Building parallel to the Nile

Building Parallel to the Nile.

by

Perihan S. Boutros-Ghali B.A., major in Architecture Wellesley College

Wellesley, Massachusetts

1982.

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Architecture

at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology February 1990.

C Perihan S. Boutros-Ghali 1990. All rights reserved.

The author hereby grants to M.I.T. permission to reproduce and to distribute publicly copies of this thesis document in whole or in part.

Signature of the Author _

Perihan S. Boutros-Ghali Department of Architecture January 19 1990 Certified by Renee Y. Chow Lecturer, Department of Architecture Thesis Supervisor AN Accepted by William L. Porter

kiASSACHUSETS INSTITUTE Chairman,

OF TECHNOLOGY Departmental Committee

MR 0

2 1990

1

UBRARIEG

Building Parallel to the Nile

Submitted to the Department of Architecture on January 19 1990, in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Architecture.

Abstract

This thesis will be an exploration of the issues of building in the Egyptian landscape. Human inhabitation of the Egyptian landscape has for many thousands of years been centred within the zone of the Nile River valley. In the past, this ribbon of arable land was able to support the food requirements of the population and produce a surplus of agricultural products for export.

Today, Egypt's population of 54 million exists on 30,000

km.2 _{of habitable area concentrated in the Nile River valley out}

of a total area of approximately one million sq. km. The population is growing rapidly, and in fact, in areas of urban

growth, illegal building is occuring on scarce arable land. In the 1970's, in an effort to divert such growth, strategies for

newtowns situated in the interior of the desert were planned, and several were executed.

However, I propose to put forward an attitude of growth that would run North-South, to build on the desert edge, above and parallel to the Nile valley where existing arable land meets desert and to extend arable zones into the desert.

In the course of this project, I will examine a) -as preface

-the Nile valley in context to the historic development of an irrigation society: trace the domestication of the Nile.

b) -as observation of the desert

-formal and spatial inhabitations in the regional

landscape and from other similar landscapes

c) - as projection of the possible-an agricultural research

centre which by its raison d'etre will maintain a

distinction of what landscape is built and what remains free for new cultivation. The building will include work spaces, labs, sleeping and living facilities for both permanent and short term staff.

Thesis Supervisor: Renee Y. Chow

Lecturer

Acknowledgements

To my thesis advisor, Renee Chow,

Thank-you for your astute criticisms and constant cheerful encouragement. It was a pleasure working with you. To Maurice Smith,

Merci beaucoup, monsieur le professeur. To Reinhard Goethert,

Many thanks for helping me find my way construction industry!

in the Egyptian

I would also like to thank Brent Hinrichs

who provided invaluable support through his optimism,

encouragement and patience at a time when one's world becomes so focused. Thank-you for all you give.

Table of Contents

Abstract... 2

Acknowledgements... 4

Historical preface... 7

Building parallel to the Nile... 17

Topography... 23

Building organisation @ site size... 29

Building systems-primary support... 39

Building systems-closure... 61

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8-Historical preface

Egypt's length from North to South is about 1,073 km. with its width being slightly greater. The country is bordered on the north by the Mediterranean, on the west by Libya, on the south by the Sudan and on the east by the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea. Of the land's surface area, 96% consists of desert, with the remaining habitable area stretching north-south, in a

narrow strip of land corresponding to the Nile valley. The longitudinal section of the Nile is such that at the First Cataract above Aswan, the Nile is 91m. above sea level and the river continues to slope for another 1,200 km. till it reaches the Mediterranean; the river drops one metre in every 13,200 metres. Lake Plateau Region ' 1216 B 827 km Sudd Region

LOA S 13.900 ICentral Sudan

v c 9i m 1 on I C atarac~t Reo n

VI11s1958 km Region00 16.440

Lake Kwog 809 km I 1 847 km Egyptian Region

10 113.200 1.205 km -F C,' E% ~ '~ ,7' ,. 6 6 " ? ell Fig. 2

IMi Mi

200 200O

Taht 0 4 12 20 28 36 44 Km

Apex of the Delta

-tooin Mt. Mt 400 r--Flood Plain - - 400 200- 200 Naga*H.mbdi -- - 4 8 2 16 20 24 Km. )Uwoyt At Giza Bib-Al-Raeia4f Arment Mt Mt 400 4uu

