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http://oatao.univ-toulouse.fr/20350
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2015.08.024
Lopez Flores, René and Belaud, Jean-Pierre and Le Lann, Jean-Marc and Negny, Stéphane Using the Collective
Intelligence for inventive problem solving: A contribution for Open Computer Aided Innovation. (2015) Expert
Systems with Applications, 42 (23). 9340-9352. ISSN 0957-4174
Using
the
Collective
Intelligence
for
inventive
problem
solving:
A
contribution
for
Open
Computer
Aided
Innovation
Rene
Lopez
Flores
a,b,1,∗,
Jean-Pierre
Belaud
a,b,
Jean-Marc
Le
Lann
a,b,
Stéphane
Negny
a,ba Université de Toulouse, INP-ENSIACET, 4, allée Emile Monso, F-31432 Toulouse Cedex 04, France b CNRS, LGC (Laboratoire de Génie Chimique), F-31432 Toulouse Cedex 04, France
Keywords:
Computer Aided Innovation Social collaboration Collective Intelligence Inbound open innovation Conceptual design TRIZ
a
b
s
t
r
a
c
t
Intheindustrialcontext,aninterestexistsinthecollectiveresolutionofcreativeproblemsduringthe concep-tualdesignphase.Inthisworkweintroduceaninformation-basedsoftwareframeworkusefultocollaborate forinventiveproblemssolving.Thisframeworkproposestheimplementationoftechniquesfromthe Collec-tiveIntelligence(CI)researchfieldincombinationwiththesystematicmethodsprovidedbytheTRIZtheory. Bothapproachesarecenteredinthehumanaspectoftheinnovationprocess,andarecomplementary.While CIfocusesontheintelligentbehaviorthatemergesincollaborativework,theTRIZtheoryiscenteredinthe individualcapacitytosolveproblemssystematically.Theframework’sobjectiveistoimprovetheindividual creativityprovidedbytheTRIZmethodandtools,withthevaluecreatedbythecollectivecontributions.This workaimstocontributeformulatingthebasistoextendtheresearchfieldofComputerAidedInnovation,to thenextevolutionarystepcalled“OpenCAI2.0”.
1. Introductionandscientificcontext
Nowadays,theactofinnovationisasocialactivity,whichrequires themanagementofknowledge,andthetechniquesand methodolo-giestodriveit.AsYannou,Bigand,Gidel,Merlo,andVaudelin(2008)
remark:innovationisnottheproductofoneisolatedintelligence, in-stead,itistheresultofamultidisciplinaryworkgroupledbyaprocess oramethodology.Inthelastyears,theopeninnovationparadigmhas attractedtheattentionfromresearchesandbusinesscommunities, becauseitisamodelthatpromotestheopenparticipationintheway togenerateandcommercializetheideasandtechnologies; specifi-callyitrequiresahighdegreeofinteractionbetweenparticipants— internal andexternal—whodevelopstrongandweakrelationships
(Michelfelder&Kratzer,2013).Asabranchofinnovation
manage-ment,openinnovationisaparadigmthatsuggestsachangefroma closedtoanopenmodel(Duval&Speidel,2014).Chesbrough(2003)
coinedthetermtopresentunderthesamedenominationagroup ofexistingmanagementpractices;Chesbroughdefinedopen
innova-tionas“theuseofpurposiveinflowsandoutflowsofknowledgeto
ac-celerateinternalinnovation,andexpandthemarketsforexternaluseof
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 5 34 32 36 63.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (R. Lopez Flores), jeanpierre.belaud@ ensiacet.fr (J.-P. Belaud), [email protected] (J.-M. Le Lann), stephane.negny@ ensiacet.fr (S. Negny).
1
Lopez Flores is a family name that may be ambiguous; it is according to Spanish naming customs: composite with two family names.
innovation,respectively”.Therefore,theadoptionofopeninnovation
concernstwocomplementarymodalities:outside-inandinside-out processes(Gassmann&Enkel,2004).
