign language, and prohibited its use in schools and official documents‖ (2009:80)

After the independence, French continued to be used as the means of instruction in all teaching subjects and all levels as a result of the shortage in Arabic trained teachers. However, this situation started to change with the implementation of the „Arabization‟ policy in 1972. Arabic regained its legitimate status; that of the first language. Changes continued with the implementation of the foundation school in 1976. As a result, Arabic became the language of instruction, mainly in primary and secondary education while, French is taught as a foreign language starting from fourth year primary school. Meanwhile, English began to gain some space within modern Algeria in response to the socioeconomic changes taking place in the country and all over the world.

Yet, English stands as a second foreign language after French and is actually taught as a compulsory subject in Algerian middle and secondary schools, and most Algerian universities. As such, Algeria belongs to the expanding circle countries as mentioned by Rixon, S. (2013:4) in a survey conducted by the British Council about policy and practice in the teaching of English as a foreign or second language to young learners. The survey represents sixty four countries including Algeria and aims at gaining:

―as complete as possible a view of the organisational frameworks that support young learners‘ teaching worldwide and of the policies and other administrative decisions that lie behind them‖ (Rixon, S., 2013:4)

Based on Kachru‟s division of English as an international language (1990), the survey categorized the sixty four countries into three circles according to the role English plays in every country.

Figure 1.1: Algeria according to Kachru’s Outer and Expanding Circle Framework

(Adapted from Rixon, S., 2013: 5)

Bradj Kachru (cited in Rixon, R., 2013: 4); identified three distinct circles that are the inner circle, the outer circle and the expanding circle.

1. Inner circle includes countries where English is the first language (UK, USA)

2. Outer circle includes countries formerly colonized by countries from the inner circle and where English is sometimes considered as an „official language‟ (India, Zambia) 3. Expanding circle includes countries where English plays no historical or governmental

role and where it is identified as a foreign language ( Algeria, Morocco)

To sum up and according to what has been argued so far, Algeria belongs to the expanding circle of English and to the outer circle of French which justifies, for the time being, the status of French as the first foreign language and English as the second foreign language , a situation which is expected to change in the future.

1.3. Teaching English in Algeria

Algerian learners start studying English in the middle school, at the age of 12. This means that the official age of starting to learn English as a second foreign language is six years after learners enter the primary school. This is regarded by many scholars as the critical age for language learning. A recent policy decision had been made to lower the age for

beginning English in primary school. It was an attempt to bring in English instead of French in year 3 but this has soon been abandoned (Rixon, S., 2013: 53). The delay in learning English, and the limited exposure to this Language make learners much influenced by Arabic; their first language and by French. This influence is reflected at different levels: phonology, grammar, word-for-word translation, etc (Houmanfar et al, 2005:77)

The Algerian educational system has witnessed different reforms since the independence. Likewise, English teaching methodology has undergone various changes. As Bradj Kachru stated, English language norms are developed in the inner circle countries whose first language is English; and so they are „norm-providing‟ (Canagarajah, S., 2006:230). Belonging to the expanding circle of English, Algeria is a „norm-dependent‟ country and therefore relies on the norms or standards set by native speakers of English in the inner circle. This implies that changes in the Algerian teaching methodology is a reflection of the changes in the general linguistic trends that occur in the inner circle countries namely UK and USA. However, there is usually a delay in putting these new linguistic norms into practice in the expanding circle, the case of Algeria.

ELT was introduced in Algeria using the traditional teaching method i.e. the Grammar Translation Method (GTM) which focused on accuracy and regarded language as a set of grammatical rules that were taught through lists of obsolete words.Reading and writing were the main focus, but little attention was paid to speaking or listening. The neglect of the oral communication skills led to discontent among language practitioners and to the quest for alternative methods.

The Audio-lingual Method emerged as a result of this dissatisfaction and the great changes taking place in the world in the years following the Second World War. Learning a foreign language was considered as a habit formation and thus gave primacy to the spoken language over the written one. Unlike the GTM, this approach encouraged the use of the

target language but it continued to focus on grammar at the expense of vocabulary.

