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Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) and Remote and
Rural First Nations Communities : An Overview
O'Donnell, Susan; Milliken, Mary; Chong, Corinna; Walmark, Brian
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Ref er ence: O’ Donnel l , S. , Mi l l i ken, M. , Chong, C. , Wal mar k, B. (2010) Inf or mat i on and Communi cat i on Technol ogi es (ICT) and Remot e and Rur al Fi r st Nat ions Communi t i es: An Over vi ew. Pr esent ed at t he Canadi an Communicat ion Associ at i on Annual Conf er ence (CCA 2010) Mont r eal , June 1-3.
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) and Remote and Rural First Nations Communities: An Overview
Susan O’ Donnell Nat ional Research Council
Mary Milliken Nat ional Research Council
Corinna Chong Nat ional Research Council
Brian Walmark
Keewayt inook Okimakanak Research Inst it ut e
Abstract:
Inf or mat i on and communicat i on t echnol ogi es (ICT) ar e val uabl e t ool s used t o est abl i sh and mai nt ai n connect i ons wi t hi n and bet ween r emot e and r ur al Fi r st Nat ions communi t ies acr oss Canada, and bet ween ur ban cent r es and t hese communi t i es. For t he past decade, var ious r esear ch pr oj ect s have i nvest i gat ed di f f er ent aspect s of ICT use by and wi t h t hese communi t i es. However , an over view of t his r esear ch has not been publ i shed. Thi s paper , a l i t er at ur e r evi ew, expl ai ns t he hi st or y of ICT and Fi r st Nat ions communi t i es, pol i ci es and par t ner shi ps f or br oadband ser vi ces i n Fi r st Nat ions, how r emot e and r ur al Fir st Nat i ons ar e accessi ng and usi ng ICT, and how t o make t he br oadband net wor ks and ICT sust ai nabl e.
1 The history of ICT and First Nations communities
Since at least t he early 1970s, remot e and rural First Nat ions communit ies in Canada have been using inf ormat ion and communicat ion t echnologies (ICT) f or a variet y of purposes. The most common ICT – radio, t elevision and t elephony - remain widely used t oday in remot e and rural First Nat ions communit ies. Canada’s Anik A-2 sat ellit e, launched in 1973, brought net work radio, t elevision and improved t elephone services t o t he nort h (Chouinard, 1983). In 1974, t he Wawat ay Nat ive Communicat ions Societ y est ablished t he f irst communit y radio syst em in part nership wit h First Nat ions in Ont ario’ s f ar nort h (Budka, Bell & Fiser, 2009). By t he mid-1980s, remot e First Nat ions communit ies in Nort hern Ont ario were building local cable plant s and receiving public sat ellit e t elevision broadcast s f rom Wawat ay, TVOnt ario, and t he Canadian Broadcast ing Corporat ion; 10 years lat er, t his expanded t o commercial sat ellit e t elevision and t he mult i-channel universe (Fiser, Clement and Walmark, 2005).
By t he mid-1990s, t here were also more t han 60 newspapers and almost 50 radio st at ions run by Aboriginal organizat ions across Canada. Aboriginal media saw t heir mission as inf orming t he public about experiences t hat are consist ent ly manipulat ed by t he mainst ream media t o discriminat e against Aboriginal peoples (O’ Donnell & Delgado, 1995). In 1995, t his media and communicat ions st rat egy expanded t o t he int ernet . Several First Nat ions had a presence on t he int ernet and many were using email t o net work wit h each ot her and wit h t heir
support ers. To keep t he general public inf ormed of t hei r act ivit ies, t hey rout inely emailed press releases and bullet ins t o public int ernet sit es (O’ Donnell & Delgado, 1995). In 1999, t he Aboriginal Peoples Television Net work (APTN) was launched (Rot h, 2005).
A decade lat er, t he use of ICT by First Nat ions and t heir recognit ion of t he import ance of t his act ivit y had grown considerably. By 2009, t he Assembly of First Nat ions (AFN) – t he nat ional polit ical organizat ion represent ing First Nat ions across Canada – had passed f ive resolut ions at t heir annual general assemblies recognizing t he need f or First Nat ions communit ies t o have adequat e broadband connect ivit y and access t o ICT. At a maj or Aboriginal research and policy conf erence in Ot t awa t hat same year, t he AFN out lined a st rat egy f or an equipped First
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Nat ions broadband net work. They saw t he net work as part of a broader plan f or economic, social and cult ural change based on knowledge and inf ormat ion. The AFN’s “ e-Communit y ICT model” builds upon a common net work model employed by Canadian inst it ut ions and corporat ions and has f ive t hemes: First Nat ions capacit y development , First Nat ions connect ivit y, human resources development , inf ormat ion management , and service delivery and part ners (Whit educk, J. , 2010).
2 Policies and partnerships for broadband services in First Nations communities
In Canada, t here is a universal service requirement f or t elephone service but not f or int ernet service. Unlike f or t elephone services, no regulat ory mechanism exist s t o f orce Int ernet Service Providers (ISPs) t o provide services in any part icular area of t he count ry. Canada’ s commercial ISPs say t hey need t o have a business case (a proven ret urn on invest ment ) bef ore developing broadband inf rast ruct ure and services in rural and remot e areas; t hey have been reluct ant or slow or have ref used t o do so wit hout signif icant government invest ment . As a
consequence, it can be very challenging t o build t he part nerships necessary t o develop broadband inf rast ruct ure and provide int ernet services in many remot e and rural regions of t he count ry.
Given t he lack of commercial int erest , dif f erent levels of government in Canada have become involved as part ners and cont ribut ors t o develop broadband inf rast ruct ure in remot e and rural areas. However, government policy t o support broadband in remot e and rural First Nat ions communit ies is underdeveloped and uncoordinat ed among many dif f erent depart ment s and program areas. Since 1996, a variet y of f unding init iat ives, st rat egies, and proj ect s, usually wit h limit ed t ime f rames and specif ic obj ect ives, have been implement ed t hat have support ed t he development of broadband inf rast ruct ure and increased use of ICT in First Nat ions communit ies (Perley & O’ Donnell, 2006).