Outside–inorinboundistheintegrationofknowledge,ideas, con-ceptsortechnologiesexternallygenerated.Namely,itdenotesthe in-tegrationofoutsidesourcesofinnovationwithinoneormorephases oftheinternalR&D process(Herzog& Leker,2011).Inside–outor outbound,isthetransferofinternalideasortechnologytowardthe marketthrough external channelsin ordertogenerate additional value;concernedtechnologiesarethosenotexploitedcommercially becausetheydo notcorrespondto theenterprisebusiness model
(Chesbrough,Vanhaverbeke,&West,2006).Theinboundactivities
relatedtoconceptualdesignofnewproduct/processareperhapsone ofthemaindifficulties themanufacturing industryfaces, because ofthehighlydemandforcreativesolutions.Inthisscenario,active researchesareorientedtoprovidethemeansintheformof meth-odsandcomputationaltoolsforgeneratinginnovativeideas(Hüsig
&Kohn,2009),providingstructuredapproachestoproblemsolving
(Ilevbare,Probert,&Phaal,2013),andharnessingthebenefitsofthe
collectiveeffortofindividualintelligences(Garcia-Martinez& Wal-ton,2014).Hence,themainobjectiveofourproposalistoprovidethe elementsforaninformation-basedframeworktoimprovethe capac-ityforaddressingthecollectivecreativeeffortofparticipantsduring thepreliminary(critical)phaseofconceptualdesign.Consequently, itisimportanttounderstandthetechniques,methodsandtoolsthat bestsupportthegenerationofnovelideasandcreativesolutions.In addition,itisnecessarytostudythecontributionofInformationand
Acronyms
CAD ComputerAidedDesign CAI ComputerAidedInnovation CBR Case-BaseReasoning CI CollectiveIntelligence
ICTs InformationandCommunicationTechnologies LOD LinkedOpenData
NPD NewProductDevelopment OWL OntologyWebLanguage R&D Research&Development RBR Rule-BasedReasoning
RDF ResourceDescriptionFramework RHA RapidHeatAblation
RSS ReallySimpleSyndication SOA ServiceOrientedArchitecture TRIZ TheoryofInventiveProblemSolving XML eXtensibleMarkupLanguage
CommunicationTechnologies(ICTs)astoolstoeffectivelysupportthe collectiveworkduringtheinboundprocessofopeninnovation.
Theuseofpurposiveinflowsofknowledgeinthephaseof con-ceptualdesignmakesnecessarytheincorporationofnew technolo-giestocollaborateacrossgeographicaldistances(Huizingh,2011).It isacknowledged(Enkel,Gassmann,& Chesbrough,2009),thatthe developmentsinInternetandWebtechnologiesenable companies tointeractwithdifferentsourcesduringinnovationactivities. Conse-quently,thesetechnologiesallowtosetupdistributedcollaborative environmentstobringtogethertheresourcesandtheexpertswho canrelatetheexistingpiecesofknowledgetonewcontexts(Lee& Lan,2007).Buttheadoptionofacollaborativetechnologydoesnot necessarycontributetotheimplementationofopeninnovationin thecompanies.Ontheotherhand,collaborativetechnologies facili-tatetheaggregationofmultipleintelligencesforthesearchofnew ideas andinnovativesolutionswithinacommunity.Thus,the col-lectivesearchofinnovativesolutionsistheresultoftheaggregation ofmultipleintelligences.However,anorganizationisrequiredto ag-gregatetheCollectiveIntelligence(CI)tocomplete,improveand im-plementanideathatseemsinnovative(Christofol,Richir,&Samier, 2004).AccordingtoZara(2008),thechallengeofCIandknowledge managementishowtoimprovethecollectiveeffortsinordertobe betterthanindividualefforts.ZaradefinesCIas“thecapacitytojoin
intelligenceandknowledgetoachieveacommonobjective”.CItakesa
newdimensionwiththeincorporationoftheinformation-based sys-tems.Forexample,thecenterforCIattheMITdevelopssystemsto connectpeopleandcomputerssothatcollectivelytheyactmore in-telligent(Leimeister,2010).
AsanapplicationoftheCI,crowdsourcingservicesareusefulin theimplementationofopeninnovation(Enkeletal.,2009).
Accord-ingtoYankelevichandVolkov(2013)crowdsourcingis“theactof
del-egating(sourcing)tasksbyanentity(crowdsourcer)toagroupof
peo-pleorcommunity(crowd)throughanopencall.Individuals(workers)
withinthecrowdareusuallyrewardedforcompletingatask”.An
exam-pleoftheapplicationofcrowdsourcingservicesforopeninnovation istheInnoCentiveplatform,whichaimstoconnectpeoplehaving in-novationproblemswithsolutionproviderstosolvebusiness inven-tiveproblems(Allio,2004).