In the late 1970s and early 1980s the inner circle witnessed the emergence of a new approach as a reaction to the traditional ways of teaching foreign languages. As its name may suggest, the „Communicative Approach‟, views language as a means of communication. It aims at helping language learners to achieve a communicative competence by combining their linguistic knowledge, including grammar rules and their capacity to use this knowledge

properly for communicative purposes. Yet, it is argued that the communicative approach failed in Algeria, not because of shortcomings within the approach, but because teachers who are the central component in the success of any educational reform, were not adequately trained in using this approach.

Failure of CLT urged the Algerian Ministry of Education, to seek solutions in a new approach, namely the Competency Based Approach (CBA) that aims at making the learners able of sharing knowledge and cooperation with others and being competent in their real life tasks as pointed out by Louznadji (2003) who defines the concept of competency as:

―a know-how-to-act process which integrates and mobilises a set of capacities and skills and an account of knowledge that will be used effectively in various problem-solving situations or circumstances that have never occurred before. I.e. a competency continues throughout and beyond the school curriculum‖ (cited in Medjahed, 2011:7)

Unfortunately, and once again, many teachers are just using the new syllabuses and ignore all about CBA and the objectives as well as the principles underlying this approach (Cheli, S., 2010: 2)

1.4. Teaching English to Middle School Pupils

The Algerian educational system is divided into primary school, middle school, secondary school, and then the tertiary (university) level. The structure of the actual school system is based on 6+4+3 model. In the primary school, pupils study for six years which corresponds to grades (g): k (kindergarten), g1, g2, g3, g4, and g5. The middle school comprises four grades: g6, g7, g8, g9 and the secondary level includes grades: g10, g11, and g12.

As mentioned previously, English is introduced as the second foreign language in the middle school, year one or grade 6. Studying for two hours per week and one hour every fortnight, in the first and second year, and for four hours per week in the third and fourth year, by the end of this cycle, middle school learners would have spent about „350‟ hours learning English. This amount of time is far below the number of approximate hours needed to attain the English proficiency level expected for these grades and which was defined by the Association of Language Testers of Europe (ALTE) (cited in Teacher‘s Guide to the Common

Figure 1.2: The ALTE Guided Teaching Hours to Achieve CEF Levels (Teacher’s Guide to the Common European Framework: 7)

According to the above table the approximate hours needed to achieve the English proficiency level expected for middle school cycle vary between 620 and 700 hours of English instruction, which is, practically, twice the time spent by Algerian middle school pupils when studying English. This limited time of exposure to the language has undoubtedly its negative effect on the pupils‟ achievement level.

Learning English in the middle school aims at developing competencies through the Competency Based Approach. The Algerian English Framework (AEF, 2005) sets three types of competencies for language learning: interactive, interpretive and productive.

 interactive competency--the ability to participate in spoken interactions

 interpretive competency-- the ability to understand and interpret what one reads and hears

 productive competency—the ability to express meaning and knowledge in speaking and writing

(Guide to the Algerian English Curriculum for Middle School Year 4, 2008: 4)

These competencies are based on promoting the learners‟ linguistic competency including vocabulary, pronunciation and grammar, as well as a repertoire of strategies for sustaining communication and supporting learning skills as stated in ‗Guide to The Algerian English Curriculum for Middle School Year 4‘, 2008:4). At the end of the fourth year middle school, learners who pass their final examination are awarded the „Brevet d‘Enseignement Moyen‘ (BEM), which grants them admittance to secondary school.

• Approximately 90 - 100 hours A1/MS1 • Approximately 180 - 200 hours A2/MS2 • Approximately 350 - 400 hours B1/MS3-MS4 • Approximately 500 - 600 hours B2 • Approximately 700 - 800 hours C1 •Approximately 1,000 - 1,200 hours C2

1.5. Teaching English to Secondary School Pupils

Unlike in middle school, pupils in secondary education have the choice to specialize in one of the different streams. The first year (1SS) includes three main streams which are literary, scientific and technological stream which in turn give access to other streams in the second year (2SS). The choice of the stream is decided on the basis of the pupils‟ result at the BEM, and later on in 1SS. English is taught as a compulsory subject to all streams. However, different syllabi are designed to meet the needs of the different streams within each grade. In addition, the amount of time devoted to English varies depending on the streams as illustrated in the following tables:

