Me l ofN dland MasterofScience requirementsforthedegreeof ,\thesissubmittedtotheSchoolofGraduateStudiesinpartialfulfilmentofthe

GENDERSTEREOTYPES,HOMO NEGAT IVISM, AND SUPPORT OF SEXUAL LYCOERCIVE BEHAVIOURAMONG ADOL ESCENTS

INNEW FOUNDLAND ANDLABRADOR

BY

TODDGRAHAMMORRISON

,\thesissubmitted totheSchoolof Graduate Studies in partialfulfilmentof the

requirementsfor thedegree of MasterofScience

Department ofPsychology MemorialUniversity of Newfoundland

December 1994

St. John's Newfou ndland

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The author has granted an Irrevocablencn-excfuslvelicence allowingthe NationalLibrary of Canada to reproduce, loan, distribute or sell copies of his/herthesisby any meansand In any form or format,making this thesis availableto interested persons .

Theauthor retainsowner shipof the copyright In his/herthesis.

Neitherthe thesis nor substantial extrac tsfromit may be print edor otherw ise reproduced without his/herpermission.

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ABSTR ACT

The purposeof thisstudywas to examinewhether adolescen ts possess altitudes that aregenderstereotypic,homonegative,andsupportiveofsexually coercivebehavio ur.Forthis specific purpose, aninstrumententitled the Sexual AggressionandConservatismScale (SACS)was developed.Reliabilityand validity assessm entssuggested that theinstrument waspsychometrica llyrobust.

Theresearcher distributed 1,124 questionnairestorandomlyselectedschoolsIn Newfound land and labradorfor administrationto studentsin grades tenand twel ve.An ana lysis01return s (1,045questio nnaires-aresponse rateat 93%) revealedthat:(1) malerespondents were more genderstereotyplc, homone qauve,andsupport iveofsexuallycoercive behaviour thantemares;

(2)acade micachievemen twasnegatively correlated withendorsement of genderstereotypes,homoneqatlviam.andsexua lcoercion;(3)religiosity (operationallydefine dasfrequencyofchurchattendance)wasnotassociated with endo rsementofthese altitudes;(4)respondents 'siteof residence(urban versus rural) was not associatedwithendo rsementofthese attitudes;and(5) hOmonegativism andendorsem entof sexual coercionwere positivelycorre lated.

iii ACKNOWLEDG EMENTS

Jwould like to thank Newfound land'sDepartment ofEducation (Divisionof Evaluation,Researc h,andPlanning) for itsinvaluable administ rativeand financialsupport.Iamalsoindebted to the schools thatagreedto participatein thisstudy.

Iwould alsolike to thank mythesis supervisor, Or.CathrynButton, and the membersof my committee, Dr.GinnyGrant and Dr.MaryCourage.Their commentsandconst ructivecriticismsweremuch app reciated.

A specialnote of gratitude is extended to BarbaraHopkins,Melanie Morrison,Wendy O'Connor,andDr.Lenora Perry-Faqan.Finally, Iwould like to thank CharlesMurray lor his edilorialsuggestions and provocativ einsights about many01thetopics exploredin.thisthesis.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

page Abstract

Acknowledgemen ts

List of Tables 1.0Introduction

1.1SexualCoercion 1.2Homonegalivism 1.3GenderStereotyping

1.4Demographic Correlatesof AltitudesToward SexualCoercion, Homosexuality,andGender

Stereotyping 9

1.5 Hypotheses 10

2.0SexualAggressionand ConservatismScale 11

2.1Scale Development 12

2.1.1AttitudesToward SexuallyCoercive

Behaviour Subseals(ATSCBS) 12

2.1.2 Homonegativism Subseale(HS) 14 2.1.3 Gender StereotypingSubscale (GSS) 14

2.2Scale Reliability 15

2.3ScaleCriterion-AelatedValidity 15

2.4Social Desirability 16

2.5 ScaleConstruct Validity 17

2.6Discussion 18

3.0SurveyofAdolescents Using(he SACS 19

3.1Method 19

3.1.1Subjects '9

3.1.2Procedure 20

iv

TABLEOF CONTENTS(COr-IT O)

page

3.2Results 22

3.2.1ScaleReliability 22

3.2.2Sex Oillerences 22

3.2.3UrbanlR uralDifferences 23

3.2.4 AcademicAchievemenl 24

3.2.5 Religiosity 25

3.2.6Homonegativismand AttitudesToward

Sexually Coercive Behaviour 26

3.3 Discussion 26

References 31

Appendix A 38

AppendixC 46

Appendix0 51

Table1

ListofTables

SelectedSampleStratined By Religious Category and Urban/AuralLocationof Schoo l

page

21

The termsexual ideologyrefers tothe systemsof meaning,knowledge, beliefs andpracticesthroughwhichindividualsregulate and expresssexual behaviour(Trolden& Jendrek,1987).Manyvariables aresubsumed underthis construct includingattitudes toward sexualcoercion,homosexuality,and gender stereotypes(Lottes&Kuriloff,1992).Althoughthese topicshavereceived considerablescientificattention,the valueofthe researchhas been restricted by its useof collegestudents as subjects.The assumptionthat college students are an adequateproxylornon-collegepopulationshas been Questioned(Price, 1982).For example, Sears(1986)r~viewedthe waysin which collegestudents qualitativelydifferfrom othercohortsandconcludedthat"reliance onthis narrow databasemay resultin a portraitofhumannaturethatdescribes,rather accurately,the behaviourof.. . collegestudentsin anacademiccontext but [one that)distortshuman socialbehaviourmore generally"(p.515). Therefore, hefeltit was imperative that psychologistsinvestigateotherage groups tomore accuratelygaugethe generalizabilityoftheir findings.Despite these criticisms, thesexual ideologies of otherpopulations, in particularadolescents.areseldom investigated.Thisthesispartially redressesthat deficiencyby examininghigh schoolstudents'attitudes toward sexualcoercion,homosexuality,and gender stereotypes.

1,1Sexual Coercion

Coercivesexualbehaviour refersto theuse ofphysicalforce, useof weapons, threatofharm,blackmail, unfairuse 01authority,or use atalcohol or drugsto obtain anyformof sexualactivity(Struckman,Johnson&Struckman- Johnson,1992).The two key elementsof thisdefinition are: 1) the diversity of perpetrators'coercivestrategiesranging frompsychologicalto physicalabuse, and 2) the inclusionofsexualactivities thaido not involve vaginalpenetration.

The term coercivesexualbehaviouris usedinthis lhesisinstead ofrape, becausethelatter is often stereotyplcally defined asa"situation in whichan unknownmale attacksafemaleandforces her ...to[engage} insexual intercourse" (Dull & Gtacopassi,1987, p.175).Thisdefinitionrequires both violentresistanceby the victim and theculmination ofrape withintercourse.

Consequently,incidentsofsexualassaultthatdo not satisfy these criteriamay notbe categorizedas rape (Albin,1977; Burt, 1991).