Ontheotherhand,intheindustrialcontextisrequiredtohave approachesandsupportingtoolstohelpproductdesign,particularly inpreliminaryphases,whereishighlydesirabletoproduceoriginal andinventivesolutions.Theconceptofcollectiveproblemsolvingis seenasaprocessthatoccursamongagroupofpeople,inwhicha sharedsolutionisconstructed,definingtheconceptual characteris-ticsofanewproduct.Collaborativeinnovationreflectsthegrowing
Participants collaboration Knowledge capitalization Systematic problem solving
Inventiveprob lem
Solution
New idea
Fig. 1. Directing inventive problem solving under Open CAI 2.0.
interestamongindustriesindevelopingmethodologiesand support-ingtools.Currently,theinnovationprocessinexistingplatformsthat gathertheCIischaoticandnotstructured.ForMajchrzakand
Malho-tra(2013)theproblemswithexistingarchitecturesofparticipation
are:minimalcollaboration,minimalfeedbackonideaevolutionand isolated effortstodevelopnewideas.Ontheotherhand,theTRIZ methodologyispresentedassystematicapproachtodeveloping cre-ativityforinnovationandinventiveproblemsolving(Ilevbareetal., 2013).However,softwaresolutionsinspiredinTRIZsuchasComputer AidedInnovation(CAI)tools,arelimitedtothepracticeoftheclosed modelofinnovation(Hüsig&Kohn,2009;Leon,2009).Therefore,the evolutioninthedevelopmentofCAItoolsneedstotakeintoaccount changesininnovationmanagementandrecentadvancesin collabo-rationtechnologies.
Unlike existing implementation of crowdsourcing services for openinnovation(i.e.,InnoCentive,NineSigmaorHypios),inour con-tribution,welookatprovidingtheparticipantswiththeelements todevelopcreativesolutionsunderthelogicalapproachoftheTRIZ theory.Consequently,theincorporation ofthelogicalapproachto crowdsourcing servicesandvice versa,comes to advance current softwaresolutionintheCAIdomain.Specifically,thisworkexplores theimplementationofthetheoreticalelementsdefinedintheOpen CAI2.0concept(discussedinSection3.1).Ageneralusecaseto il-lustratetheapproachofthisworkispresentedinFig.1.Asobserved inthefigure,theprocessstartseitherwithanewideaforgeneral situations(e.g.,anewdevelopment),oraninventiveproblemfora specificproblematicsituation(e.g.,rootcauseknown).Inbothcases, thesystematicproblemsolvingprocessprovidestheelementsto re-formulatetheproblemusingwell-definedmodels.Asolutionisbuilt withinagroupofparticipantswhocollaborate;thegenerated knowl-edgethroughtheprocessismanagedforcapitalization.
Tomeet thegeneralusecaserequirements,thepaperis orga-nized asfollows.Section 2introduces theconceptofCI,itsusein theinnovationprocessanditsimplementationmechanisms.Thecase ofcrowdsourcingservicesisparticularlydiscussed.Thelimitations whiledrivingcreativityintheprocessofproblemresolutionare dis-cussed. Finally,thecreative designandtheTRIZapproachare de-fined.Section3presentsdifferentaspectsrelatedtotheframework corecomponents,itsfunctionalityandinteraction.Thus,thecore el-ementsarepresentedcovering(a)theinnovationprocessbasedon aproblemresolutionapproachanditsimplementationviathe TRIZ-CBRmodel;(b)thecollaborationsupport;(c)thearchitectureof par-ticipationandthemechanismsforgatheringtheCI,and;(d)themain sectionsofthegraphicaluserinterface.Theevaluationto demon-stratethefeasibilityispresentedinSection4withanexampleofa rapidprototypingtool.Finally,Section5discussestheconclusions andperspectivesaboutfuturework.
2. CollectiveIntelligenceasaninnovationdriver
InaworldincreasinglyinterconnectedviaWebtechnologies,new challengesandopportunitiesareemergingtomanagethe innova-tionprocessinindustries.Thebusinessmodelproposedinexisting crowdsourcingservicesisanefforttodemocratizingtheinnovation
Table 1
Related works on CI for innovation activities.