,06 200 - The Flood Plan -- 20

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 Km

A At Bani Suwayt

AM M

400 r - - - The Flood Plain 400

Abu - - --- 20020 18 200 *g Kimn Umbi 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 km 0o 0 40 K. ₅ Km North of Maghdgho Day ~M mt mt 400 400

Man - 200 - - The F lood Plain -r 200

4 a 12 16 20 24 Ki

5 Km South of Minya Fig. 3

Mt Mt.

400 400

200 - The Flood Plain - - 200

0 4 a 12 16 20 4 Km.

10 Km. North of Monfolat

Mi Mt

400 r - The flood Plain --- -400

200 00

0 4 12 16 20 24 26 Km.

5 Km. North of Sahdg

Along the southern 300 km. of the river's course in Egypt, the valley edges are of Nubian sandstone except for igneous rock at two locations: the Kalabsha Gorge and at the First Cataract, seven kilometres south of Aswan. At Esna, 160 km. north of Aswan, limestone replaces the sandstone extending northwards to the river delta at the Mediterranean.

Like all rivers spilling into the sea, the Nile's width increases northwards because of its increased load of sediment. At Aswan, the width of the flood plain does not exceed 2,800 m., however, by the time the river reaches Beni-Suef, the flood plain extends 17,200 m. The average width of the flood plain is

approximately 10 km. while the width of the river course is .75km. The course of the Nile always leans to the right but is most visible in the cross-sections of the river plain from Assiut to Cairo. In another illustration of Egypt's geomorphology, distinct fault lines that correspond to the direction of the Nile might indicate the bias of the Nile's flow. The flood plain exists between

the river and the desert ridges, and it is within this boundary that one sees the crucial nature of this ecology and the development of a culture.

mt Mt

400 The Flood Plain 00

200 LIt J in .z 200

S -t 12 1G 20 Km.

5KM south of Suihag

Mt. mt

400 F 400

200 Flood P lain

.d00o

0 4 a 12 16 20 Km

At Al Tuwd sir, East of DI shnd

Mt. Mt. 400 400 200 200 0 4 8 12 16 Km. 7KM south of Qina Mt. 4001 Mt. 200 r Flood Plain - 200 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 Km. 5KM south of Qs Mt 400 r-- Flood Plain - Mt. 2 00 -200 0 4 8 12 16 20 Km. At Luxor mt. Flood Plain 200 0 4 a 12 Km. 3 Km. North of Idfa '0 200 -200 0 4 8 Km. 5 Km. South of Aswdn

Before the construction of the Aswan Dam in 1902, and the later development of the Aswan High Dam in the 1960's, the Nile River valley was inundated once a year by floodwaters from

the upper reaches of the Blue Nile and the White Nile. The Abu

approaching flood would announce itself; in July the water would turn green due to the vegetable matter collected on the White

Fa"

Nile. Two weeks later, the water would turn red from mineral

silts carried by the Blue Nile. The water level would keep rising Fig. 6

until the beginning of September when arable land would be innundated to about six feet in depth. By the end of October, the river would subside to within its banks.

- -Fig. 5 (editerranean Sea Dod Sea 0 11 Al Dkl l Al Khnrea -Nb.a Sheeld

-Before the construction of the Aswan Dam of 1902, alluvial deposits were plentiful; in the Old Kingdom, (3400 B.C. approx.), the valley floor existed at 20 feet below the present bed.