Sexualcoercionis apervasive socialphenomenon (Quinn,Sanchez- Hucles,Coates,&Gillen,1991).Sandberg,Jackson,and Petritic-Jackson (1987) reportedthat 48% of their female respondentshad been touched, held, or kissed against theirwillby a datingpartner, and74% had experiencedverbal pressureto engage in sexualintercourse.Similarly,Garrell-Goodingand Senter,Jr.(1987)observedthat64,7%of the womenin their studyhad been

victims of at least oneact of sexually aggressivebehaviour.Finally, Craig (1990)examined theresults of23 studies,datingfrom 1957 to1989 , which investigated coercivesexualbehaviouramong college students.The average percentageoffemale victimization,celcufeted across studies prOViding frequency of coercion data (N::16),was 72.5%.

Socialscientists have examinedunderlyingaltitudinalvariables tofurther their understanding of sexual coercion.Researchsuggests thatthose who endorserape myths and/or believethatsexualrelationships arecharacterized by antagonism andexploitationmay perpetuate and reinforce violence against women(Briere, Malamuth,&Check,1985).Such individualsoftenregard sexual coercionas a normative,ratherthananomalous,component ofmale/female relationshipsand,consequently,do net perceiveitto be aparticUla rlydistu rbing occurrence. For example, Deitz,Blackwell,Daley, andBentley (1982)reported thatmalesubjects'empaihy for rape victims wasnegatively correlate dwith their desire10 engagein coercivesexualbehaviour.Inaddition,subjec tswho didnot empathizewith a hypothetica lrape victim attrlb utedless blameto the perpetrator.issuedamore lenient sentenceinamockrapetrial andminimi zed the psychologica limpactof the perpetrator'sbehaviour.Similarly ,Muehlen hard andMar:Naughton(1988)reported thatfemaleswho believedthat-leadinga manon" justifies rape weremore likely10 holdpunitive attitudes towa rd a hypothetical victim who behaved·suggastively" These subjectsalsominimized

thepsycholoqicalandphysicalpain experiencedbythe victimandwere less likelyto define theincident asrape.

Muehlenhardand MacNaughton (1988)also found thai awomanwho believesthat"leading a manon" obligatesher to satisfyhimsexually,mayfindit diHicult torefuseunwanted advances. Their resultssupportedthisassumption aswomen whoendorsed rape-supportivebeliefs were morelikely10 have experiencedverbally coerced sex.Finally, Andersonand Cummings(1993) notedthat 23% of femalessurveyed had capitulatedtothe sexualdemandsof theirpartners becausetheyperceived them to beirreversibly "turnedon."

Thefailure ofstudies toexamine adolescents'beliefsaboutsexually coercive behaviouris disturbinggiven thatadolescencecorrespondswiththe onsetofpubertyand aconcomitant interestinsexualactivity(Feltey, Ainslie, &

Geib,1991).For example,findingsfromaCanadian health survey revealed that 57% of the gradenine students surveyedhad engagedinpettingbelow the waist and 25%hadengaged in sexualintercourse(King,Beazley,Warren,Hankins, Robertson,& Radford,1988).Similarly, astudyofadolescentsinNewfoundland and Labradorfound thai 83% oftheprovince's gradeelevenstudents had engagedin pettingbelowthe waist and63%had engagedinsexual intercourse (Cregheur, Casey,& Banfield,1992).Giventhelargeproportion of youth that aresexuallyactive,it wouldappearthattheissue ofsexualcoercion is germane to this age group.

The limiteduse 01adolescentsin this areahas also prevented researchersfromthoroughly investigating the developmentof sexuallycoercive attitudes and fromconstructingappropriateinterventions for attitudinalchange (Bell,Kuriloff,Lottes,Nathanson,Judge,&Fogelson-Turet,1992).

1.2Homonegativfsm

HomonegativismIsany prejudicial affectiveorbehavioralresponse directed toward anindividual becauseof hls/herhomosexualorientation (Cerny

&Polyson,1984).Allhoughil is seldFm used,homonepetivismispreferable to thetermhomophobiabecausethe latterimpliesmat antihomosexual biasis dysfunctional(Herek,1986).Thisimplicationignoresthefactthatprejudice basedon homosexualorientationplays avital roleinthe development of traditionallymasculinealtitudesand behaviours (Frank,1991) .

Many individuals are homonegalive.Forexample,D'Augelliand Rose (1990)found that 44% of theirmalerespondentsperceivedlesbians as"slck";

75%believedthatmalehomosexualswere -disgusting"; and45%reportedthat theiruniversitywouldbe a "better place"if onlyheterosexualsattended.

Similarly. Kurdek(198B)noted that 60%ofthecollege students hesurveyed thought that homosexualsshouldseekpsychiatrichelp;61%believedthatthe

"growingnumber" of homosexuals in societyrepresenteda declineinmoral values: and70%saidthatthey wouldnotliketo have homosexualfriends.

The correlatesof homonegativlty have also beenexamined.For example,Larsen, Reed,and Hoffman(1980) and Flcarrctc(1990)found thai stereotypic beliefs aboutgenderand race were positivelycorrelated with homonegativity.Similarly,Kurdek (1988)reportedthat subjectswhodid not believe in equality betweenthe sexesdisplayedgreaterhomonegativitythan their more egalitariancounterparts.

Aswith attitudestowardsexuallycoercive behaviour,researchers examining homonegativism have primarilyused collegestudentsas subjects.

Studies with adolescentsare lmportentgiven the amountof anecdotal evidence which suggeststhathomonegativity Is prevalent injunior high and high·school and the salienceof homonegativeattltudeain themasculinekJentification processof young males(Frank,1991;Monette,1992).

1.3GenderStereotyping

Genderstereotypesare characterizationsinvolvingpersonality attributes, physical traits,ambitions,occupationsand lifestyles, ascribed to an individual becauseofhislher sex (Belk& Snell,Jr.,1986;Biernat,1991). Such stereotypicalbeliefsare problematicbecause theyplace malesand females into antagonistic spheres(masculineversus feminine) and circumscribetheir affective andbehavioralchoices.Malesarestereotyplcaltyperceivedto possesstraits clusteringalonganinstrumental dimension (e.g.,logic, self-

reliance)whilefemalesareseento possessacluster of expressiveattributes (e.g., emotionalism,dependency) (Deaux&Kite,1987).

Stereotypicalbeliefsassociatedwithmalesexualityinclude: (a) men possessbasic sexualneeds(Tiefer, 1987); (b) menarealwaysmotivated to have sex (Struckman-Johnson&Struckman-Johnson,1992;Yachnes,1973);

(c)male sexualprowessis "a serious.task-orientedbusiness {that does not advocate)experimentation, unpredictability, orplay"(Tlefer,1987.p.167); (d) it ismen's responsibilitytolnitlata sexualactivity(Muehlenhard&Hollabaugh, 1988; Yachnes,1973);(e)menShOU.~dtry to "overcome"awoman's initial resistance to engagein sex (Muehlenhard&Hollabaugh,1988);

(f)men should ensurethat atl sexualactivityculminateswith intercourse (ZUbergeld, 1992);and(g)men shouldperceive "anyphysicalcontactother thana Ilght touch- asan invitation tohave sex(Tlefar, 1987,p.167).