Authors System objective CI strategy Knowledge approach Implemented Technologies
Allio (2004) To broadcast an open call to
individuals outside the company to become involved in the solution of a challenge
Crowdsourcing Content management Yes (InnoCentive) Internet/Web
Adamides and Karacapilidis (2006)
To integrate different actor’s perspective and tools across the different activities in the process of problem resolution, by addressing the knowledge and social dynamics
Collective problem resolution, idea evaluation, users review
Net of hypothetical cause-effect relationships Yes Internet/Web Pappas, Karabatsou, Mavrikios, & Chryssolouris (2006)
To provide an efficient robust collaboration tool for the real-time validation of a manufacturing product or process, from the early stages of the conceptual design until the latest stages of the production chain
Synchronous collaboration Document management Yes Java Bean Architecture, XML, JavaServer, Oracle 9i, Virtual Reality
Liapis (2008) To assist professional product
designers in remote collaboration during the early stages of the design process
Synchronous collaboration, recommender system
RSS feeds Yes C++, Internet/Web
Sorli and Stokic (2009) To provide an Extended Enterprise context for collaborative product/process design in the innovation process
Recommender system, user
profile CBR and RBR Yes SOA approach, Internet/Web
Stankovic, Roth, and Speidel (2010)
To organize problem solvers in a social network, encouraging solving problems together, with profiles, which they can use like enhanced business cards
Crowdsourcing, user profile, recommender system
Information retrieval system, Ontologies
Yes (Hypios) Internet/Web, OWL, RDF
Salas López, López Flores, Hernández Marín, Cortes Robles, & Alor Hernandez (2011)
To create the conditions for enabling TRIZ-based open innovation services through collaborative web services and software architecture
User profile CBR No SOA approach,
Internet/Web
Ramos, de Souza, Mourão, Adams, and Silva (2012)
To identify the crowdsourcing innovation brokerage facilities needed by SMEs, and to present an architecture that encourages knowledge sharing, development of community, support in mixing and matching capabilities, and management of stakeholders’ risks
Crowdsourcing, user profile Knowledge repository, Ontology
No Internet/Web
activities(Hippel,2005).Theirbusinessmodelstrytomake acces-sible theinnovation processto thecrowd, aided bythe improve-ments ICTs.Itispossible tostudytheuseofICTs tolead individ-ualparticipationsintheinnovationprocessusingtheCIapproach.
ForGlenn(2013)CIemergesfromthesynergyofthreeelements:(1)
data/information/knowledge;(2)software/hardware;and(3) stake-holders and expertswhom produce just-in-time knowledge from theircontributionsandfeedback.Table1presentsasummaryof re-latedworksonCI.AppendixAdetailsthereviewprocesstoselectthe listedworksinthetable.
2.1. CollectiveIntelligenceintheinnovationprocess
Thestudyoftheintelligenceemergingingroupsofindividuals do-ingthingscollectivelyisnotnew,butinrecentyearsithasreceived specialattentionwiththeraiseofWeb2.0applications(Leimeister, 2010).TheWeb2.0orSocialWebhelpstounlockthepotentialofthe CIduetoitsarchitecturecenteredintheuserparticipation,while si-multaneouslyenhancesconnectivity(Adebanjo&Michaelides,2010). Asaplatformforcollaboration,theWeb2.0isusefulfor implemen-tationdifferentcollaborationpatterns(Campos,Pina,&Neves-Silva, 2006),forexample:
• Temporal:Synchronous,asynchronousandmulti-synchronous. • Spatial:Locallyanddistributed.
• Rules:Workrules,normsandconstrains.
Fig. 2. Architecture for a Collective Intelligence system ( Alag, 2008 ).