Synonymous to this ecology was a consistent and sophisticated agricultural development of what was initially a single crop yield per year to a multiple crop harvest. In order to cultivate above the normal level of inundation, a supply canal would be planned further up the river which would irrigate a series of basins that had been constructed of earth banks placed parallel to the river and crossed by dikes. This system of basin

Water heads for hydroelectric power generation, Old Aswan and High Dams

175 m (variable)

Head = 67 m

High Dam 18m(xe)Head =20 m

.Old 88 m

.... .... .... .. sw a

irrigation could irrigate small areas and, as effectively, areas as large as 40,000 acres. The water would soak the fields and the

overflow would drain back into the Nile. By mid-October or the beginning of November, the basins would be ready for

cultivation, and the growing season corresponded to the coolest time of the year. This cyclical pattern of life and regeneration was fundamental to Egyptian cosmology and was often depicted in Pharaonic wall paintings; these were events of daily life over the seasons. Man working the land, remained vital to the balance and nature of this culture.

The conversion of Egypt's cultivable area to perennial irrigation has happened over the last century, although summer cultivation was practiced in small areas much earlier. There were two kinds of fields that were suitable for perennial irrigation: the elevated ridges of the river's banks and the canal banks of the Delta, and fields accessible to subterranean water.

Fig. 8 A papyrus showing layout of basin irrigation with its suppy and drainage canals.

Under perennial irrigation,with multiple crop harvests, one could witness the start of crop production for surplus. This

was most visibly implemented by the middle of the 1 9th century.

Under Ottoman suzerainty, Mohammed Ali initiated large projects that were to change Egypt completely to perennial irrigation by the storage of the flood water. Mohammed Ali who was to become the vizier of Egypt, envisioned building Egypt's

agricultural capacity; this motivation had roots in the cultivation of a summer crops for export: cotton.

Many major canals and barrages were built: the Mohammed Ali Delta barrages, the Mahmudia Canal, the Ibrahimia Canal and others. The capacity for seasonal water retention was most fully realised, with British persistence, in the construction of the first Aswan Dam of 1902 which would retain the tail end of the flood. Until the 1950's, there was the

construction of several other barrages at Esna, Naga Hammadi

and Edfina. .The final massive construction that was intended to

contribute so greatly to the Egyptian economy was the building of the Aswan High Dam in the 1960's.

Ole

1.

Fig. 10

Canal and dam distribution prior to the construction of the Aswan High Dam

One can recognise the steps that led to the complete domestication of the Nile, and see how important agrarian land has been to the development of this culture. Due to the geological

conditions , the cultivable land and the zone of inhabitation have

been the same. Not until this century, with a demographic expansion, has this co-existence come into conflict. In the past

thirty years, urban settlement has augmented tremendously due to rural migration to urban areas, and as a consequence, agrarian land has been lost to building in and beyond the expanding centres. Although illegal, there has been no way by which

construction could be stopped. The seriousness of such losses has been compounded by the fact that due to the complete human control of the River, the regeneration of arable land by alluvial silts has diminished.

In the 1970's, in an effort to divert growth from the existing urban centres, the government planned and executed

several newtowns situated in the interior of the desert, off the road to Alexandria, others en route to Suez. These new

developments were not agrarian in objective, but were based on expanded light industrial development.

The Egyptian population continues to grow and to urbanise areas of arable land. In an attempt to address the disparity between food production and food needs, there have been some desert irrigation and land reclamation projects.

In my own project, I propose to build an agrarian research centre on the desert edge, above the Nile valley, and to

extend arable land into the desert. This new built exchange at the size of the landscape is not a negation or a complete replacement of large tracts of desert ecology, but rather, an attempt to build sympathetically and to propose an exchange between the desert and arable land.

Fig. 11

Building parallel to the Nile

The project will primarily address formal responses to the constraints of building in a climate of extremes, specifically that of the desert. In desert settlement, the harsh elements are that of high solar radiation, winds, dust and sandstorms, all of which affect the choice of building materials, multiple building organisations as well as the acquisition and handling of water.

Precipitation is minimal and the procurement of water in the desert can either be found at an oasis depression, or if

settlements occur elsewhere, wells are dug at points where groundwater is available.

The cloud cover is minimal in the summer and remains insignificant in the winter. The absence of clouds means high temperatures by day, but extreme cooling by night as heat radiation is reversed.