1 SS Number of hours studied

Common Core Per week Per school year

1. Literary streams 4 h 108 h

2. Sciences /Technology streams 3 h 81 h

Table 1.1: Time allowance of ELT for First Year Secondary School

Number of hours studied

Grade 2SS 3 SS

Stream Per week Per school year Per week Per school year

LE 05 135 04 108

L&Ph 04 108 04 108

M/TM/SE/GE 03 81 03 81

Table 1.2: Time allowance of ELT for Second and Third Year Secondary School

By the end of the school year and depending on the stream, first year pupils would have spent from 81 to 108 hours learning English, the second year from 81 to 135 as the highest time allowance for the foreign languages stream (FL), and from 81 to 108 for the third year which represents the pre-university level. Once again, and referring to figure 1.2 in section 1.4, the time devoted to English learning in secondary school is limited. Therefore, it constitutes one of the factors that hamper the achievement of English learning objectives. The Algerian English Framework defines the general objective of English teaching in secondary school as:

“to support Algerian students of English in achieving English language proficiency that meets the challenges and requirements of communicating in the international community‖ (AEF,p:2)

Hence, the general aim of English teaching is the same along the seven years of middle and secondary school which is to develop the learners‟ competencies in each of the following areas of English language learning: oral interaction, listening, reading, productive speaking, writing and linguistics. In other words, it aims at consolidating and extending the competencies acquired at the middle school level “making the notion of competency an on-going process‖ (At the Crossroad: Teachers‘ Book, p:4) extending from MS1 (Middle School: g 6) all through to SS3 (Secondary Education: g 12).

1.5.1.

Description of 1SS Textbook

Textbooks or course books are usually parts of the teaching tools developed by material designers to provide both teachers and learners with guidelines on procedures, techniques, texts and activities that help to implement a specific teaching methodology in a subject matter. Considering the important role of the course book, Sheldon, B. describes it as “the visible heart of any ELT programme‖ (1988:237). Hence, several roles are attributed to the textbooks that are designed to the teaching of foreign languages. For instance, Cunningsworth (1995) argues that this teaching material may function as:

a. An effective resource for self-directed learning, b. an effective resource for presentation material, c. a source of ideas and activities,

d. a reference source for students,

e. a syllabus where they reflect pre-determined learning objectives, and

f. Support for less experienced teachers who have yet to gain in confidence.

(Cited in Sarem, S.M. et al, 2013: 373)

As such, the English textbook may serve as a reliable source for authentic language in the foreign language context. Furthermore, Ur (1996) argues that coursebooks are advantageous as: “they provide a clear framework which the teacher and the students know where they are going and what is coming next” (Cited in Kayapinar, U., 2009: 69). In this respect, the Algerian Ministry of education has developed different course books reflecting

the different reforms implemented in the educational system as well as in the English teaching methodology.

At the Crossroads (2008) is the last course book, designed for Algerian first year secondary school pupils, and aged fifteen to sixteen. This book is meant to „translate‟ the 1SS syllabus which is based on “the competency-based teaching and the learner- centered approach‖ (Riche, B. et al, 2011:8). The main objective of this methodology as stated in the teacher‘s book (At the Crossroads: Teacher‘s book, p:5) , is to develop the learner‟s primary skills i.e. speaking, listening, reading and writing, which in turn, are meant to develop and support the learner‟s social skills.

At the Crossroads comprises five units, each lasting twenty hours. All five units are divided similarly into four main sequences listed as follows:

 Listening and speaking  Reading and writing  Developing skills

 Consolidation and extension

The above sequences are supplemented with three sections that are: „Stop and consider‟, „Project workshop‟ and „Check your progress‟. The topics covered in the textbook are „Getting Through‟, „Once Upon a Time‟, „Our findings Show‟, „Eureka‟, and „Back to Nature‟. They are selected on the basis of two significant criteria stated in the Teacher‘s book as follows:

a. The general interest of the topic and the functional language it generates: communication in Unit 1, arts (literature) in Unit 2, journalism (reporting) in Unit 3, science and technology in Unit 4, and the environment in Unit 5.

b. These topics are made to be thought-provoking through the treatment of related teenage issues like sports, food, health, the Internet and leisure. (At the Crossroads: Teacher‘s book, p:5)

1.5.2.