TheuseoftheWeb2.0technologyforcollaborationin innova-tionactivitiesdoesnotnecessaryimplicatesanimplementationofCI. However,thecorrectuseofpracticesrelatedtoWeb2.0applications (e.g.,recommendationsystem,userreview,userprofile,tagging) in-creasestheopportunitytoharnesstheCIinacollaborative
applica-tion(Alag,2008;Musser&O’Reilly,2007).Asobserved,themodel
inFig.2representstheuser’sinteractionstogatherCIfromaWeb application.Theapplicationshouldaggregatethecontentinmodels, andtheaggregationallowslearningfromotheruserscontributions. Finally,theuserratesorrecommendsrelevantcontent.Accordingto
Alag(2008)thisarchitectureisusefultogetthreeformsof
The cornerstone of applications that appeared after the dot-comerawasthecapacitytoexploittheusers’contributions. Nowa-days, the ecosystem of participation in the Web 2.0 enables the emergence of surprising new forms of CI (Malone, Laubacher, &
Dellarocas,2009).However,accordingtoGruber(2008)itis
prema-turetoapplythetermCItotheclassofwebsitesthatarepartofthe SocialWeb.ForGruber,thewaytounlocktheCIintheSocialWeb isthroughtheuseofSematicWeb,inordertorepresentknowledge andtousereasoningtechniques.An integrationofSemanticWeb conceptsandtheWeb2.0isfoundonEsteban-Gil,Garcia-Sanchez,
Valencia-Garcia,andFernandez-Breis(2012),wheretheauthors
pro-posetoautomaticallycreatesemantically-empoweredrelationships betweentheusersbasedontheirsocialinteraction.
AccordingtoPérez-Gallardo,Alor-Hernández,Cortes-Robles,and
Rodríguez-GonzáLez(2013),thereisaninterestabouttheuseofCI
indifferentdomains.Leimeister(2010)arguesthatforthe compa-niesexistanewpotentialandareasforimprovingcreativity,and in-novationcapabilitiesbyleveragingtheirinherentCI.Someofthese areas are: decision support, open innovation, crowdsourcing, so-cialcollaboration,control,diversityin-depthexpertise,engagement, policing,andintellectualproperty.Fromtheseareas,theopen inno-vationparadigmistheleadingstrategyadoptedbycompaniesto im-proveitsinnovationcapacity(Mortara&Minshall,2011).
Regarding to the services of crowdsourcing for implementing openinnovation,theyemergeasanoptiontoaccessaglobal mar-ketofideas.InliteraturethetermsCI,crowdsourcingand broker-ing services are oftenused assynonyms(Feller,Finnegan,Hayes,
& O’Reilly, 2012; Lytras, Damiani, & Pablos, 2008; Majchrzak &
Malhotra,2013).However,therearesomeminimaldifferencestried
tobeexposedhere.CIispresentedbyAlag(2008),asaresearchfield thatgroupsscientistsfromdifferentfields(sociology,mass behav-ior,andcomputerscience);thisresearchfieldlooksatcreating soft-waresolutionsthatbenefitsfromthe“networkeffect”:theyget bet-terthemorepeopleusethem(Musser&O’Reilly,2007). Crowdsourc-ingisaformofservicethatmakesuseoftheCIforcompletinga
task(Yankelevich&Volkov,2013),inthissensecrowdsourcingisa
mechanismtoimplementCI(Rouse,2010).Finally,thebrokeristhe technologicalelementthatmakesthelinkbetweenan innovation-seekerandthecommunitythatprovidessolutions(Nunez&Perez, 2007).Fig.3presentstherelationbetweenthethreeconceptsand theirplaceintheopeninnovationpractice.
Considerationslikethecomplexityinproducts,newparadigmsin innovationmanagement,theneedforexternalknowledge,andthe time-to-marketreductionhaveinfluenceinthecommercialsuccess ofcrowdsourcingintermediaries.Itisthecaseofplatformslike Inno-centive,NineSigmaandYourEncore.InFelleretal.(2012)thereisan analysisabouttheoperationoftheseplatforms,asstudyparameters theauthorsidentifythreeprocesses:knowledgemobility,innovation appropriabilityanddynamicstability.
Nevertheless,theoperation(seeFig.4)ofmostpromising plat-formsforcrowdsourcinginnovationislimitedtotakeachallenge for-mulatedasaproblemandbroadcastanopencalltothecrowd,in ordertoproposeasolution(Majchrzak&Malhotra,2013).
Despitethelimitationintheoperationmodelofcrowdsourcing services,differentcompaniesareusingCItosolveproblems(Georgi
&Jung,2012).AccordingtoGeorgiandJung(2012),thelackof
sys-tematizationmakestheuseofCIanunpredictedprocess.Buildonthe idea,thatitispossibletoovercometherandomnessintheproblem resolutionprocesswhileusingtheCI;thisworkproposesa frame-worktodevelopcreativityfollowingasystematicapproach.The de-tailsaredescribedinSection2.2.