Winds off the desert are dry, and can displace sand or dust. Sandstorms in Egypt, the "Khamasins", generally occur in the Spring and blow from the southwest. Otherwise, the breezes

prevail from the northwest, although from recent observation also from the northeast.

The need for protection in inhabiting an arid or desert climate alerts one to formal issues of inside and outside and, of continuity and separation which have to be carefully considered

at different scale.

In conjunction, building in this landscape initiates the examination of these principle issues: firstly, the relationship between the existing desert edge to the building proposed, and secondly, the transformation of the desert for arable purposes. Programme for the research centre

This is a place where agricultural research will be carried out. This research will take place both in the field, on site and in the laboratories. The research will be ongoing, however, the duration of any person's stay might be variable from full- time staff to short term visits. This will require kinds of spaces, both for living and working, individual and collective in size, internal and external.

List of uses

* offices-individuals

* laboratories-collective

a) greenhouses (controlled observation)

* library-collective & individual

* meeting places

a) conference rooms/ seminars b) potential for film/slide display

* storage facilities

a) lab supplies b) food storage

* "central" kitchen * dining area

* collective living spaces-internal & external

* accomodation for permanent and temporary staff

I have segmented this project into four sections: Topography

-field organisation

-the edge -water systems

Building organisation (a) site size

-the site

-the desert

-Inhabitation of the edge

Building systems-primary support

-the frame and bearing- wall containment -the access system within

- "islands"

Building system-closure and weatherscreen -light

-continuity and separation -light and dark

The emphasis of each section will explore different issues, but the format will respectively

consist of, observational studies, references related to the pertinent issues, the design studies, a model and an explanatory text.

Fig. 12

Topography

Field organisation

When looking at a map of the Egyptian Nile valley, it is obvious that the formal organisation of the country runs parallel to the Nile. As one travels south from Cairo towards Aiyyat, the closest town to the chosen site, one sees the bands of access systems that are, in fact, constant for the entire length of the country. At the western most edge of the valley, villages or towns are situated and eastwardly paralleled by: the railway system,

the major irrigation supply canals, the major north-south road to Aswan, more fields and lastly, the Nile. The dimensions of the cross-section vary at different latitudes, but this description remains constant.

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The transformation of the desert into agricultural land is large scale. The module that would receive water distribution has been laid out from the edge and extends into the desert upto the 75m contour. Water drainage follows the natural slope of the land, towards the valley and north. The layout towards Fayoum drains in the opposite direction

due to the depression in the land.

The Edge

At the valley's edges, the green meets the desert in reciprocal formation only at the wadis, the desert watercourses, which extend laterally back into the desert. For the most part, the marking of the presence or not of water is quite blatant. The earth is either lush and vibrantly green or parched and dusty. The project will aim at making this linear boundary less harsh and dividing.

Water Systems

To extend agriculture into the desert is quite feasible, if appropriated as a national policy. This idea originated in a plan called the New Valley Plan which proposed to create a new agricultural zone by connecting all the oases in the Western Desert by the extraction of groundwater available from the Nubian Acquifer. Extensive research was undertaken by the United Nations Development Programme to assess the extent of

such resources.

EGYPT - NEW VALLEY REHABILITATION PROJECT

O CATiON MAP

- -- - -t -- -- -A ~ ~ -c -

--S 6

The decision to transform the desert at this site location would be as a lateral extension to Fayoum, an oasis depression, and thus, be later joined to the larger network. The module used for desert transformation and well distribution, is taken from proposed projects by the UNDP. Wells would be organised in a north-south orientation with the lateral displacement of water accomodated by secondary supply canals running perpendicular to the valley edge. The behaviour of this infrastructure water supply will be adopted at the building site size to maintain the formal organisation of the larger field. The presence of water throughout the site will make the microclimate of the buildings less arid through evaporative cooling. In addition, this water supply will support the greenhouses on site.

Fig. 16 Beni Hassan

Visible is the darker, linear zone of the agriculture adjacent to the desert.