At the Crossroads and Vocabulary Teaching

Considering the textbook as a key component in teaching EFL implies that this material reflects the teaching beliefs and principles adopted by the material designers who, in

field. Therefore, to evaluate the effectiveness of a textbook and the extent to which it reflects the underlying principles of ELT, it would be of great benefit to evaluate its content, objectives and general layout. In this respect, Wang Wen-Cheng cited that contemporary teaching strategies and methods are used as standards to evaluate the effectiveness of textbooks (Wang Wen-Cheng et al, 2011: 94). Based on Los Angeles Unified School District Textbook Evaluation (2002) research, Wang Wen-Cheng listed the following principles:

1- Integrates four language skills: speaking, listening, reading, writing. 2- Incorporates life skills included in course outline.

3- Receptive skills before productive (listen/read before speak/write). 4- Integrates different learning styles: aural, oral, visual, kinesthetic. 5- Incorporates and varies different methodologies and techniques. 6- Grouping strategies: individual, pair, and group work.

7- Incorporates higher level thinking skills and problem solving. 8- Sufficient student practice.

9- Grammar: taught in context; spiraling activities. 10- Interactive/communicative approaches.

11- Vocabulary: target vocabulary in lesson, recycled in lesson. 12- Reading: pre-read, read, post-read activities; theme recycled. 13- Writing activities integrated in text.

14- Assessments and self evaluations at end of unit; final tests.

15- Design and Format: illustrations, type size, color/black white, layout. 16- Pace appropriate to level.

17- Promotes cross-cultural awareness

(Wang Wen-Cheng et al, 2011: 94-95)

The above standards or principles are used as a checklist which is a type of research tools meant to gather information about the efficiency of the teaching materials (Cunningsworth, 1984:74). Because the focus of this study is on the role of vocabulary in EFL classes, the researcher restricted the above checklist to the principles that serve the evaluation of the 1SS textbook with reference to vocabulary teaching. This selection was made in the light of what had been mentioned in the literature chapter regarding the primary components of vocabulary teaching (see chapter two for more details). The following table represents the final checklist adapted in the current research.

1- Integrates four language skills: speaking, listening, reading, writing. 2- Incorporates life skills included in course outline.

3- Receptive skills before productive (listen/read before speak/write). 4- Grouping strategies: individual, pair, and group work.

5- Incorporates higher level thinking skills and problem solving. 6- Sufficient student practice.

7- Vocabulary: target vocabulary in lesson, recycled in lesson. 8- Assessments and self evaluations at end of unit; final tests. 9- Pace appropriate to level.

Table 1.3: Final Checklist of Teaching Principles (Adapted from Wang Wen-Cheng et al, 2011: 94-95)

There is no doubt that At the Crossroads is designed with the objective to meet the needs of 1SS pupils. Vocabulary teaching is one of the objectives that need to be achieved by EFL teachers as well as the pupils‟ textbook. At the Crossroads, obviously, comprises a large amount of vocabulary that may enrich the pupils‟ English repertoire, but is this book based on effective principles that assure vocabulary learning? The following part tries to answer this question by checking the concordance of this material with the above checklist.

1- Integrate the four language skills; speaking, listening, reading, writing.

As stated in the previous section, the primary goal of At the Crossroads is to help pupils develop their primary skills; listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The central position given to these skills, in this book, is mostly evident in the general layout of the five units. The following outline shows how each unit is structured.

Sequence 1: Listening and speaking. It is streamlined as follows: - ANTICIPATE

- LISTEN AND CHECK - SAY IT CLEAR

- YOUR TURN.

Sequence 2: Reading and writing. It unfolds in a more or less similar pattern:

- ANTICIPATE

- READ AND CHECK

- DISCOVER THE LANGUAGE - WRITE IT RIGHT.