First Nat ions SchoolNet and t he RMOs
The f ederal government program most direct ly responsible f or increasing t he use of ICT in remot e and rural First Nat ions is First Nat ions SchoolNet . The program was init iat ed by Indust ry Canada in 1996; in lat e 2006 it was t ransf erred t o Indian and Nort hern Af f airs Canada, and t he program budget s were reduced in subsequent years. As of May 2010, t he f ut ure of t he program is unclear.
Since 2002, t he program has provided f unding f or six First Nat ions SchoolNet regional management organizat ions (RMOs) across Canada. The RMOs work in t heir part icular regions t o advance broadband inf rast ruct ure and applicat ions in t he First Nat ions schools and communit ies. The six RMOs are: Mik’ maw Kina’ mat neway / At lant ic Canada’ s First Nat ion Help Desk (Sydney, Nova Scot ia); The First Nat ions Educat ion Council (CEPN-FNEC,
Wendake, Quebec); Keewayt inook Okimakanak (K-Net , Sioux Lookout , Ont ario); Keewat in Tribal Council (Thompson, Manit oba); Keewat in Career Development Corporat ion (KCDC, La Ronge, Saskat chewan); and t he First Nat ions Educat ion St eering Commit t ee (FNESC, Vancouver, Brit ish Columbia) (Whit educk, T. , 2010). The First Nat ions SchoolNet RMOs have collect ively been responsible f or much of t he broadband inf rast ruct ure development and subsequent use of ICT in remot e and rural First Nat ions. First Nat ions SchoolNet was
est ablished t o provide int ernet access, comput er equipment and t echnical support t o First Nat ions schools on reserves across Canada. The program has become t he backbone f or broadband net works and ICT in many remot e and rural First Nat ions across t he count ry. Alt hough t he program f ocuses on First Nat ions schools, t he
inf rast ruct ure developed under t his program has spread t o ot her applicat ions and uses wit hin communit ies (Whit educk, T. , 2010).
A recent evaluat ion of t he First Nat ions SchoolNet program by t he f unders Indian and Nort hern Af f airs Canada (INAC, 2009) f ound t hat t he Regional Management Organizat ion (RMO) delivery model is bot h ef f ect ive and ef f icient . RMOs have developed part nerships wit h bot h t he public and privat e sect or t o reduce cost s, maximize opport unit ies and provide economies of scale. This has largely support ed t he success of t he program in posit ively cont ribut ing t o educat ional out comes, cult ural educat ion, cult ural and linguist ic preservat ion, mit igat ing
isolat ion and allowing access t o ot her essent ial services in t he schools and t he communit ies (INAC, 2009). The RMO in t he most east ern region of Canada is Mik’ maw Kina’ mat neway/ At lant ic Canada’ s First Nat ion Help Desk (ht t p: / / f irst nat ionhelp. com). The At lant ic Help Desk f acilit at es t he development and use of ICT f or educat ion, innovat ion, and creat ivit y. The organizat ion encourages yout h t o be producers as well as consumers of inf ormat ion. Init iat ives include MMTV News (Mi’ kmaq/ Maliseet TV) and a web sit e archiving video clips of
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elders. Videoconf erencing is key t o many init iat ives including nat ional meet ings and sharing st udent -generat ed cont ent on legends, social issues, and educat ion. The Help Desk websit e is an educat ional resource f or First Nat ions yout h and int erest ed mainst ream st udent s alike (O’ Donnell et al. , 2009).
The First Nat ions Educat ion Council (FNEC) is t he SchoolNet RMO in Quebec (in French: Conseil en Educat ion des Premieres Nat ions – CEPN) (www. cepn-f nec. com). FNEC, an associat ion of First Nat ions and communit ies, aims t o achieve f ull j urisdict ion over educat ion. They will do t his while “ respect ing our unique cult ural ident it ies and common belief s, and promot ing our languages, values and t radit ions” (FNEC, 2009: 3). FNEC’ s t echnology depart ment has been very act ive. FNEC’ s videoconf erence services support t raining and communicat ion via t eleconf erence in all t he First Nat ions communit ies of t he region. In 2008-2009, videoconf erence act ivit ies rose by 40% and ut ilizat ion hours increased by 50% compared t o t he previous year. Request s f or videoconf erence meet ings are made by t he educat ion and healt h sect ors, INAC, and FNEC employees. At least 58 videoconf erence syst ems have been inst alled in t he First Nat ions schools and healt h cent res of Quebec. Cert ain Band Councils also use t his t echnology (FNEC, 2009). The videoconf erence sit es are all list ed in a direct ory t hat can be viewed on t he FNEC Websit e. FNEC is also engaged in: f ibre opt ic development f or First Nat ions in Quebec, sof t ware creat ion services, t echnology t raining services (including CISCO-ICT t raining), a “ My School on t he Web” proj ect , and support f or many ot her t echnology-relat ed act ivit ies (First Nat ions Educat ion Council, 2009; Whit educk, T. , 2010).
To give a f inal example, K-Net is t he First Nat ions SchoolNet RMO in Ont ario (www. knet . ca). K-Net is t he broadband services division of t he Keewayt inook Okimakanak (KO) t ribal council. In 1996, KO and K-Net became Indust ry Canada’ s First Nat ions SchoolNet Helpdesk serving Nort hern Ont ario. The same year, CAP sit es
(Communit y Access Point s), also f unded by Indust ry Canada, were est ablished in 10 of t he First Nat ions in t hat region. In 2000, Keewayt inook Int ernet High School was launched, a digit al t elephone service was implement ed in Nort h Spirit Lake and Keewaywin First Nat ions, and videoconf erencing and high speed dat a connect ions were est ablished. The f ollowing year, K-Net became one of Indust ry Canada’ s SMART sit es and t he KOHS-NORTH (Telehealt h) Net work was launched (TeleCommons Development Group, 2004). In 2005, K-Net launched t he Nort hern Indigenous Communit y Sat ellit e Net work, working wit h it s part ners t o provide broadband services t o remot e communit ies in Ont ario, Manit oba, and Quebec. K-Net remains a leader in broadband communicat ion services f or remot e and rural First Nat ions in Canada. From it s of f ice in Sioux Lookout , Ont ario, K-Net provides web, Int ernet , sat ellit e and videoconf erencing services, and inf rast ruct ure t o remot e communit ies in nort hern Ont ario. K-Net sees it s responsibilit ies as helping t o sust ain dist inct ive and minorit y cult ures, planning and act ing on communit y needs, mobilizing communit ies, encouraging and support ing individual use of ICT, and providing observat ions on how t o f ost er and encourage communit y-based use of ICT f or social int eract ion (Beat on, Fiddler & Rowlandson, 2004; Carpent er, 2010; Fiser & Clement , 2009; KORI, 2005; O’ Donnell et . al, 2009).