27

0-Building organisation at site size

Coming from the north-south road at the valley bottom and moving laterally inland across the canals and railway line, one comes to a village. The tarmac ends short of the entrance of the village, and a dirt track continues through the village rising gently into the desert. As one progresses west, the access crosses the village's burial ground which, at that point, marks the

perimeter of the desert.

As one continues to rise and following the track in a southerly direction, it distances itself from the edge. The view back into the valley is at times obscured by small mounds but at other intervals, through an opening, the elevation can be

perceived by the flatness and extent of the valley below.

- -- - -- - 'Eli-I---' -Iui----j 'I."'

-The site is located at one of those openings and one's sense of arrival is acknowledged by the height and view; the terrain is at an elevation of 11 metres from the valley. One's sense of place is also generated by the site's configuration: the valley edge has been transformed by the chance rains. The remnants of a wadi, a desert water course, has deposited and shaped the landforms to create a partial containment on the ground below the desert edge. This naturally claimed territory exists in contrast to the predominantly relentless valley edge. It seemed reasonable to extend upon this sheltering form as a site for a new inhabitation of the desert edge above.

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Fig. 18

A garden crater near Timbuktu, Mali

Fig. 17

Palm gardens in the "Souf", a group of oases in the Sahara, Algeria

4

Fig. 19

The desert

The expanse of the desert can be relentless; it is important to note that in the Western Desert, the horizontal reference dominates the vertical.

There have been various formal responses to settlement in the desert, and can be categorised as such: the oasis settlement, the fortress settlement and the edge settlement. Although the nomadic settlement is important as a type of inhabitation characteristic of the desert, the formal response is that of temporality and will therefore not be considered.

The first mentioned, uses the natural depression of an oasis as territorial enclosure in the larger expanse of the desert. The fortress settlement, claims territory on an elevation or builds a similiar formal behaviour by being impenetrable and

introverted in orientation. Both typologies behave as islands. An edge settlement as the oasis inhabitation, uses the natural

topography as protection, however, is organised in linear rather than central formation.

Fig. 20

Historically, these formal responses have been consistent to a need for shelter from harsh environmental conditions. The western industrial influence, in the recent past, has compensated for these harsh conditions only through technical means, or at the site size has initiated graphically derived urban contexts rather than climate specific urban constructions.

~. -- _

Fig. 21 Petra, Jordan

Fig. 22 _{Temple of Queen Hatshepsut,}

Inhabitation of the edge

Movement through the site maintains continuity with the major access systems, i.e. parallel to the contours. The placement of the terraces in the direction of the movement rather than against it, reinforces this continuity.

By the lateral displacement of the terraces on either side of the edge, and the parallel passings of the individual platforms levels, the edge is transformed from a line into a zone of

exchange, creating territories that are mutually defining and not solely adjacent. This formal behaviour differs from the mentioned edge settlement typology, in that the edge settlement generally reinforces the edge by being firmly registered from it.

Fig. 24

A 4 storey school in Lichuan County,

Shaanxi Province. Fig. 23

On the shore of Lake Maharlu, near Shiraz, Iran

Figures 23-25 illustrate the formal behaviour of an edge settlement in that a line controls the extension.

a

M-Fig. 26

Oriental houses in Baghdad, Iraq.

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Fig. 27 House in Oberrieden, Switzerland, ' Frank Frayenbuehl, architect

The use of containments in this house shows how the spaces are assembled: The placement of one containment to another creates a third space which is given its other perimeter with closure. In my project, the containments are assembled in a similar way with the addition of the frame system occupying the spaces defined by the containments.

Building systems-primary supports

The frame and the bearing-wall containment

The decision to use these two systems was based on climatic considerations. The bearing-wall system used in conjunction with the frame, each structurally autonomous, provides the same typology as the porticoed courtyard. The containment by the nature of its thick walls provides thermal protection and the frame provides another 'wall' of screening to the internal spaces.

The frame permits one to build an access dimension and a large-span zone for the most collective uses, and the

containment provides for more enclosed, therefore, more private spaces.