Sequence 4: Consolidation and extension. It is subdivided into two sub-sections:

- WRITE IT OUT - WORK IT OUT. Project workshop

Check your progress

(At the Crossroads: Teacher‘s book, p: 5)

The above outline reflects the integration of the four skills in At the Crossroads. Sequence one and two are devoted to the teaching and development of listening/speaking and reading/writing, respectively. More importantly, the four skills do not follow the strict order in which they appear in the above outline. For instance, within sequence one: Listening and Speaking, pupils may be asked to write example sentences or short paragraphs and to read them to their classmates. Hence, they can practise their writing and reading skills, along with the listening and speaking skill, within the first sequence. One may wonder about the relation between this principle and vocabulary teaching. The simple answer is that vocabulary is an important component in any language, besides it connects the four skills. Pupils need to understand the words they hear and read and to possess an adequate number of words to be able to speak and write. So practising language skills may enhance vocabulary learning and vice versa.

2- Incorporating life skills included in course outline.

Throughout sequence three; Developing skills, pupils are encouraged to use their primary skills to build up their life skills, referred to in the teacher‘s book as the social skills. This sequence is meant to incite pupils: ―to perform with a purpose, i.e. to combine the four skills with attitudinal patterns in problem solving situations (Riche, B. et al, 2011:8)

Thus, this book aims at improving the pupils‟ ability to communicate inside and outside school by teaching them how to accomplish everyday life concrete actions such as: telephoning (unit 1), conducting a meeting (unit 5), conducting an interview (unit 3), writing business and personal letters (unit1), making a group presentation( unit 4), using a road map(unit 2), etc. The diversity of these situations and their illustration of the native speakers‟ social life, provide the EFL pupil with a variety of everyday vocabulary.

3- Receptive skills before productive; listen/read before speak/write.

Researchers argue that language, mainly vocabulary, is acquired receptively and after repeated exposure, it becomes part of the learner‟s productive knowledge (for more details, see chapter two, page: 64). The sequencing of the four skills in the textbook should reflect the sequencing of language skills in real life. Children start by listening then speaking and afterwards, they develop reading then writing. As illustrated in the following outline, sequence one and two are divided, each one, into four rubrics:

Sequence One: Sequence Two:

1. Listening and speaking. 2. Reading and writing 1- ANTICIPATE 1- ANTICIPATE

2- LISTEN AND CHECK 2- READ AND CHECK

3- SAY IT CLEAR 3- DISCOVER THE LANGUAGE 4- YOUR TURN. 4- WRITE IT RIGHT

It is clear in sequence one which deals with the oral skills that the receptive skill i.e. listening comes first through rubric 2: „Listen and check‟ and the productive skill i.e. speaking comes next through rubric 3: „Say it clear‟. Likewise in sequence two dealing with the written skills, the receptive skill i.e. „reading‟ is introduced in rubric 3: „Read and check‟ and it is followed by the productive skill i.e. „writing‟ through rubric 4: „Write it clear‟. So, the sequencing of the four skills, in At the Crossroads matches the natural way they are practised in real life. Such strategy would support vocabulary learning. Pupils first get familiarized with the new words; they learn them receptively i.e. they can recognize them when they hear or read them. After different exposures to these words and through manipulation, pupils end up by using the words in meaningful sentences i.e. they can produce them in writing or speaking.

4- Grouping strategies: individual, pair and group work.

The impact of individual differences between learners on language learning is a fact acknowledged by researchers and well experienced by teachers. Thanks to their contact with their pupils and from their expertise in the teaching field, teachers can distinguish the pupils who like to work in pair or in a group from those who prefer to work on their own. Yet, the three grouping strategies have proved their efficiency in promoting EFL learning, when used appropriately and within the adequate circumstances.

Individual work is advantageous in ordinary situations as well as in some specific situations, mainly where pupils are introverted and /or have a weak proficiency level and, therefore, avoid interacting with their classmates. In this case, individualized teaching is needed to support and incite them to practise the language through, at least, interaction with their teachers. On the other hand, pair and group work have the benefit to promote interaction between pupils who may learn a lot from each other than from the teacher. Successful learners may support their classmates in their learning since they can provide them with a simplified input. This simplified input, described by Krashen as comprehensible input (1982:5), is one of the important factors for EFL learning.