Ot her policies and init iat ives t o increase broadband and ICT use
Aside f rom First Nat ions SchoolNet , a number of ot her Canadian government programs have support ed increased broadband penet rat ion and ICT use in remot e and rural First Nat ions communit ies. They have not been aimed direct ly at First Nat ions but rat her at remot e and rural communit ies or marginalized populat ions.
In 1996, Indust ry Canada and Human Resources Development Canada est ablished t he Communit y Access Program (CAP). CAP sit es are places where communit y members can access comput ers and t he int ernet in support ed, cult urally-appropriat e set t ings, and many of t hem were set up in remot e and rural First Nat ions across t he count ry. (As of May 2010, t he CAP program f unding is precarious, having been cancelled t wice in as many years only t o cont inue at t he last minut e; t he f ut ure of t he program is uncert ain at t he t ime of writ ing. )
In 2000, t he K-Net RMO was successf ul in it s applicat ion t o Indust ry Canada’s nat ional SMART Communit ies Init iat ive; K-Net became t he only Aboriginal SMART communit y demonst rat ion proj ect in Canada. K-Net has also successf ully leveraged f unding f rom Indust ry Canada’s Federal Economic Development Init iat ive in Nort hern Ont ario (FedNor). Ot her f ederal depart ment s t hat have provided f unding t o K-Net and ot her RMOs across Canada include Human Resources and Skills Development Canada (Carpent er, 2010).
In 2001, t he Nat ional Broadband Task Force was est ablished t o propose st rat egies t o increase connect ivit y f or Aboriginal and rural Canadians, and in 2002, t he government creat ed t he pilot program Broadband f or Rural and Nort hern Development (BRAND) t o bring broadband t o remot e and rural areas (Howard, Busch and Sheet s, 2010). In 2009, f ederal government inf rast ruct ure f unding was again made available t o increase broadband connect ivit y
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in remot e and rural regions; many of t he First Nat ions SchoolNet RMOs t ook t his opport unit y t o part ner on f unding applicat ions t o increase broadband bandwidt h in remot e and rural First Nat ions communit ies.
Also at t he f ederal level, t he Connect ing Aboriginal Canadians policy init iat ive combined t wo f ederal programs – Gat hering St rengt h and Connect ing Canadians (CC) – and part nered government and key nat ional Aboriginal organizat ions t o develop t he Aboriginal Canada Port al in 2001. It became evident t hat cult ural considerat ion is as import ant as improved t echnological inf rast ruct ure, and t hat government s need t o t ailor t heir support f or t he dif f erent approaches t aken by Aboriginal people t o preserve t heir diverse cult ures and cont rol t heir image (Alexander, 2001). The f ederal CC program overemphasized t he t echnological side and undervalued t he human side of t he public-privat e part nerships creat ed t o build communit y-based net works. Fiser & Seibel (2009) compared dif f erent communit y-based net works creat ed t o address t he digit al divide in rural, remot e, and underserved urban communit ies, and also compared t he invest ment paradigm of CC programs t o t hose in t he US and ot her OECD (Organisat ion f or Economic Cooperat ion and Development ) count ries. Measuring t he result s of t he CC programs is dif f icult because t here is no long-t erm t racking of t he grassroot s organizat ions t hat received f unding. Fiser and Seibel (2009) concluded t hat f unders need a bet t er policy f ramework t o complement proj ect -based f unding so t hey can make more ef f icient decisions about how t o support broadband inf rast ruct ure development in First Nat ions communit ies.
3 Broadband network and ICT access and use in First Nations communities
There are no dat a available on rat es of ICT access and use by resident s of remot e and rural First Nat ions communit ies; t his research area is almost non-exist ent .
Broadband connect ivit y at t he communit y level
Levels of connect ivit y t o First Nat ions communit ies vary considerably across t he count ry and by region. Fiser (2010, f ort hcoming), in collaborat ion wit h t he First Nat ions SchoolNet RMOs, present s t he most comprehensive analysis t o dat e of First Nat ions communit y connect ivit y. The analysis mapped St at ist ics Canada Census Subdivisions (CSDs) wit h 2009 dat a f rom int ernet service providers. Using t his met hodology, t heir research ident if ied t hat 426 First Nat ions CSDs (49. 2%) have no resident ial broadband/ high speed access great er t han or equal t o 256Kpbs (kilobit s per second); 355 First Nat ions CSDs (41%) have resident ial broadband access great er t han or equal t o 256Kbps but less t han 1. 544 Mbps (megabit s per second); and 85 (9. 8%) have resident ial high speed access great er t han 1. 544Mbps. However t his dat a pert ain t o availabilit y only, and cannot ident if y how many households in t he CSDs act ually subscribe t o int ernet services.