Stereotypicalbeliefs associatedwith femalesexualityinclude:(a)women shouldinitiallyresist the sexualadvancesofmen (Muehlenhard&Hollabaugh, 1988); (b) womenpossesscomplicatedsexual needs(rteter.1987);(c) women aresexuallyinsatiableoncearoused(Burt& Albin,1981); and(d)women should establishlimitsonsexualactivity andshouldbe heldaccountablewhen men exceed them (Abbey,1991).

These stereotypicalperceptionsmaypromote sexual violence.Assuming that womenare initiallyreluctant 10 engageinsexmay lead to endorsingthe

rape-supportive belief'women say'no'when theyreally mean'yes'."In addition, perceiving mostformsof physical contactas aninvitationtohave sex engenders false assumptionsofmaleentitlement andimplies thatwomenare culpable fortheir sexualvictimization.Finally,thebenetthat menare always willing toengagein sex maycauseindividualstominimize thetrauma experiencedby malevictimsofsexualassault(Garcia,Milano,&Quijano,1989:

Struckman-Johnson &Struckman-Johnson, 1992).

Indeed, studiesexamining the{elalionship betweengenderstereotyping and sexualcoercion suggestthatIndividualswho acceptgenderstereotypesare more likely to engageIn, or be victims of, sexuallycoercivebehaviour (Craig, 1990).Bellatal. (1992)reportedthat subjects who believedingender stereotypes were more likely to endorserape supportive beliefs.Muehlenhard and Linton(1987) foundthatmales who had traditional attitudes towardwomen weremore likely to exhibitsexually aggressive behaviour,Finally,Muehlenhard and MacNaughton(19S8)observedthat women's adherence to traditional gender roleexpectetlons waspositively correlated withtheir likelihoodofhaving experienced verbally coercedsex.

In summary.the datapresentedabovesuggest that genderstereotyping, homonegativism,and altitudestoward sexuallycoercivebehaviourare

interrelated.Moreover.aconsistentgenderdifference exists with males being more hcmoneqative. genderstereotyplc,andsupportiveof sexuallycoercive behaviourthanfemales(Belk&Snell.Jr.,1986;Bell et aI., 1992;O'Augelli &

Rose.1990;Felteyetal.,1991; Herek&Glunt,1993;Kurdek,1988;Larsen &

long,1988;Lones&Kuriloff.1992;Spence. Losoff,&Robbins, 1991).

1.4DemographicCOffe/ates ofHomonegativity, SexualCoercion.

and GenderStereotyping

A varietyof demographicvariableshave been examined inrelation to genderstereotyping and attitudestowardhomosexualityand sexuallycoercive behaviour(see Craig,1990; Kurdek, le88),The authordecided tofocus on two of these, religiosityand slleofresidence (urbanversusrural).because Newfoundlandhas a denominationalschool systemandmost of itspopulation livesin ruralcommunities.Thethird demographic variable.academic achievement. was selectedat therequestof the organizationwhichfundedthe study.

DullandGiacopassi(1987)and Fischer (1986) reportedthatfrequency of churchattendance was notassociatedwith attitudes toward sexualcoercion.

However,Herak (1984)and Peplau,Hill,and Aubin (1993)foundthat church attendancewaspositivelycorrelated with endorsement01homonegativism and genderstereotypes. In addition, Peptau at at.(1993) notedthat cognitiveability

10

(operatlonaltzedin theirstudy assell-reported academic achievementand performanceon the ScholasticAchievementTest)wasnegativelycorrelatedwith endorsement of gender stereotypes.Kurde k (1988)an d Marsiglio(1993)found

a similarrelationship between academic achievement and homonegalivily.

Finally,Etaugh (1975)and Stephanand McMullin (1982) examined the influence

of site ofresidence ongenderstereotypingand homoneqativlsm.respectively.

Theirresults suggestedthat respond entsinrural communitiesweremoregender stereotypic andhomonegativethanrespondentsin urbancommunities.

1.5 Hypotheses

Based onthe researchoutlinedin sections1.1through 1.4,it was hypothesizedthaI; (a) male adolescentswouldbemore genderstereotypic.

homonegative.and supportiveofsexuallycoercivebehaviour than females; (b) frequency of churchattendance(this study'soperational definition ofreligiosity) would be positively correlatedwithendorsementof genderstereotypesand homonegalivlsmbut would notbeassociated withattitudestoward sexually coercivebehaviour;(c) academicachievement (as determinedby a self-report measure) would benegatively correlatedwithendorsement of gender stereotypes andhomonegativism; and (d)respondentsinrural schoolswouldbe morelikely thanrespondentsinurbanschoolstoendorseattitudestatements that aregenderstereotyptcand homonegative.

11

Although not previously examined in theliterature, the following hypotheses seemed plausible given that rape-supportive;gender stereotypic, and homonegalivebeliefs have similar correlates. These are:(a)academic achievementwouldbe negatively correlated withendorsement of sexual coercion;(b)respondents from rural schools would be more likely than respondentsfrom urban schools to endorse sexually coercive behaviour;and (0) homonegativism and endorsementof sexual coercion wouldbe positively correlated.

2.0The SexualAggression andConservatismScale(SACS)

No singleinstrumentmeasuresgenderstereotyplc, homonepatlve, and rape-supportivebeliefs. Combining the scalesthat aretypicallyusedin this research was lmpracflcalbecause thelength of such a compositequestionnaire would have been prohibitive. In addition.some of these scalesare too explicit foruse with adolescents(e.g.•the SexualExperiencesSurvey- Koss & Oros, 1982)andothersprovideinsufficientdataabout their reliabilityand validity (e.g., theAttitudesTowardRape Questionnaire - Barnell & Feild. 1977;the Surveyof Sexualand Dating Attitudes·Dull& Glacopassl,1987; and the Sexual ExperienceSurvey- Miller&Marshall.1987).

12 Consequently ,aninstrument comprisedollhree subseal es to examine 1)beliefsaboutsexual coercion.2) homon egaliv is m .and 3) gender

stereotypingwas designedforuse withadolescents.Thisinstrument hasbeen entitledtheSexualAgg ression and ConservatismScale(SACS; see Appendix A).IIusesauve-pointresponseformal(1:=slronglydisagre e;5= strongly agree)and requ ires approximately15 minutes to complete .

2.1 ScaleDevelopm ent

2.1.1AttitudesToward SexuallyCoerciveBehaviour Subsea!. (ATSCBS)

Based on a rev iewof theliterature,an initialpool of30 items examining

attitudestoward sexuallyccercivebehaviourwas developed.A convenience sampleof universitystudentsinVictoria,BritishColumbia (N=125) and 51.