2.2. Creativedesign
The frondendofthe innovationprocess, eitherin anopen or closemodel,asitispresentedinFig.5comprisesthemostcreative
activities ofsuchprocess(e.g.,idea generationand/orproduct de-sign).TheNewProductDevelopment(NPD)processfromPahland Beitzisoftenpresentedasaclosedmodelforinnovation manage-ment(Sorli&Stokic,2009).
Theapproachforthefrontendofinnovationmaydiffer accord-ingtotheindustrialpractices.Butingeneralitinvolvesthe follow-ingphases:conceptualdesign,detaileddesignandfinaldesign.The conceptualdesignphase(alsoknownaspreliminarydesign)groups thesearchactivitiesofnewconcepts(i.e.innovativesolutions),and thearchitecturaldesignofthenewproducts.AccordingtoWangand
Lee(2012),conceptualdesignisperhapsthemostimportanttaskin
productdesign.Nevertheless,thecontinualincreaseincomplexity andhighuncertaintyindesigningcomplexproductsforces design-erstousetechniquesforimprovingtheircreativity.Inaddition, cre-ativityhasapivotalroleintheinnovationprocess,becauseithelps totransformknowledgeintoanovelandusefulsolution(McAdam, 2004).Commonly,thecreativephaseofideagenerationischaotic, unstructured,andunsystematic.ForCarayannisandColeman(2005), thechallengeishowtointegratethecreativityintotheinnovation processandinparticularincomplexsystemdesign(i.e.,anew prod-uct,processorservice).
InShai,Reich,andRubin(2009),theauthorspointoutthe
impor-tanceofusingstrategiesforimprovingcreativityinconceptual de-sign.AccordingtoBelleval,Deniaud,andLerch(2010),creative con-ceptual designhasthefollowingcharacteristics: (a)thestatement ofanunresolvedandpoorlydefinedproblem,(b)theproblemhas anumberofcontradictions,(c)theachievementofanewsolution, (d) andfinallytheconstructionofnewknowledge.Usuallytosolve inventiveproblemsorgenerateideasinconceptualdesign,engineers usetraditionalmethodssuchas:concept-knowledgetheory, brain-storming,andtrial-error.Nevertheless,thesemethodshavecertain drawbacks:randomness,thelackofsystematizationandtherelayon individualtalent(CortesRobles,Negny,&LeLann,2009).Froma sys-tematicperspective,innovationcanbeaddressedthrougha control-lableandcreativethinkingmethod.
Toremoveexistingbarriersintraditionalmethods,theTheoryof InventiveProblemSolving(TRIZ)gathersasetofmethodsand con-ceptstosystematizeinnovation.Comparedtoothermethods,the ad-vantageofTRIZisthatitisaheuristicbasedonscientificknowledge andthestudyofmillionsofpatents(Savransky,2000).Thewaythat TRIZdrivescreativityintheinnovationprocessisviaaproblem res-olutionprocess.ItagreeswiththevisionofAdamidesand
Karacapi-lidis(2006)andHippel(2005)abouttheinnovationprocess,andnew
productandservicedevelopment,whomarguetheyareacontinuous problem-solvingprocess.
The main concepts in theTRIZ theory fromexisting literature
(Altshuller&Clarke,2005;Rantanen&Domb,2002)are:
• Contradictions:Frequently,whensolvingproblemsthathave
con-tradictoryrequirements.Contradictionsarerevealedinsituations likethese:(1)atechnicalcontradiction,whentryingtoimprove acharacteristicinthesystem,anotherusefulcharacteristicgets damaged ordeterioratesnegatively; (2) physicalcontradiction, when asystemneeds operateattwoopposite/exclusivestates (A+)and(A-)forachievingperformance.Thiskindofproblems couldbesolvedwiththeTRIZtoolscontradictionmatrix,or sepa-rationprinciples.
• Thesubstances–field(Su-Fi)analysis:Itisamodellingapproach,
usefultorepresentprocessesanddescribephysicalphenomena inasystem.Thisformalismassistsandhelpsdesignerstoclearly identifywhattransformationsorchanges(solutions)are neces-sarytoimprovetechnicalsystems.Themodelcanberepresented graphicallywithcirclesrepresentingthefieldandthesubstances andsome symbolsthatrepresent therelationships amongthe substancesandthefield(s).Asetofstrategiesforproblem solv-ingcalledthe76standardsolutionscouldbeapplied.