There is current ly no published research on t he specif ic broadband connect ivit y needs of remot e and rural First Nat ions communit ies. In 2001, t he report of t he Nat ional Broadband Task Force (Indust ry Canada, 2001) st at ed t hat a minimum symmet rical speed of 1. 5Mbps per second per individual user, capable of support ing 2-way symmet rical dat a circuit s, was required and t hat appl icat ions such as peer-t o-peer f ile int eract ions and videoconf erencing would increase individual user demand f or symmet ric bandwidt h in t he 4Mbps-t o-6Mbps range. Organizat ions t hat coordinat e and manage t he communit y connect ivit y f or remot e and rural First Nat ions (First Nat ions SchoolNet RMOs) have document ed a need f or a minimum 10Mbps connect ion t o t he schools in t he First Nat ions. In most cases, a 10Mbps circuit will provide enough bandwidt h f or shared access t o videoconf erencing, dat a t ransf er, voice services, and basic int ernet use. As well, t hese connect ions are scalable as new applicat ions are int roduced. When f ibre is inst alled in a communit y it is even more cost ef f ect ive t o have a 10Mbps circuit rat her t han t he 1. 5Mbps (T1) circuit t hat Fi rst Nat ions present ly are accessing. This level of inf rast ruct ure provides t he opport unit y f or t he circuit s t o be scalable, t o 100 Mbps, if t he design permit s and t he demand and applicat ions require t his bandwidt h (Communicat ion wit h B. Beat on and K. Burt on, 2010).
Types of t echnologies used
As ment ioned, research suggest s t hat about half of First Nat ions communit ies do not have access t o resident ial broadband int ernet , and t here are no current dat a available on t he use of email, t he int ernet , or t he web by First Nat ions communit ies. There is one st udy available on a vibrant social net working sit e, Myknet . org, used by members of First Nat ions communit ies in Nort hern Ont ario. The st udy demonst rat es t hat in t his region at least , many communit y members are using t he int ernet (Budka, Bell & Fiser, 2009).
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There are also publicat ions discussing t he use of online video by First Nat ions, alt hough again no dat a are available on how widespread t he use of online video is in t he communit ies (O’ Donnell et al. , 2009; Hancock & O’ Donnell, 2009; Perley, 2009).
The First Nat ions SchoolNet RMOs in most regions of t he count ry have expanded t heir services t o include t heir own videoconf erencing bridging hardware and support . There have been a number of publicat ions on t he use of videoconf erencing in remot e and rural First Nat ions (Gibson et al. , 2009; McKelvey & O’ Donnell, 2009; Milliken, O’ Donnell & Gorman, 2009; O’ Donnell et al. , 2009 and 2010; Perley & O’ Donnell, 2006). This same
videoconf erencing inf rast ruct ure is t he primary resource available f or many t elehealt h applicat ions in remot e and rural First Nat ions communit ies; many of t he First Nat ions SchoolNet RMOs have service agreement s wit h Healt h Canada t o use t his inf rast ruct ure t o support healt h services in t he communit ies.
The aut hors are aware t hat ot her kinds of ICT are used in some remot e and rural First Nat ions communit ies – such as cellphones, mobile and wireless devices and ot hers – but t here is no published inf ormat ion on t his t opic. Keewayt inook Mobile (www. mobile. knet . ca) is one example of a communit y-based cell phone net work available in remot e communit ies in Nort hern Ont ario.
How First Nat ions communit ies are using ICT
First Nat ions communit ies are using ICT f or a range of purposes. Primary uses include healt h and educat ion, but communit y members are using ICT f or many ot her reasons as well.
Across Canada, t he First Nat ions SchoolNet (FNS) program is t he best example at a nat ional level of using t echnology t o support communit y-based learning in remot e and rural First Nat ions communit ies. In t heir recent evaluat ion of t he program, INAC (2009) f ound t hat FNS remains an int egral part of First Nat ions educat ion on-reserve. The program has enhanced t he educat ional experience of First Nat ions st udent s, provided t hem wit h valuable skills and capabilit ies which have increased t heir compet encies, improved t heir out look on learning as well as t heir conf idence in t heir f ut ures. The program has also provided st udent s wit h t he opt ion of st aying in t heir communit ies wit h t heir f amilies as t hey complet e t heir educat ion t hrough dist ance learning which has posit ively af f ect ed ret ent ion and graduat ion rat es whil e providing access t o opport unit ies similar t o st udent s f rom provincial schools (INAC, 2009).
When st udent s and ot her learners can engage wit h t raining and educat ion in t heir own communit ies, t hey remain connect ed wit h t heir social net works. There are many examples of dist ance educat ion programs in remot e and rural First Nat ions communit ies but f ew examples of ongoing programs t hat use t echnologies ext ensively t o engage young people in f ormal educat ion and connect ing wit h young learners in ot her communit ies.
One not able example of communit y-based learning on t his model is Keewayt inook Int ernet High School (KiHS), an innovat ive program servicing schools in remot e First Nat ions communit ies in nort hern Ont ario. Pot t er (2010) and Walmark (2010) out line how KiHS provides a communit y-based educat ional opt ion f or First Nat ions high school st udent s t hrough t he use of int ernet t echnologies. St udent s who remain in t heir home communit ies may access a qualit y high school program t hrough KiHS while part icipat ing in communit y lif e. KiHS st udent s earn minist ry-inspect ed credit s t owards t heir Ont ario Secondary School Diploma at t he int ermediat e and senior levels, and experience lif e in a high school set t ing. KiHS gives parent s and communit ies an opport unit y t o act ively part icipat e in t he educat ional experience of t heir children t hrough local involvement in t he program. Since 2003, Keewayt inook Okimakanak’ s K-Net support ed t he development and delivery of t he Grade 7 and 8 Online Supplement ary courses in lit eracy, numeracy and science (www. ned. ca). The original goal of t he program was t o prepare st udent s f or cont inuing t heir high school program wit hin t he KIHS program. Over t he years t his program became a prof essional development and social net working service f or First Nat ion t eachers and st udent s as well as a complement ary resource f or First Nat ion schools st ruggling t o provide a qualit y educat ion program f or senior element ary school st udent s.
K-Net support s KiHS and is a key part icipant in MoodleFN (www. moodlef n. knet . ca), a heavily-cust omized version of Moodle (www. moodle. org), a Learning Management Syst em t hat allows people t o creat e and manage t heir own e-learning programs (Walmark, 2010; Whit educk, T. , 2010). The goal of t he MoodleFN Proj ect is t o promot e and support qualit y e-learning programs in First Nat ions schools and communit ies in Canada. It provides t eachers
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and st udent s wit h a secure, managed online learning environment t hat can also host special event s on a st ruct ured plat f orm. Dif f erent online communicat ion t ool s are available including blogs, wikis, and discussion f orums.