John's, Newfoundland (N=147)was selected.Item -total sum mary and

descriptive statistics werecomputed. Itemsthatsubstantiallylowered Cronbach'salpha,orhada "don'tknow"response rategrealer than40 percent, were eliminated(Benson&Vincent,1980).Inaddition,commentsprovided by respondents wereexamined and, whereappropriate, used tomodifyspecific Items.

Unfonunately,hlgh·school studentswereomittedfromthis portionof the

13 pilot test. In an attemptto compensate for thisomission,consultantsIrom Newfoundland's Department 01Educationreviewedthe items 10ensurethe y were suitablefor usewith adolescents in grades len andtwelve.Thisevaluative process resulted in the modificationof severalitemsforincreased comprehension . For example,the question·Women provokerape by their appearance"became'w omenwhowearsexyclothingareasking10beraped."

Finally. a coordinatoratthe 51.John'sRape CrisisCentreand a researcher with the NewfoundlandWomen's PolicyOffice wereconsultedto ensurethat

m e

itemshad face validity.

Thefinal versionof theATSCB$containselevenitems developedbythe authoras well as two itemsfromthe RapeMythAcceptanceScale(Burt,1980):

onefromanuntilled scaleby Glacopassl andDull (1986);andtwo modified itemsfromboth theAttitudesTowardRape Questionnaire(Barnet!&Feild, 1977) andtheSurveyofSexualandDatingAltitudes (Dull & Glacopassl. 1987).

There areeightl?cnHamsin total, thirteen of whicharestatementsendorsing sexuallycoercivebehaviour(e.g.,-8man hasthe right toforce a woman tohave sex,ifshe has ledhim on"). Theremaining fiveitemsendorsenon-coercive expeclationsabout having sexandrequire reverse scoring(e.g., "even ifaman hasspentalot of moneyon a date, hedoes not havetherightto expect that the womanwinhave sexwithhim"). Scorescan range from 18 to90,withhigher scores representinggreater endorsementof sexualcoercion.

14 2.1.2HomonegativismSubsea/a (HS)

Procedures ldentlcalto those usedwiththeATSCBS wereemployedin the constructionofthis subscale.

Thelinalversionof theHScontains threeitemsdevelopedby the author aswell asthreeitemsfrom theHeterosexualAltitudesTow ard Homosexuals scale(HA TH)(Larsenatet,1980).Thereare six itemsin total,four ofwhichare

homonegative statements(e.g.• 'homosexualsshould not be allowedto work with children").Therem ainingtwo itemsendorse non-homonegative altitudes andrequire reversescori ng (e.g.,'homo sexuals should have the samerightsas heterosexuals").Scorescan range hom 6\030,with higher scores representing greater homonegativity.

2.1.3Gend erSte reotyp ing SUDscale(GSS)

Proceduresidentical to thoseused wilh theATSCBSwereemployed in lhe constructionof this subscale.

The finalversion01the GSScontainsninaitemsdeveloped bythe etnhcr as well as oneitem from theSexistAttilur:lesTowardWomen Scale(SATWS) (Benson&Vincent,1980).There arelenitemsin total, eightofwhich are gender stereotypicstatements (e.g.,"men shouldbemoresexually experienced before marriagethan women").Theremainingtwo itemsendorse non-slereotypic perceptions aboutgenderandrequirereverse scoring(e.g.,'women arejustas

15 goodatmakingdecisionsas men").Scores can rangefrom 10to50,with higher scoresrepresen ting greate racceptanceofgenderstereoty pes.

2.2 ScaleReliability

Int ernal consistencyanalysisis the reliabilityassessment technique recommended for any untested.multiple-ilem scalewhichis administeredat a singlepoIntin time" (Patr ick&Beery, 19 91 ).Copies oftheSACSwere distribu tedto a conveniencesampleofuniversity students in Victoria,Br itish Columbia(N:::57).Cronbach's alpha1coefficients for theATSCBS,theHS.and theGSS wore.83.,85, an d.78re spectiv ely(coeff iciental p haforthe totalscale

==.89). Thesevalues representsatisfactorylevelsof reliability(Carmines&

Zeller.1979).

2.3 Scale Criterion-Related Validity

Eachsubsca!eoftheSACSwascomparedwith areliable andvalidscale designed 10measurethe sameconstruct.Thethree scaleschosenwere: 1)the AttitudesTowardRape ViclimsScala(ARVS)(a25-i1em, 7pointLikert-type scale that measures rape- supportive beliefs](Ward,1988);2)theHeterosexual AltlludesTowardHomosexualScale(HATH)(a 20-item,5point Llkert-type scale thatmeasuresantihomosexual attitudes](Larsenet ai"1980); and3)the Sexist AttitudesToward Women Scale (SATWS) (a40·ltem, 7pointLikert-type scale

16 that measuressexism](Benson&Vincent,1980).

Copiesof theSACSand the ARVS,theHATH. and the SATWSwere dist ributed 10 aconv enience sampleof university studentsin Victoria,British Columbia(N=31).

Scoreson theATSCBS,theHS,andthe GSS were th e n corre latedwith scoresonthe ARVS, theHATH, andthe SATWS,respectively.It waspredicted thaI: a)scoreson theATSC BSand theARVS(highscoreson bothdenole acceptanceof sexualcoercion)would bepositively correlated;b) scoresonthe HS (highscoresdenotegreaterhom~negativism)andtheHATH(low scores denote greaterhomoneqatlvlsm)wouldbenegalively correlated;andc) scores ontheGSSandthe SATWS(highscoresonbothdenotegenderstereotyping) wouldbe positivelycorrelated. Each predictionwas confirmed:

(ATSCBSandARVS r =.906,g<.001;HSandHATH!=-.951,g<.001;and GS S and SATWS I=.756,g<.00 1).

These high correlationssuggestthat thethree subscalesof theSACS possess criterion-relatedvalidity.Also, unlessoneassumes thatthe AAVS,the HATH,and theSATWSare qualitatively similar,it seemsplausibleto assume that thethree aubscalesoftheSAC Sare eachmeasuringa different construct.

However, additional research shouldbeconductedonthedivergent validityof the subscales oftheSACStoensurethatthey arenot simply measuring the sameconstruct.

17 2.4Social Desirabilify

Socialdesirability bias reflects an individual's tendency 10 seek approval by responding in a manner which is considered 10 be culturally appropriateand acceptable (Crowne & Marlowe,1960).Itis imperativethat one testfor this bias because contaminationof testing items by a social desirability tendency may lead to inaccurateresponses. Copies altha SACSand the Marlowe-Crowne SocialDeslrabllit y Scale (M-C SDS)fa 32-item.true/false scale withhigher scoresdenoting greater desirabilitybias] (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960 ) were distrit:cted to a convenience sampleof high-schoolstudentsin Victoria, British Columbia (N=28).Scoreson theSACSand theM-eSDS werethen correlated.