The scrutiny of At the Crossroads reveals the integration of the three grouping strategies through a variety of activities and exercises. Individual work is mainly practised in the first and second sequences, in rubric one: Anticipate, and rubric two: Listen and check/Read and check. In these four rubrics, every pupil is invited to look at pictures and answer questions so as to get familiarized with the spoken/written text and anticipate the teaching theme. Such individualized teaching would improve the pupil‟s listening/reading comprehension and his/her ability to be acquainted with the English sounds and learn how to read a text (Riche, B. et al, 2011:10). The following exercises are examples of work to be achieved individually by the pupil.

Unit 1: Sequence 1 Anticipate

3- Listen and say aloud the e-mail address below. Then take turns to tell you e-mail address to your classmates. Invent one for the occasion if you haven‘t got an e-mail account (in-box) Sihem2008@yahoo.com

Listen and check

2- Listen and check your answer to exercise 1 above. Then rewrite the instructions using these sequencers: first, then, next, after that and finally.

4- Do you agree with Interviewee A or Interviewee B? Justify your position.

Unit 2: Sequence 2 Anticipate

1- Look at the picture of the book cover below and answer these questions.

Read and check

1- Read the text below and check your answer to exercise 2 on the previous page. Did you guess right or wrong? Explain?

(Riche, B. et al, 2011:16-17)

Pair and group work strategies are used to provide pupils with further opportunities to practise the language through interaction between pupils such as in rubric 3 of sequences one and two. Here are some examples of pair work activities:

Unit 3: Sequence 1 It‘s your turn

Pair work: Use the information in the horoscope page below to act out short dialogues

1. Ask your partner to tell you what his/her star sign is. Then write down what the stars say about him/her.

2. Correct your mistakes before reading what you have written to the class. (ibid:81)

Discover the language

Pair work: Imagine you are one of the 60 informants interviewed about computer use. Take turns to interview each other (ibid: 84)

Group work is mainly practised through sequence four: Developing skills and the Project workshop section. They aim at developing the pupils‟ basic skills along with their ability to communicate using the target language while preparing their projects. Members of the group may question each other about the issues they have to include to achieve some tasks or to conduct their project. At this level, pupils frequently ask questions about vocabulary i.e. about words which help them to express their ideas, about the project, in English.

5- Incorporates higher level thinking skills and problem solving.

It is clearly stated in the teacher‟s book that At the crossroads relies on hypothesis-making and hypothesis-testing as one of its prominent features (At the Crossroads: Teacher‘s book, p: 10). The objective behind using such methodology is to incite pupils to make use of their thinking skills such as making predictions. This is justified by the fact that recent research has shown that:

―proficiency in reading and listening depends so much on the learners‘ capacity of constantly making accurate predictions concerning what is to come in listening and reading passages‖ (ibid)

By making predictions, pupils are likely to activate their previous knowledge, not only about the teaching subject, but also about the vocabulary related to the listening and reading texts. As such they will increase their comprehension and their learning too. This is mainly practised in sequence one and two, through rubric 1: Anticipate.

This textbook relies also on the theory that putting pupils in problem-solving situations enhances their language learning. Problems push pupils for thinking and looking for the appropriate words that reflect their thinking in English. At the crossroads comprises a variety of problem-solving tasks such as:

 the tasks in The hidden message(s) of the Listening and speaking sequences where pupils are asked to “decipher a given message and use the letters of the alphabet to write it‖ ( Riche, B. et al, 2011: 18, 50, 80, 112 and 142)

 and those in the Work it out sections of the Consolidation and extension sequences e.g.:

1- There is a problem to solve in dialogues 1-5 below. Identify the problems. Then complete the dialogues with replies a-e on the right. (ibid: 37)

6- Sufficient student practice.

Providing pupils with different opportunities to practise EFL is one of the fundamental factors that help them learn the language. Pupils need to discover the language through listening, speaking, reading and writing. They need sufficient time to practise each of the four skills. In other words, in order to comprehend grammar and vocabulary in a foreign language, and retain them in long-term memory, it is important to be constantly exposed to these language components and to practise them regularly.

Unfortunately, the time allotted to cover every unit in the 1SS syllabus is very limited. First year secondary school pupils study English for three to four hours per week. The Algerian official school year lasts twenty seven weeks. Taking into consideration the time devoted to the exams and tests in each term, besides the religious and national holidays, the

twenty seven weeks would be reduced to about twenty three weeks, or less. This means that 1SS syllabus would be covered in 69 to 72 hours. Added to that, the English teaching session, which is fixed to one hour or sixty minutes, actually lasts only forty five to fifty minutes of true instruction due to the usual constraints related to classroom management.