The First Nat ions Educat ion Council (FNEC) in Quebec has developed online educat ional cont ent and games f or children; t he mat erial has high cult ural value and signif icance and encourages t he st udent s t o learn about t heir cult ure while t hey are having f un. The educat ional mat erials are available in bot h of f icial languages on t he FNEC websit e; t he games were dist ribut ed in DVD f ormat t o all First Nat ions schools in t he region and are also
available online (Whit educk, T. , 2010).
In a f inal example of ICT f or communit y-based learning, t he At lant ic region RMO, At lant ic Canada’ s First Nat ion Helpdesk, support ed a proj ect called MMTV (Mi’ kmaq/ Maliseet TV) News. MMTV was a place f or st udent s in First Nat ions schools in t he At lant ic t o produce, record, edit and broadcast local, nat ional and int ernat ional st ories. The Helpdesk used mult i-sit e videoconf erencing t o broadcast t he clips t o schools in t he region and anchor t hem t o a newsdesk, emulat ing a t elevision news broadcast . Using t his t echnology, st udent s learned about group cooperat ion, j ournalism, and current event s (Whit educk, T. , 2010).
ICT is also used f or healt h t raining and educat ion – including f or communit y healt h workers and communit y members generally. This includes mini-courses on healt h by videoconf erence f or First Nat ions communit ies in Brit ish Columbia (Johnson, 2008) and a special event wit h part ner Keewayt inook Okimakanak Telemedicine and t he VideoCom proj ect on t element al healt h (Gibson et al. , 2009). Ot her uses of ICT f or healt h t raining and educat ion include web-based social work educat ion t o First Nat ions communit y members in Quebec (Ives and Ait ken, 2008), mult iple t echnologies uses f or Aboriginal nursing st udent s at t he Universit y of Manit oba (Russell et al. , 2005), and cont inuing medical educat ion by videoconf erence (Heat on, 2006).
Over t he past decade, t he use of t elehealt h has increased. Telehealt h ref ers t o providing healt h services over a dist ance using t elecommunicat ions net works. There have been many st udies published on t he clinical use of ICT in remot e and rural First Nat ions, including f or general clinical consult at ions by videoconf erence (Bruner, 2009; Carpent er and Rowlandson, 2009; Ward, 2009); t element al healt h (Brasf ield and Clement , 2007; Gibson et al. , 2009; Reid, 2008; River Valley Healt h, 2006); remot e speech pat hology and audiology (Eriks-Brophy et al. , 2008; Polovoy, 2008); t ele-opt halmology (Williams, 2010); t elehomecare (Coulson and Vermet t e, 2008); t elerehabilit at ion (Coulson, 2010); and rheumat ology services (Jong & Kraishi, 2004).
ICT is used f or sharing healt h inf ormat ion. This includes cult urally-sensit ive healt h inf ormat ion on t he web (Friedman and Hof f man-Goet z, 2007), a websit e t o address t he crisis number of suicides in First Nat ions (NAHO, 2009), a websit e f or communit y-based healt h inf ormat ion (Jarvis-Selinger et al. , 2008), online healt h discussion f orums (Donelle & Hof f man-Goet z, 2008) and int egrat ed healt h websit e t o address diabet es issues (Ho et al. , 2006), and videos on heal t h t opics, such as FASD and Nat ive Parent ing (Whit educk, T. , 2010). First Nat ions are using ICT t o support being of and wit h t he land. A common belief among Aboriginal peoples in Canada is t hat t he relat ionship t hey have wit h t he land shapes t he cult ural, spirit ual, emot ional, physical, and social lives of individuals and communit ies (Wilson, 2003). In addit ion, t his balance is maint ained t hrough living a lif e of st ewardship and harmony wit h t he eart h. Uses of ICT include creat ing t hree-dimensional and web-based visualizat ions of landscapes (Lewis and Sheppard, 2006), elect ronic resources f or co-managing lands and
resources (Greskiw and Innes, 2008; Lulua and Flannery, 2009), websit es and ot her t echnologies f or t raining and ment oring communit y wat er operat ors (Gurst ein, Beat on and Sherlock, 2009; St ewart et al. , 2009), and digit al t ools t o assess archaeological evidence (Jules and St eves, 2008).
First Nat ions are using ICT t o support language, cult ure and t radit ional knowledge. Tradit ional knowledge and t eaching can creat e a posit ive, healt hy ident it y and self -image and help people cope wit h collect ive t rauma. Language is also closely connect ed t o ident it y, healt h, and relat ions (King, Smit h & Gracey, 2009). Uses of ICT t o support First Nat ions languages include an online Oj i-Cree dict ionary (Beat on, Fiddler & Rowlandson, 2004), a syllabic comput er keyboards in Cree and Oj i-Cree (Fiser, Clement and Walmark, 2005), audio podcast s f or t he benef it of Aboriginal languages (Phillips, 2009), and videoconf erencing t o support a mult i-communit y event on Nat ive language resources (O’ Donnell, Beat on and McKelvey, 2009).
ICT used t o support lit eracy includes a program t o support print -on-demand book services in remot e First Nat ions communit ies in nort hwest ern Ont ario (Caidi and Walmark, 2006). ICT is also used t o support musical
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development (Masum, Brooks and Spence, 2005; Warden et al. , 2009). ICT is also being used in Brit ish Columbia t o develop communit y links t o First Nat ions cult ural resources in museums (Rowley, Sparrow and Schaepe, 2009).
First Nat ions are using ICT t o support int erconnect ion and int erdependency. Tradit ionally, Aboriginal children were raised as part of int erconnect ed, f amilial, t ribal, band, and communit y webs of relat ion wit h shared responsibilit ies. These circles of connect ion were al so combined t o creat e wider social and religious communit ies. Prior t o colonialism, values such as respect f or all living t hings, individual responsibilit y, self -reliance, and proper conduct were t aught in t radit ional pract ices and t hrough posit ive role modeling and
learning f rom oral t radit ions, st ories, and games (Klinck et al. , 2005). There is only one example in t he lit erat ure of research on social net working in remot e and rural First Nat ions. Budka, Bell & Fiser (2009) have st udied MyKnet . org in nort hern Ont ario, operat ing since 1999. The social net working service is run by K-Net , t he broadband services and support organizat ion discussed earlier. MyKnet . org is available t o t he approximat ely 45, 000 people living in t he region. There are 30, 000 regist ered users and 25, 000 act ive sit es. More t han half t he 30, 000 users are under age 25, signif ying t hat t his is “ primarily a yout h-driven online social environment . ” The net work plays an import ant socio-cult ural role by providing a means t o build and maint ain f amilial, f riendship, and communit y relat ionships.