The resultingcorrelationcoefficientwas non-significant(r=.03), suggesting that,amongadolescents,there is minimal ec...lq,1desirabilityinfluence on responses to theSACS.

2.5 Scale Conslruel Validity

Copies of the SACSand the "Macho"Scale (MS)[a ae-nen. 5point likert-type scale withhigher scoresdenotinggreater endorsementof sexist

"macho" ideologies](Vi1Iemez &Touhey, 1977)were distributedto a conveniencesampleof high-schoolstudentsin Victoria,BritlshColumbia (N=33).The MS is psychometricallyrobust and includes itemssuchas: "most women have littlerespect for weakmen"; "in general,it is more importantfor a

18 man10be successfulin hiscaree rthanitis lor a woman";and"a wifeshouldn't contradictherhusbandinpublic·(Gayton.Sawyer,Baird,&Ozmon.1982;

Villemez&Tou hey,1977).

Researchers havefound that subjects with high MS scoresare oftenmore genderstereotyp ic,homoneqatlve, andsupportiveofsexuallycoercive

beha viour than their low scoring coun terp arts(Brinkerho ff&MacKie.1985;

Gaytonet aI.,1982;Mazer&Percival,1989).Therefore,itwashypothesized that scores onthe MSandtheSACSwould beposltivelycorrelated. This hyp othesiswas confirmed(r=.893~<.0001).

2.6Discussion

Insummary,the resultsdescribedabove suggest thattheSACS is a reliableandvalid instrument.Although itIs regrettable thai adolescents were notincludedin all phasesof thepilottesting, attempts weremade to compensate forthisdeficiencythroughthe use ofeducationconsultants.In addition,it must benoledthattheconstructvalidityof the SACSand the scale's pote.utatcontaminationby social desirabilitybias were examinedusing asample of high-school students.

19 3.0Survey 01AdolescentsUsingthe SACS

3.'Method

3.1.JSubjects

The questionnaires.',124in total,were distributed 10participating schools. The responseratewas 93% (1.045 usablequestionnaireswere returned).Themeanage of respondentswas 16.5 years.C,fthe totalsample, 51%(531)weremale and49%(514)jWere female; 53% (544) were ingradeten and47%(490) werein gradetwelve[eleven unclassified cases]:'Twenty-two percent (230)reported attendingchurchevery week, 19o,.{,(197) reported sporadicattendance.35%(361) reported attendingonly onspecialoccasions.

and24%(255)reported never attendingchurdl(twounclassifiedcases].The percentage ofstudentsenrolledinPentecostal,SeventhDay Adventist.Roman Catholic, or Integratedschools was6%(66),.006%(5),rook(206),and73%

(768)respectively.Students' averagelevelof self-reportedacademic achievement was 73%.ora"B: Finally,21% (224) of the students werefrom urbanschoolsand 79% (821) were from ruralschools.

II.Due tocost considerations,students ingrade elevenwere not includedin this .study. It was assumedthaigradestenandtwelvewouldserve as an adequate

representationof thehigh schoolpopulation.

20

3.1.2Procedure

To ensurethat a representative samplewasobtained, highschool s in Newfoundland andLabrador werestratifiedby location(urbanorrural as defined by StatisticsCanada)and religiouscategory(Pentecostal,Seventh-Day Adventist,Roman Calhollc,andIntegrated).Approximate ly10"10 of these schoo lswere thenrandomlyselected(N=22).Twenty schoolsagreedto participate.The twothairefused did sobecause their principal sfoundth e surveyinslrument"invasive"and"anti-male."Unfortunately. the author had no way of determiningifthesetwo schoolssystematicallydifferedfrom the ones that agreedto participate.A comparisonof the sampleand populationschool datais providedinTable1.

Followingthe ethicalguidelinesestablishedfor researchwithhuman subjects,teacherswereprovidedwitha sheetofinstructionsrequestingthat.

beforedistributingtheSACS,they informstudentsthaIparticipation In the surveywas voluntaryand thatall responses wouldbeanonymousand confidential.

Table1

Selected Sample StratifiedByReligiousCategoryand Urban/RuralLocationof School

21

Urban Sam le Rural Sam re Tolal 10%ofTolal

lnte rated! 21 2 95 to

11.

12

RomanCatholic 21 2 51 5 72 7

Pentecostal 3 1 12 1 15 2

SeventhDay

3 1 c c 3 1

Adventist

Total 48 (23%) 6 (27%) 158(77%)16 (73%) 206 22

'InlogratGdretereto Un"ed,Presbyterian,andAnglicanschools.

22 3.2 Results

3.2.1Scale Refiabl1ity

Cronbach'salpha coefficients for theA TSCBS. the HS.and the GSS were .75,.84,and .67 respectively(coefficie ntalpha for the totalscale:::.86). These values representsatisfactorylevels of reliability(Carmines & Zeller,1979).

3.2,2Sex Differences

A two-qrcupMANOVAwascondu~tedon the18 itemsof the ATSCBSto find out whether males and females differed in their attitudes toward sexually

coercivebehaviour.The overallsex effectwas significant(maleM=42.88.s..d.

::: 19.20;femaleM= 36.69,.s.i1.=17.02;Wilk'slambda:::.e01, E(1S,1020):::

14.09,IJ<.0001).Follow-up univariate analysesrevealedsignificantsex differencesfor 15of the18items,with malesbeing moreacceptingthan females of sexualcoercion.

A two-groupMANOVAwas conductedon thesixitemsof theHS to determineifmalesand femalesdifferedin their levelsof homonogativism.The overall sexeffect was significant(maleM=18.00,s..d..=7.71;femaleM = 14.12, SJ1..

=

7.01;Wilk'slambda

=

.862,E(6,1033)~27.47,J:l<.0001). Follow-up univarIateanalyses revealedthat maleswere morehomonegativethan females on aUsix items.

23 A two-groupMANOVA was conductedon thelenitemsof theGSSto

detectifmalesand femalesdifferedin their endorsement of genderstereotypes.

The overallsex effectwas significant (male M= 22.58,.s...d. =10.24;femaleM= 18.97•.s...d.::::8.36 ;Wilk'sla mbda=.769, E(10,1022)=30.73.

IJ<.0001).Fellow-up univariateanalysesrevealed that maleswere more genderstereotyorcthan females on nine of the lenitems. On theremaining

item."men cannot control themselves sexually.vIemalesweremore stereotypic.

A detailed statisticalprofileof the gender differences observed on the subscalesof theSACSis presentedin A?pendixB.