Fig. 28 Jaipur, India

Fig. 29

A haveli in Jaisalmer, India

A high density of building seems

appropriate to building in this climate: The built environment is predominantly

dark, where light is selectively permitted to enter. In a more moderate climate, the process might well be the reverse of this situation; habitable space is defined by light rather than dark.

Third level access

Second level access

Ground level access ACCESS ////////

The access system within

The two systems are organised to support the direction of the access which is established as perpendicular to the contours in order to provide resistance to the direction of the larger site organisation, and 'anchor' the building to the edge.

"Islands"

Islands are built in two different ways. The deployment of the containments are "islands" in their formal placement within the larger order. The largest collective areas: the labs, the library and common dining area are islands through the

manipulation of the access which is discontinuous at the buiding site organisation. Both library and labs are at the second level and cannot be reached, one from another, unless one descends or ascends to that level.

Movement through the village is

continuous and parallel to the contours of Fig. 30 the land. The additive building form is

also parallel to movement and contours. Roosiall lo c mw However, localised movement into the

individual coutyards is lateral to the major organisation.

6-i' I'

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The three largest collective spaces, the dining area, the laboratories and the library are located respectively on the lower, middle and upper terraces. The lower terrace includes the

inhabitation of the permanent staff, while the more temporary inhabitants have accomodation in on the upper storeys of all the other containments distributed on the middle and upper terraces. The other programmatic requirements of, offices, conference rooms and meeting places etc. are also distributed on the middle and upper terraces.

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Variations of the office and meeting room plans

Variations of the residential plans

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Second level plan at upper terrace

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Fig. 31

Caravan in Kerman Province, Iran

Fig. 33 Fig. 32 Jaipur, India 60

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Building systems- closure

The quality of light in such a climate as Egypt is harsh throughout all seasons and is particularly direct and colourless in

the summer. In the context of the desert, the glare is greater and all the more intolerable. Formal responses in such climatic conditions have been primarily to minimise and to diffuse the light, thus rendering spaces habitable.

Continuity and separation

As such, the separation between inside and outside is rigourously maintained, and is exemplified in the use of thick masonry walls with small apertures. At the level of the building organisation, the minimisation of light penetration can be

achieved by sections that permit the height of the building to cast sufficient shade other than when the sun is overhead. The

courtyard typology maximises the degree of shade possible.

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However, the response to the exclusion of light might not only be volumetric in terms of the building sections. In the case of medieval Islamic architecture, a zone of separation is built through multi-planar layers of screening systems at the edge of the building: the loggia, the balcony and the musharabeyah all contribute to an assemblage that screens the light from the inside, but allows full control of the ventilation. It can be seen that in this climate, the light is minimised by being condensed or screened. The former being vertical in its distribution and the latter being more evenly distributed on a horizontal plane. In this project, I employ both manipulations, where the light is

Fig 37

19th century urban dwelling in Zanzibar

Fig. 36

Fig. 40 Jaipur, India

Fig. 39

Entrance gate, Nuremberg, Germany 1929

Sachs Apts., Los Angeles R.M. Schindler, architect

condensed at the containments and diffused through screening at the large- spanned areas of the labs, library and communal

dining area. Light and dark

As one moves from the predominantly darker areas of the large collective spaces, to the condensed light at the

containments, there is a sense of sequence in one's movement

through the building and the site by the alternation of light and dark. This happens to be more delineated in a climate such as Egypt, but the principle stands valid anywhere .

Fig. 41 Jaipur, India

/ / / /

A /

Sachs Apts., Los Angeles R.M. Schindler, architect In the Sachs apts. designed by R.M.Schindler, the closure sits both within the dimension of the wall aswell as projected out from the wall.

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Sachs Apts., Los Angeles R.M. Schindler, architect

References

Bornstein, Naomi., Rahaminoff, Arie. 1981. Edge Conditions

-Climatic Considerations in the Design of Buildings

and Settlements .Energy and Buildings, #4, 1981, pp.

43-49.