First Nat ions are also using videoconf erencing t o connect wit h each ot her. O’ Donnell, Walmark and Hancock (2010) described a st udy t hat f ound t hat K-Net support s about 1,000 videoconferences and mult i-sit e
videoconf erences a year, in addit ion t o t elehealt h sessions. The findings suggest t hat t he At lant ic Help Desk support s about 150 videoconf erences and mult i-sit e videoconf erences a year. These videoconf erences connect people in many diff erent locat ions (sit es).
First Nat ions are using ICT t o support Elders. The presence of healt hy role models in a communit y is ext remely import ant f or individual and communit y healt h and well-being. This is especially t he case when underst ood in t he cont ext of t he t radit ional Aboriginal syst ems of apprent iceship-based learning, deep and mult i-layered f orms of int erconnect ion, and ecocent ric ident it y f ormat ion. Elders living in a number of Saskat chewan communit ies (Whit educk, T. , 2010) and in communit ies in Ont ario and At lant ic provinces (O’ Donnell, Walmark and Hancock, 2010) have become involved in video conf erencing, and use t he medium t o meet wit h each ot her and discuss issues t hey ident if y as import ant . The Elders regularly speak t heir Nat ive languages in t hese sessions. In t he At lant ic region, t here are several examples where t he only cont act some Elders have wit h speaking Mi’ kmaq is during t hese videoconf erences, because t here are no ot her Nat ive language speakers in t heir communit ies. (O’ Donnell, Walmark and Hancock, 2010).
A number of init iat ives across Canada are using video t o capt ure t he st ories and wisdom of First Nat ions Elders. A good example f rom t he At lant ic region is t he Dear Elders videos proj ect available f or viewing at t he f ollowing URL: ht t p: / / dearelders. ca/
First Nat ions are using ICT t o support communit y self -reliance, resilience and self -det erminat ion. The
argument t hat ICT can support self -det erminat ion has been made by several aut hors. Fiddler (2008) out lines how t he UN Declarat ion on t he Right s of Indigenous Peoples is a building block and guideline t hat Indigenous peoples and t heir st at es can use t o pursue t heir collect ive right s and f reedoms. Even wit hout Canada's support of t he Declarat ion, many First Nat ions across Canada have been act ively pursuing t hese right s. ICT are powerf ul t ools t hat can be used t o realize t hese right s. Wit h t he engagement and commit ment of First Nat ions communit ies, ICT can be developed and used in new ways t hat First Nat ions never t hought possible. Fiddler argues t hat as global leaders, First Nat ions need t o set t he st age f or t he use of ICT in Indigenous communit ies and nat ions. Along t hese lines, Perley (2009) not es t hat wit h t he rise in websit es f or video sharing and t he increase in resources t o creat e and upload videos, t here is pot ent ial f or First Nat ions women t o use t his t echnology t o represent issues t hey cannot normally address t hrough mainst ream media. Her crit ical analysis of t he
represent at ion and part icipat ion of First Nat ions women in online videos provides some insight int o how First Nat ions women are current ly using ICT t o quest ion and challenge mainst ream media assumpt ions and
represent at ions of First Nat ions women. Hancock and O’ Donnell (2009) explore t he pot ent ial f or new media t o provide a means f or members of remot e and rural First Nat ions communit ies t o challenge problemat ic
mainst ream represent at ions of First Nat ions ident it y. Online videos made by First Nat ions people may provide t he means f or a social movement t hat undermines t he misrepresent at ions of First Nat ions cult ure and ident it ies in mainst ream Canadian media. McKelvey and O’ Donnell (2009) describe a case of communit y use of mult i-sit e
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videoconf erencing in 2007 t hat connect ed a number of First Nat ions communit ies across Canada f or
simult aneous audio-visual exchange. The event creat ed a virt ual space cont rolled by First Nat ions communit ies. Ent repreneurial and economic init iat ives are essent ial applicat ions f or t he ef f ect ive use of ICT in remot e and rural First Nat ions. Local First Nat ion or individually owned Int ernet Service Providers are support ing t he development and use of ICT in First Nat ions across t he count ry. First Nat ion IT t echnicians and Online Cont ent Producers are operat ing t heir own business. Many of t hese new businesses are locat ed in remot e and rural communit ies. For example, Angus Miles operat es his own IT Service Cent re out of Sachigo Lake First Nat ion (see ht t p: / / 66. 165. 220. 194/ viewerport al/ vmc/ player. do?event Cont ent Id=977).
Challenges t o broadband net work and ICT use
Simply ext ending broadband inf rast ruct ure and ICT services is not enough on it s own t o encourage social, cult ural and economic development in rural and remot e First Nat ions communit ies. Research consist ent ly shows t hat many broadband and ICT dif f usion proj ect s f ace similar challenges t hat impede upt ake and limit use at t he communit y level. The f irst problem is t hat any program t o ext end service t o a remot e locat ion will f ace cost ly and dif f icult t echnological challenges.
Secondly, many programs underemphasize t he import ance of access, and under-supply t raining, skills development and capacit y-building wit hin t he communit y. The availabilit y of t raining, skill development and communit y capacit y building is a key f act or in whet her or not t he pot ent ial of ICT in First Nat ions
communit ies will be realized. Teachers and ot her st af f in First Nat ions Schools in t he At lant ic Region ident if ied a lack of support and t raining as t he main barrier t o using communicat ion t ools such as videoconf erencing and online videos (Simms, O’ Donnell and Perley, 2008). Anot her st udy t hat examined t he t echnical inf rast ruct ure, user int eract ions wit h it , t he product ion and recept ion of audio-visual cont ent , and t he organizat ional and social relat ions in t he communit y ident if ied capacit y-building wit hin t he communit y as key t o ICT upt ake (O’ Donnell, Perley, Simms and Hancock, 2009).