3.2.3Urban/RuralDifferences

Due to extremedifferencesinurban/rural samplesize,MANOVA was not consiC:eredanappropriatestatlencalprocedure(Pagano,1990).Therefore,X² analyses"were conductedonthe averageddistributionof responsesto the ATSCBS,theHS,andtheGSSto determinewhetherrespondentsfromurban and rural schools differedin theirattitudes.A significantdifferencein attitudes toward sexuallycoercivebehaviourwas not obtained,X²(2, N=1044)=.426, 12 >

.05. Similarly,respondents fromurban and ruralschoolsdid not differ intheir

"Forthis analysis.stronglydisagree/disagree and stronglyagree/agree categorieswere collapsed.

24

levels ofhom onegativism. X²(2.~=1 045)=1.44,Q>.05, orintheir endorsementofgender stereotypes,X²(2,~=1045)

=

1.33,Q>.05.

3.2.4 Academic Achievement

Self-reported academicachievementwasnegatively correlated with total scores on theATSCBS ({

=

·.243,Q< .001). Therefore,responden ts reportin g lowlevelsof academic achievementweremorelikely 10endorsesexually coercivebehav iour. Toprovideaddilion~'informatio nabout thisrelationship , X²

analyses-were conducted on eachitem of theATSCBS.Respondents'level of academicachievement wasplacedinto oneof threecategories: low (0·59%), moderate (60-79%),or high(80.100%).Bxsenaiysesrevealed significant differencesbetweenlowand high academicachievers foreleven ofthe eighteen items on theATSCBS.

AToensure that theminimumexpected frequency was metforeachChi-square cell,stronglydisagree/disagree andstronglyagree/agreecategories were collapsed.

aDataassociatedwithmoderateachieversarenot presented in thisthesis becausethey obfuscatethe relationshipbetweenacademicachievementand total scoreson thesubscalesof theSACS.

25 Self-reported academicachievement wasnegativelycorrelatedwith total

scoreson the HS(r:::·.193,D<.OO 1). Therefore.respondentsreponinglow levelsof academicachievementwere more likely to endorsehomonegalive

attitudes.X²analyses revealedsignificantdifferencesbetweenlowand high academicachiever sforliveofthe sixilemsontheH$.

Belt-reportedacademicachievement was negatively correlatedwithtotal scores on the GSS((=-.273,P<.(01).Therefore,respondents reportinglow levelsofacademicachievement weremorelikelytoendorse gender stereotypes.

X²analysesrevealedsignificant differences between low and high academic achieversforsix ofthelenltems ontheGSS.

Adetailed statistical profileof the differencesobserved betweenlow and highacadomicachieversonthe subscalesoftheSACSIs presented in AppendixC.

3.2.5Religiosity

Frequencyof church attendancedidnotsignificantly correlatewith respondents'tolalscoreson theATSCBS(r

=

.033,P==ns),theHS(r

=

.001, P=ns) or the GSS(r'".043,(J=ns).

26 3.2.6HomonegativismandAltitudesToward SexuaflyCoercive

Behaviour

Respondents'tota! scoreson theATSCBSandtheHS werepositively cor related(I=.480.Q<.001):' Tofurther examinethis relationship,scoreson theHS were dichotomized(scores from6·Hwere considered non- homoneqatlve and scoresfrom18·30 wereconsideredhomonegalive)andXl enalyees"were conductedon the 18 items oftheATSCBS.Significant differenceswere obtainedforthirteenitems,with homonegaliverespondents beingmorelikely to endorsesexuallycoercivebehaviourthanIheirnon- homonegative counterparts.A detailed~latislicalprofileof thisinformationIs presentedin AppendixD.

3.3Discussion

Theseresults supportthehypothesesthatmale adolescentsaremore homonegative.genderstereotyplc, and supportiveof sexuallycoercive

AAlthough notformallyhypothesized inthisthesis,significantcorrelationswere alsoobservedbetweenthe GSSand theATSCBS(r=.631.P<.001) andthe HS andthe GSS(r=.408,Q<.001). Similarrelationshipshave been reponed by manyresearchers includingAnderson&Cummings,(1993);Bell et at, (1992); Henley &Pincus, (1978);and Minnigerode.(1976).

8To ensurethat theminimumexpected frequencywas met foreachChi-square cell,stronglydisagree/disagreeandstronglyagree/agreecategorieswere collapsed.

27

behaviourIhanfemaleacclescents. A similargenderdifferen ceamongcollege studentsand olderadultshas beenobserved by researcherssincethe 19705 (e.g.,Bamell&Feild, 1977;Minnigerode,1976; Spence,Halmreich. & Stapp, 1973).The presentresults alsoindicateIhal self-reportedacademic achievementisnegatively correlatedwithgender stereotyping,homonegativism, andendorsementof sexual coercion.Inaddition,the findingssuggest that homoneqatlveand rape-supportive beliefs arerelated.However. no effects were foundforreligiosity or site ofresid~nce.

The searchfor causa lagen tsthat explainsex differences inthe endorsementof sexualcoercion,genderstereotypes,and homonegativism may lie withgendersocialization. Previousresearch has shown thatattitudinal differencesbetween male and female adolescentsincreasewithage and may resultfrompressures to conformto traditional gender-role expectations

(Massad, 19B1).Male adolescentsareparticularly susceptible to this pressure, because oneofthecriticalelementsintheirsett-development isthe needto display traditionally masculineattitudesand behaviours (GAlambos,Almeida,&

Petersen, 1990).

The resultsof thisstudymayreflectmaleadolescents'needto displayan -acceptable-degree ofmasculinity.For example,male respondents were more likely10blame awomanforher sexualvictimization, morelikely10 juslify using

28 force to obtainsex,andless likelyto betolerant of homosex ual s.Similarly.a significant proportionexaggeratedtheimportance of sexualactivityformen and endorsedthe traditionaldoublestandard thatmen shouldbe accorded more sexualfreedomthan women. As sexist,aggressive,and homonegalive sexual attitudesarecontrarytotraditional gender-roleexpectationsfor women(see Cartled ge&Ryan. 1983),itis not surprisingthaifemalesinthisstudywereless likelyto endorsesexualcoercion,genderstereotyping,andhomonegativity.

As hypothesi zed,academicachievement was negativelycorrelate dwith endorsementofsexually coercivebehaviour,homonegativism,andgender stereotypes.However,thisrelationshipmustbeinterpreted withcaution. The correlationsobtainedbetweenacademicachievementandscoreson the ATSCBS ,theHS,and theGSSwererelatively small. For example.academic performance accountedfor only6% ofthevarianceonthe ATSCBS.Moreover, achievement levelswerebased onselt-report data andwere not corroborated by more objectiveindicessuchas standardized tests or school records.

Consequently,thevalidityofthis measure of academicachievementcan be questioned.

Liberalaltitudes representan individual'sabilitytointegrate theperceived rights andneedsoftheindividual withgeneralsocial norms (Kurdek, 1988).