Brown, Jane., Cochrane, Timothy. (eds.). 1978. Landscape

Design for the Middle East .London. RIBA.

Bull, Deborah.,Lorimer, Donald. 1979. Up the Nile .New York.

Clarkson N. Potter Inc. Publishers.

Butzer, Karl W. 1976. Early Hydraulic Civilization in Egypt:

A Study in Cultural Ecology . Chicago. Unversity of

Chicago Press.

Golany, Gideon. (ed.). 1980. Housing in Arid Lands .London.

The Architectural Press.

Gotz, Lothar. 1982. Integration of Climate in Planning and Building Illustrated in a Case of Extreme Climatic

Conditions .Energy and Buildings, #4, 1982, pp. 51-65.

Indigenous Settlements in Southwest Asia .Process

Architecture, #15 May 1980. Tokyo. PA Publishing Co. Inc.

Price, Willard. 1940. By Felucca down the Nile .The

National Geographic Magazine, v.LXXVII, n. 4, April 1940.

Rudofsky, Bernard. 1977. The Prodigious Builders'.

Safi al-Din, Muhammad. 1971. Landforms of Egypt. Cairo. The American University in Cairo Press.

Sandstrom, Gosta. 1970. Man the Builder. Stockholm.

Interbook Publishing AB and McGraw-Hill Book Company. Shearer, Walter (ed.). 1986. Natural Energy and Vernacular

Architecture. Hassan Fathy Chicago. University of Chicago Press.

Stamp, L. Dudley (ed.). 1961. A History of Land Use in Arid

Regions .Paris. UNESCO.

Waterbury, John. 1979. Hydropolitics of the Nile Valley. Syracuse. Syracuse University Press.

Wu, Nelson. 1967. Chinese and Indian Architecture .New

Illustrations

1 Times Books 1980. The Times Atlas of the World.

Comprehensive Edition

2 Waterbury, John. 1979. Hydropolitics of the Nile

Vallev . Syracuse. Syracuse University Press.

3 Safi al-Din, Muhammad. 1971. Landforms of Egypt

Cairo. The American University in Cairo Press.

4 Ibid.

5 Waterbury, John. 1979. Hydropolitics of the Nile

Vailev. Syracuse. Syracuse University Press.

6 Safi al-Din, Muhammad. 1971. Landforms of Egvt

Cairo. The American University in Cairo Press.

7 Waterbury, John. 1979. Hydropolitics of the Nile

Vallev

.

Syracuse. Syracuse University Press.

8 Sandstrom, Gosta. 1970.

Man

the Builder. Stockholm.

Interbook Publishing AB and McGraw-Hill Book Company.

10 Waterbury, John. 1979. Hydropolitics of the Nile

Vallev .Syracuse. Syracuse University Press.

11 Safi al-Din, Muhammad. 1971. Landforms of Egypt Cairo. The American University in Cairo Press. 12 1: 25,000 contour map (reduced) of town of Aiyyat and

vicinity.

13 1:100,000 contour map of Helwan, portion.

14 FAO 1977 Groundwater Pilot Scheme, New Valley, Egypt Agricultural Development Prospects in New Valley AG: DP/EGY/71/561 Tech. Report 4 15 Ibid.

16 c National Geographic, April 1940

17 Gerster, Georg 1986. Below from Above Abbeville Press 18 Ibid.

19 Wu, Nelson. 1967. Chinese and Indian Architecture New York. Braziller Inc.

21 Norberg-Shulz, Christian 1980. Genius Loci Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture. Rizzoli

22 Ibid.

23 Gerster, Georg 1986. Below from Above Abbeville Press 24 Wu, Nelson. 1967. Chinese and Indian Architecture New

York. Braziller Inc. 25 Mimar 3 1982

26 International Magazine of Arab Culture, 3- 1985 27 Architecture and Urbanism, September 1980 28 "Morphostructure of a Planned City, Jaipur, India"

Architecture and Urbanism, August 1978 29 Curtis, William, J. R. 1988. Balkrishna Doshi

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