The t hird missing element is of t en a close and equal part nership bet ween f unders and t he communit y, wit h local input in t he policy and proj ect design and impl ement at ion processes and a communit y needs-based plan f or t he proj ect . Local ownership of bot h t he proj ect and t he result ing inf rast ruct ure is proving t o be a key requirement f or sust aining and successf ully operat ing t hese net works and t heir associat ed applicat ions. A series of f orums dedicat ed t o t he digit al divide af f ect ing First Nat ions concluded t hat videoconf erencing, video over IP, single window service delivery and online t raining were import ant t ools f or communit y social and economic development . It also st ressed t he need f or signif icant communit y engagement and leadership in ef f ort s t o build, operat e and maint ain a nat ional broadband net work.
Each of t he t hree challenges can be t raced back t o t he inherent limit at ion of any proj ect -based f unding f ormula, which f avours short t erm benef it over long-t erm sust ainabilit y, and lacks bot h t he policy and f unding support f or t hese init iat ives t o cont inue beyond t he proj ect ’s end dat e.
4 Conclusion: Making the Networks and ICT Sustainable in First Nations
We conclude t his high-level overview of ICT in remot e and rural First Nat ions wit h a discussion of t he research on making t he t echnology sust ainable.
T he need for communit y-based and cult urally-appropriat e net works and ICT
While t heir posit ive ef f ect s on general populat ions have been enormous, ICT have of t en proven t o be an inadequat e means of ef f ect ive communicat ion among mi norit y populat ions, including t hose of indigenous herit age. Digit al divide issues such as cost , geography, and comput er lit eracy hinder indigenous people f rom using ICT t o meet t heir social needs (Dyson et al. , 2007). In addit ion, t he global nat ure of t he int ernet , t hrough which most ICT operat e, precludes it s abilit y t o accommodat e dif f erent cult ural values, such t hat t he t arget audience necessarily becomes t he dominant ‘ West ern’ populat ion (Pannekoek, 2001).
Language is a st rong indicat or of t his bias; English is t he overwhelmingly prevalent language used on t he int ernet , while many scarcely-used and endangered indigenous languages are virt ually non-exist ent (Pannekoek, 2001). As a result , t he int ernet and associat ed t echnologies may f uel t he disappearance of
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indigenous languages even as t he communit ies st rive t o preserve t hem. Furt hermore, much of t he exist ing mat erial represent ing indigenous groups on t he int ernet imposes an out sider worldview t hat misrepresent s and obj ect if ies t he cult ure, t hereby f urt hering a colonialist agenda and cont radict ing t he holist ic values t hat indigenous cult ures uphold (Iseke-Barnes et al. , 2007; Todd, 1996).
Examples of First Nat ion owned and managed ICT applicat ions and net works t hat are cont ained in t his paper, highlight how some of t hese challenges are being addr essed by First Nat ions. When t he local and regional language is support ed by t hese communicat ion t ools, t he people t end t o embrace t hese t echnologies, ident if ying innovat ive and unique st rat egies f or t heir use. MyKnet . org as a social net work is also a excellent example of peer-t o-peer capacit y development in web and ht ml programming support .
However, while remaining mindf ul of t he risks associat ed wit h using ICT f or indigenous communit ies,
researchers and organizat ions have begun exploring t he pot ent ial f or t hese t echnologies t o help develop and enhance healt h and wellness among First Nat ions communit ies. Thus f ar, researchers have ident if ied t he great pot ent ial f or ICT t o promot e language preservat ion as well as cult ural growt h t hrough digit al recording
hardware and sof t ware, online learning t ools, communit y int ernet f orums, and ot her such resources
(Nickerson, 2005). By harnessing t he abilit y of ICT t o f acilit at e sharing, which makes up a rich component of t he holist ic worldview t hat indigenous cult ures value, t echnologies can be used t o benef it rat her t han marginalize t hese communit ies (Leclair et al. , 2007). To def lect t he globalizing f orce of t echnology, t he lit erat ure highlight s t he import ance of providing communit y members wit h access t o localized online resources cat ered t o communit y-specif ic needs (Dyson et al. , 2007; Gordon, 2006). This will help t o ensure t he prot ect ion t hat aboriginal groups require t o maint ain ownership and cont rol over t heir knowledge, language, and cult ure (Nickerson & Kauf man, 2005).
Building communit y cont rol and capacit y
The f inal report of t he Aboriginal Canada Port al Working Group (2004), wit h part icipant s f rom government , nat ional Aboriginal organizat ions and t he World Summit on t he Inf ormat ion Societ y (WSIS), ident if ied and report ed on t he main challenges f or ICT use in Aboriginal communit ies. The key f indings of t he group were t hat communit y involvement , champions and input are necessary at every st age of ICT development and
implement at ion, and t hat while t he government may be t he enabler, t he model f or sust ainabilit y has t o come f rom communit ies.
An import ant series of f orums dedicat ed t o t he Aboriginal digit al divide st ressed t he need f or signif icant communit y engagement and leadership in ef f ort s t o build, operat e and maint ain a nat ional broadband net work (Aboriginal Connect ivit y Port al, 2006). Along t he same lines, t he Aboriginal Voice proj ect consult at ions also ident if ied t he need f or communit y input and cont rol t o set appropriat e priorit ies and apply t he t echnology in a meaningf ul and usef ul way in communit ies (Jock et al. , 2004).
More recent ly, t he Assembly of First Nat ions (Whit educk, J. , 2010) out lined t he requirement s f or “ t he
e-Communit y ICT model. ” The model is similar t o t he net work development and IT maint enance model employed by inst it ut ions and corporat ions across Canada. Every First Nat ion communit y requires a broadband (f ibre) connect ion and a local t echnical t eam t o provide ongoing support f or t he t elecommunicat ions inf rast ruct ure. In t his model, t he communit y broadband f ibre connect ion will support a wide range of communit y applicat ions, including: online meet ings, videoconf erencing, high-speed int ernet , voice-over int ernet (VOIP), e-j ust ice, mobile services, learning, administ rat ion, webcast ing, t elehealt h, t elemedicine, and commerce. The
e-Communit y ICT model also includes building communit y capacit y t o use ICT as an int egral part of t he model (Whit educk, J. , 2010).