Thisprocess ofintegratlonhasbeen posilivelycorrelatedwithcognitive variablessuchas academicachievementandperformance onstandardized

29 tests (Kurdek,1988).Itis possible thaIadolescentswho reponedlow levels01 academicachievementwereless able tointegrate individualrightsandsocietal responsibilities. As a resull,they mayhave adopteda less intellectually demanding,moreconservative,sexual ideology·- hence,their high scoreson theSACS.

Ashypothesized.homonegalivismand attitudessupportingsexually coercivebehaviourwere correlated,withhomonegativerespondents beingmore likely than theirnon-homonegativecounterparts10endorsesexualcoercion. It is possiblethaihomonegativityandendors~mentof sexuallycoercive behaviour are relatedbecause they bothreflect a ccnservatlve sexuatideology.

Contraryto whatwashypothesized,religiosity was associatedwith neither bomoneqatlvltynor genderstereotyping. Itshouldbe noted, however, thatthelack 01a significanteffectmayhave beendue tothe study's simplistic definitionofreligiosity.For example.Sheeran,Abrams,Abraham,andSpears (1993)reported thatreligiosityhas five dimensions:religiousupbringing, religioussell-schema,salienceof religiousidentity, religious denominationand religiousbehaviour.Theirresults suggestedthat religious self-schema-- whetheranindividualperceiveshimorherselfto bereligious-was most stronglyassociatedwith adolescents'sexualattitudesandbehaviours.

Unfortunately, thepresentstudynarrowlydefinedreligiosity asfrequency of churchattendance,therebyfocusingexclusivelyonthedimension ofreligious

30

behaviour.

Contrarytowhat washypothesized,students'slteofresidencewas not associatedwith endorsementof altitudes that are genderstereotvpic.

homonegalive.or supportiveofsexuallycoercivebehaviour. Itis possiblethat simplyclassifyingschoolsasurban orrural wasnet a sufficientlysensitive measure.Perhapsa moredetailed population typology, suchas the one employedby Amalo (1983)inhisinvestigation of helping behaviour, wouldhave alloweda more accurateassessmentof thisvariable.

Inconclusion, the resultsof thisl~esissuggestthatadolescents, like collegestudents.possessattitudesthataregendersterectvpic.homonegalive, and supportiveof sexualcoercion.Given the oftentenuous relationship between attitudesandovert behaviours,onemust interpretthesefindings with caution.Itisdistressing 10realize, however,thatyoulhendorsediscriminatory andantagonisticattitudestowardwomenandhomosexuals. Such findings underscore the dilemmaconfrontinggenderresearchers -- namely,thatdespite the socialprogressrealizedthrough feminist activities,stereotypicalattitudes

regardinghuman sexuality remain firmlyentrenchedInWestemsociety.Rather than reaffirming the existenceofIhese attitudes,socialscientists must direct greaterattention todeveloping andimplementingage-appropriateintervention strategies,and indoingso,limit the abillly of theseattitudesto perpetuate inequities basedon sex andsexualorientation.

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38 AppendixA

SexualAggressionandConservatismscale

Ins/rue/ions10Students

this questionnaireIs nota lest. ItIs anopportunity lor you(0express youropinions.Youshouldbo able 10answ erallquestionswKhin1010 15 minutes.Pleaseread (heInstruct ions C8rel ullyand answer eachquestionas honestly aspossibla.

Thankyouloryourparticipationl Ph:l8Seanswerthe lollowing :

A) 50x (1=male; 2=lamala)

B) Ags _

Cj Grade_ _

D) Yourschoolis...

RomanCalhol ic Pentecostal Integra ted Oon'tKnow

E) Yo ur averagemarklastterm was _ _

EXAMPLE: Iiyouraveragemarkwasaboul60, youwould write 60 on Ihe lineabove.Or,ifyouhad a ·C· average you wouldplacethe ienerC 00theline above.

F) Howoften haveyoua1tendad churchoranotherreligiouslnslilutlon(e.g., asynagogue) in Ihepast12 months ?

Usually every waek Now end then Onspeclaloccasions Navar

AppendixA(conl'd)

Ins /ructions Placethe appropriatenumberbesideoachquestion 1 =stronglydisagree

2=disagreQ 3.don1know 4_agreQ 5::strongly agreg

39

PLEASENOTE:

Ibelieve:

Forthepurpose01thissurvey,rapeisdefinedasth8 US8of physical lorc8,use01w8apons,Ihr8al of helm, blackmail, unfair USB of euthority,or usaofelcohoVdrogstoobtain anyformof sexual aclivity.

vmenamanIssoturnedonhe can'slop, ItIsoklorhimto forcea woman10havesex.A

erapist's primarymotivationIsto havesex.A 3. homosexualsshouldnotbeallowed to work withchlldren.^s 4. oneof thamostcommontypes01rapeIsthatof blackman

egalnst awhitewoman.A

It Is impossiblelora man 10berapedbyewoman.A 6. evenifa manhas spenl alotof moneyon date,he doesnot

havethe rightto oxpecllhal the woman willhavosex with hlm.^A,

7. men should be moraintorosted IhanworTl&n Insex.':

8. womenrarelylio oboutbeingrapod.A_/I

a womancannotbetrulyhappyunlesssheIsInarelationship.':

10. if a womangels drunkor slonedat a party,she'sasking lor lrouble.^A

11. womendo not provokerapebytheirbehaviour,A#

12. somewomenwouldbenefitIrom beingforced to have sex.A

Appendix A (conl' d)

13 . womenshoulclnolbe lesseereer-orenteelhan men.""

14. most rapistsdonot know theirviclims.·

15 . whenawomansays"no"10accme-cnshereally means

"yes: ·

16. homosexualityIsnotamentaldisorder.'N 17. peoplewho support homosexual rightsareprobably

bomosexuet themselves.'

18. a woman shoulddowhateverisnecessary10keepher man happy."

19. homosexualsshoulclhavalhasame righls ashaterosaxuals.^ll# 20. womenshould belass aggressivalhan men."

21. womanarejustas good almakingdeclslonsasman."1/

22. menshould bemora seKuaUyeKperiencedIhan womenbelore marriage."

23. amanhasjheright10lorcaa womanto have sex,Mshehas ledhimon,'"

24. awoman who goBStoaman'shome or apartmenton lhelr firstdata !mpliesthatsha ls willing lohavesex.· . 25. itIsrapa,IIamanlorceshlswllalohavasex....#

26. womenwhowearsexyclothingare asking10beraped....

27. 8woman cannol behappyunless shehas chilclten."

28. homosexuality IsImmora1.^ll

29. amanrapedbyawomandoasnot sufferasmuch osa womanrapedbya man.·

30. manywomen secretly wanttobe raped.·

31. II man cannotbet/\llyhappy unlesshBIsin arelationship."

40

AppendixA (coord )

32. anywomancanbe raped.'"

33. mencan"oOtconlrol lh emseHe S sexually."

34. homosexualsshouldbeavoidod v.t-Ieve rPOSSible.'

AKornson IheATSCBS:'items onllle HS;CMoms on theGSS; •itemsrequire reversescomg.