So, while it is stated in the Teacher‘s book (p: 10) that the textbook, i.e. At the Crossroads: ―does not hurry off the learners through the units. It gives enough time for the learners to reflect over and to understand instructions and to think over the questions before answering them‖, the length of the pedagogic unit and the language components included in each unit; make it difficult to allow sufficient practice for every pupil. Furthermore, the density of the syllabus and the units, reflected in the diversity of the activities, make the teacher “rush the activities‖ in such a way that pupils could not grasp all what is taught.

7- Pace appropriate to level.

This principle is closely linked to the previous one. At the Crossroads adopts the “step-by-step progress‖ as a strategy “to smooth out the passage from Middle School to Secondary Education by a return to basics‖ (At the Crossroads: Teacher‘s Book, p: 11). Then, as the pupils progress through the textbook, “the level of difficulty of the units increases‖ (ibid). So, gradation is integrated in this textbook to allow the pupil to move from the known, easy and simple to the unknown, difficult and elaborate knowledge. However, this gradation needs time to be adequately applied. To put it differently; if activities are rushed because of time limitation, the teaching pace would not match the pupils‟ level. Pupils are not given sufficient time to grasp the easy tasks that enable them to move smoothly to the upper level. Likewise, the ways vocabulary is taught in At the Crossroads, does not permit vocabulary learning. Pupils move quickly to a different group of vocabulary, before they master the basic one. Whereas, vocabulary learning has been proved to be incremental and an on-going process (see chapter two, p: 58/67-68).

8- Vocabulary: target vocabulary in lesson, recycled in lesson.

This is one of the underlying principles as regards vocabulary teaching. Researchers (Nation, P., 1990:40) argue that multiple exposures to the target words and words recycling are basic for vocabulary learning to take place. The former assures the mastery of the different aspects of word knowledge. This means that repeated encounters with a word allow the pupil

etc. This also permits receptive and productive learning of the target words. Pupils will be able to recognize vocabulary in listening and reading as they can use it when interacting in oral or written form. Whereas, the latter i.e. recycling, helps pupils to fix the target words in their long term memory. Once they have learned a word, pupils need to reactivate this knowledge on a regular schedule in order not to forget it.

The problem with At the Crossroads is that it devotes more space to language functions and grammar rules than to vocabulary. Besides, it does not apply the principles of vocabulary teaching stated in the previous paragraph. Most words which are introduced in a text or in an exercise are not later recycled in another exercise, or even repeated in the same unit. For example, in Unit 1, sequence 1, Anticipate, in exercise one page 16, pupils are provided with nine words and they are asked to match them with the parts of the computer. The words are: screen, floppy disk, central unit, keyboard, monitor, mouse, printer, disk drive, and speaker. Among the nine words, only two words (floppy and keyboard) are repeated in one other exercise, page 18. This means that pupils are exposed to these words only one time, which does not help vocabulary learning. This situation is repeated throughout the textbook. Besides, and because EFL teachers rely on the textbook, they do not give their pupils opportunities to manipulate vocabulary in different contexts. They rather leave vocabulary learning to pupils without teaching them the necessary strategies that support their learning (Waring, R., 2002).

9- Assessments and self evaluations at end of unit; final tests.

Each unit in this textbook ends with a section called Check your progress. As its name may indicate, this section offers pupils the possibility to review and evaluate their learning in terms of skills, functions, grammar rules and vocabulary. The vocabulary assessment is done through two rubrics: Glossary and Test your word power where pupils are asked to use the words in the glossary to fill in the blanks in a number of sentences. This evaluation is meant to be a formative assessment which would inform the teachers about the strengths and weaknesses of their pupils and help them decide what components of the unit they have to reconsider. Yet, this section does not cover effectively the assessment of the whole unit. It is rather limited to some vocabulary which is not always the most important in the unit. This is followed by a summative assessment at the end of each term which usually includes grammar and vocabulary exercises. Assessing vocabulary as well as grammar is