Many st udies have ident if ied t he need f or communit y capacit y-building in ICT including: Gibson et al. , 2009; O’ Donnell et al. , 2009; Peddle, 2007; Simms et al. , 2008; Smit h, 2008. For example, in his report on broadband in First Nat ions in BC, Smit h (2008) point s out t hat in urban cent res, broadband syst ems are largely handled by t he market place and maint ained by skilled t echnicians. These f act ors are not present in most rural and remot e First Nat ions communit ies and user f ees are rarely adequat e t o cover syst em maint enance, support and
upgrades. Policy init iat ives relat ing t o t echnical t raining (bot h f or equipment and sof t ware) and f unding f or operat ional improvement s will need t o be ongoing and may need t o grow over t ime.
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The need f or ongoing and sust ainable part nerships bet ween government s, First Nat ions and healt h service providers was also ident if ied by many of t he independent research st udies.
The Aboriginal Canada Port al Working Group (2004) ident if ied t he need f or horizont al part nerships f or sust ainabilit y and “ a close and equal part nership bet ween f unders and t he communit ies. ” Similarly, t he successf ul Keewayt inook Okimakanak Telemedicine service has st at ed t hat in order t o successf ully deliver t elehealt h and t elemedicine all levels of government need t o be involved as well as t he First Nat ions
communit ies (KOTM, 2008). The AFN First Nat ions Telehealt h Consult at ions ident if ied crit ical success f act ors as ongoing part nerships, including part nerships wit h provincial service providers and st akeholders, and ongoing f unding f or net works, st af f ing, t raining and t echnical support (Gideon et al. , 2009).
The key word is “ ongoing, ” f unding. In cont rast , proj ect -based f unding f ormulas f avour short t erm benef it over long-t erm sust ainabilit y, and t he result ing inst abilit y creat es signif icant complicat ions f or t he organizat ions receiving t he f unding and t heir st af f (Gibson, O’ Donnell & Rideout , 2007).
Developing broadband infrast ruct ure
As discussed earlier, across Canada, t elecommunicat ions f irms are slow, and in many cases unwilling, t o ext end broadband net works t o remot e and rural communit ies wit hout signif icant government invest ment . This sit uat ion ref lect s t he geography of t he count ry and will not change in t he f ut ure. Ext ending broadband services is cheaper in urban communit ies and more expensive in rural and remot e communit ies because t he cost s include t he lower volume of services and t he high cost of const ruct ion and maint enance in rural and remot e areas.
The most recent research on First Nat ions communit y connect ivit y suggest s t hat signif icant new invest ment s will be needed t o increase broadband capacit y in remot e and rural First Nat ions. The dat a suggest t hat current ly, about half of First Nat ions communit ies have no resident ial broadband or high speed access, about 40% of First Nat ions have resident ial broadband access, and about 10% have resident ial high speed access (Fiser, 2010, f ort hcoming). Communit ies need equit able access t o broadband t echnology and more precisely, a
comprehensive solut ion t hat is cost -ef f ect ive, sust ainabl e and viable t o meet f ut ure and evolving t echnologies (FNEC, 2009).
To be sust ainable, building, upgrading and maint aining broadband inf rast ruct ure in remot e and rural areas will need signif icant ongoing invest ment by government s. SuperNet in Albert a f or example was subsidized by t he provincial government so it could cover 95% of communit ies across Albert a f or a f ixed rat e irrespect ive of locat ion in order t o f urt her develop t he province socially, cult urally and economically (Mit chell, 2007).
The geography of remot e Canadian communit ies implies t r ansport at ion access problems, long cable builds, and harsh climat e. Building sust ainable broadband inf rast ruct ure capable of t elehealt h delivery in remot e and rural First Nat ions is and will cont inue t o be cost ly. Travel and shipping t elehealt h equipment t o some rural and remot e areas can account f or up t o 40% of t he proj ect budget (Mut t it t , Vigneault & Loewen, 2004). Rolling it out could also generat e new and int erest ing possibilit ies f or innovat ion and t echnical development . New engineering and t echnical solut ions are needed t o reduce t hese and relat ed inf rast ruct ure cost s.
Acknowledgements
This paper is a revised version of select ed mat erial in a report published in May 2010 by t he Nat ional Research Council Canada: Inf ormat ion and Communicat ion Technologies t o Support Healt h and Wellness in Remot e and Rural First Nat ions, and new mat erial f or t his paper. That report was produced in part nership wit h several organizat ions, including t he VideoCom proj ect part ners (ht t p: / / videocom. f irst nat ion. ca). The aut hors would like t o t hank VideoCom part ners Keewayt inook Okimakanak, First Nat ions Educat ion Council and At lant ic Canada’ s First Nat ions Help Desk f or t heir ongoing support f or t his research. VideoCom is f unded by grant s f rom t he Social Sciences and Humanit ies Research Council of Canada (SSHRC).
The aut hors of t his paper would like t o t hank all t he aut hors cit ed and list ed in t he ref erences f or publishing t heir work. Many of t hese aut hors have acknowledged people who cont ribut ed t o t heir publicat ions and research. We cannot list everyone named in t he hundreds of publicat ions, so we of f er a general t hank-you t o everyone who cont ribut ed t o t he research discussed in t his paper.
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Many members of First Nat ions communit ies – leaders, Elders, yout h and ot her communit y members – cont ribut ed t o t he communit y-based research and publicat ions discussed in t his paper. Gat hering t he inf ormat ion f or t hese publicat ions represent ed a signif icant collect ive ef f ort by count less First Nat ions communit y members. The aut hors of t his lit erat ure review acknowledge t hese ef f ort s and t hank t he First Nat ions communit y members f or sharing t heir experiences, t hought s and wisdom.
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