4'

42 AppendixB

Responses on the SexualAggression andccnservanvem SCale(SACS) StralifledBySex

AIti/udfls Toward Sexually Coerclvs Behavicur Subseals (ATSCBS)

Item M i>.ll.1 ^{SA(%) A(%)} DK(%) 0(%) 50(%)

Male Male Male Male Male Malo Female Female Female Femal e Fem alo Fem alo W!lenamanlsso klmedon h$ean,

~W:';""eh~'r,hl~n~~~l~ ~:~~(:~) a.e 0.' U 16,6 17.4

to

"

⁰²

"

^sos

~'i';r:~_7:-lIon IS lo~ ~:~(~:~~l ^13.615,6 ^u.0,0^.•

"2

17.0 ^17.121.7 ^•.ss

eneoru...mos!lXlIMlQl\lypoIsor

,. ..

^{ae.• 31.8 24.1}

=II~;I·F~O~."~:'O ~~~{:::J

"

^{as 30,4 "'0 ~,}

~~~::;I~:o;n.~1~tBpBd ~:~~:.~

"

as ^11.7126 ^za

." _'"

"

^{<11.3 "0}

ewn~.manhas'flil\lalololmonay onadBlII,h&doCIsnoIhI!IvalhoorlghllO

ees

'"

^0.'

.. ^{. . ,}

=m~Ft;e=':.~=\VSGl( ^4,33(1.03).,liO,95 n2 16,1 0.' U

"

WOl'llCl"F~O~71~~ ~~~(::~l s.s ea ca.•

~~ ~~

. ,

^{31.1 25.7}

lfawomlltllllllsdfunllOfltonedala

lU 30.' ^12.1 27.1 '.0

~;:;;.:~b'~. :~(:~l

"

^{318 ea se 133}

::=.~~Ir=~~.~ Ile" ~:~(~:~~l 12,5e.s eae"'.0 "2032 "'.027.$

.. .. ^,

Key: M·m&an;WLI ·ltandard dovialion;S A .s~ongly egoo(5):".9\lI'Ge(4):0l<.don'know(3);O.dsagroo(2);

SO..,tonglydsagree(l),

Ma!esandllme.lelllgnlllc.eflaVdi~eral§§Q.< .OOl ;§Il<.0011.

43 AppendixB

ATSCBS (Cont 'd)

Item M(>J!) SA(%l A(%) DK(%) D(%} 50(%)

Male Malo Malo Malo Male Male

Fe male "Female Female Female Female Female Some_wouIdbonerrllrom

. .• ...

^{,ss aae 37.9}

~ns;::~~3';V9 - ~:~(;:~J

" "

^{11.3 at.a 59.:'1}

Most'npl. ts dGnoIkIIow ll>8it 2.97 (1.12) as ".e

".

^28.1

..

y\c'ljm l, F l103 7.I.U 209108

"

^{v. aaa}

^'" , ..

Wh...WIlI'MIllWy.·llIl·lO l!I~

. .•

^ea

• .. ^.,.

^41.9

~,'':7,;;'!:~ )'>I,' ~::l:~

" ..

^{as 19.6 74.7}

Amlll'lh", dlll'llfl l 10101ooI awo;:m....

" . . ..

^{37,g 45.4}

~~~3':~~~4h&· lod hLonon.

't:,'/':.,>

"

^U

"

^{eo.a 75.1}

Awomanwhogoo.1O1/MIl'ShOll1ll orop41lmeOl on """~ 'lISt dillelmpfe.

"

^IU

.. .

^{sa.s 19.8}

~t ~3~:I~~_:9hMsex. 2;2:e(1~)

.. ..

^sa

"' .

^oa

::.:~:.lI:~~c:~h1:OwllelO ~~2(1:) ^24.1 aas

~~:: ^{11.5 •.e}

39.7 nil e.s e.s

Wom.nwho_H"I'doIIlng ...

U

'"

^{sa st.a 2l.1}

;~~r=. ^2.29(1.09)1.7' .82 ae s.a s., ee.a 42.8 Arnanflll»dbya_ doosnot

::~'InICh,.".'It<Il'I*Irapodlly 2.73 (1.2ll)

"

^{24.1 ro.,}

^06.

^at.a

F1'03^{_22.8 2} 2.31 1.15 •.r \60 16 9 37.4 25.1

=w~:r

. .

~:,~~lobe ^2;~(1:}

,. _"

za^a

".

^{'0.5 ae.e}00' ^28.1M.'

~=:~.:nrc»<l :::: (:~ s_rooea " .

, . .

^e.s

,.

as.t ta 0.' ae

Key: M-mNn;cu.)••^lancWddoWllion; SA...lrO/9y '980(5);AaDgrge(4); Df(oodon't~flQW(3);O ..,hagr 88(2);

SO ...lron'1f clS£988(1)

MaIo.ond"unalol&lgnllican~ydirr.. f.I§II <.0001.

OV8rllllmuillYlrlatorolUlll:W11k'.lambdlla.B01~1a.1020)..14.G9. Il<.OOC1.

Outklroundi"ll.p9l'ClDrtlaglll maynottll8!Dn6hlmCtlld.

44

AppendixB HomonsgativismSutJscalo (HS)

n.~ Ml>J1) SA(%) Al") 01«%) Dl") 801%)

.... .... .... .... ^{... ,} .

^M••

Female Female Female Female Fema le Female HomosuuoIslholJdnalt.*'-db

~> lU

...

~k1~~~ ~.~ t::

_'" '" '",1 '"

^{sea n.l}

'"

~"""lIybonol.."""t..l

1~ ,5

,U ...

^{12,6 14.1}

d_.

_~.~(::~)

Ftt03ll..24.83 eo.r 41.0 ^~, 11,9

"

ThoMwIlo~horncHXUIlllI1gl1ll

iz.

.32

so ^16,0

·· P1obabtf ~· ~-~(::l ~Sl

lMmMlVls.F11008.102 52

"

^{11 3}

."

^~.

~Ihouldheve "'_

'" ^'"

^11.5

I~~~~ ^~.~l:f,l

" ... " ... _'"

^{ra s}

'" ..

1~"'"':-l5":-'" ^:~:l:.~~

, _.. .. _{'" '"} ...

^,g,a

..

'" ..,

^111,1

~Ihouldt..~

IU n.' ,u

I~ ~:~I:~ ^~.,

.-

^lU

,.

,u

...

^sas

ICIIr. 1d..~WlJ·trandMldlNlion;SA..Horvt~Ist;A....,..(4); OK.don'Ia~ "(3I;D.chog..l2);

SD··Rnlh dslo'''l l~

....,ancllImIIH~IiIIer Ill IIl <'OOOI .

CMr" ~ """,YMl'.IemtldI•.862A:6,I033I..n" 7.1I<.OXlI.

eu.1D1OlrACII'IQ.~lft8Ynoltlllll_luOtd