Open Innovation
Crowdsourcing
Broker
Collective Intelligence
M a n a g e m e n t s tr a te g y R e s e a rc h f ie ld M ec h a n is m T echnolog ical element A p p lic a ti o n i n s ta n c e A p p lic a ti o n i n s ta n c e Client Client Application server Database TCP/IP Protocol Client Application instance View components Business rules Data manager HTTP Request HTTP Response Worker Worker HTTP Request HTTP Response TCP/IP Protocol rules feedback taskAssigner Submit IntermediationPlatform Provider
Validate (Reward)
Push & Pull Participate (Bid) Negotiate Inquire Request What Why How Who Goal Incentives Staffing Structure/Process
Fig. 3. Collective Intelligence implementation for open innovation.
• Resources:AccordingtoTRIZ,everysysteminevolutionhas
avail-ablereservesthatcouldbemobilizedtoimproveitsperformance orforsolvingitsintrinsicproblems.Aresourcecanbeanything inoraroundthesystemthatisnotbeingusedtoitsmaximum potential,suchasunoccupiedspace,information,substance pro-prietiesandwastesamongotherelements.
• Idealfinalresult:ItisatoolthathasitsfoundationoveraTRIZ
cap-italconcept:Ideality.Idealityisanevolutionpatternthatstates thateverysystemevolvestoonedirection:anincreasingdegree ofproficiency.
Despitethe multipleadvantages the practitionersof TRIZ pro-mote, the theory needs to overcome limitations and drawbacks.
Challenges associatedwith thepractice ofTRIZare: it is difficult tolearn,itneedstoimprovetheabilitytosolveno-technical prob-lems,itdoesnotincludetheneedsofcustomersintheproduct de-velopment processes,orthere is aloss ofknowledge while solv-ing problems. Consequently, models that extend the application like TRIZ-OTSM are proposed (Cavallucci& Khomenko, 2007). Or newmethods emerge integratingTRIZ withother methodologies
(Yamashina,Ito,&Kawada,2002).Inotherwork(Cortes,2006),the
limitationofknowledgecapitalizationisexploredproposingamodel namedTRIZ-CBR.Adeeperreview(Ilevbareetal.,2013)regarding thebenefitsandchallengesabouttheacquisitionandapplicationof TRIZ, suggestto enhance communicationandcooperation;this is donethrough:(1)bettercooperationbetweenTRIZbeginnersand
Fig. 4. Crowdsourcing operation model ( Zhao & Zhu, 2012 ).
Fig. 5. Creativity in NPD process and open innovation phases.
experiencedusers,(2)increasingcommunicationaboutthe applica-tioncasesand(3)moreglobalco-operationandexchangeof informa-tion.ThischallengeuncoversanopportunitytomaketheTRIZtheory availabletomorepeople(practitionersandnopractitioners).
Inthiswork,wesupportthehypothesisthatwiththeuseof prin-ciplesfoundinCIsystems,itispossibletodevelopapplicationsin ordertoreducethegapofthedifferentpractitionersintheTRIZ the-orycommunity,andevenmore,tomakethetoolsavailabletoawider public.Inaddition,theuseofTRIZviaaCIsystemcouldimpact pos-itivelythequalityofthesolutions,duetothenetworkeffect(Nieto
&Santamaria,2007).Itisimportanttohighlight,thatatthepresent
thereisnotareportaboutaplatformorservicetakingadvantageof thebenefitsofusingtheTRIZtoolsviaaCIsystem.Ontheotherhand, existingplatformsforcrowdsourcinginnovationactivitieslacktools toenhancecreativity.Thenextsectionintroducestheelementsofthe frameworktoovercometheselimitations;thedevelopmentfollows anOpenCAI2.0approach.
3. Conceptualframeworkforinventiveproblemsolving
3.1. OpenCAI2.0
AccordingtoLeon(2009),CAIistheresearchfieldleadingthe ef-fortsthroughoutthelastdecades,todevelopcomputersolutionsin ordertosupportthedifferentactivities intheinnovationprocess. BasedonLeon’swork,itispossibletodescribeCAIasadiscipline inComputerAidedtechnologies,influencedbyinnovationtheoriesto developsystemsusingICTs,withtheobjectiveofassistingenterprises through anystage ortheentireinnovationprocess. ForKohnand
Hüsig(2006)thepotentialbenefitsofthiskindofsoftwareare
cate-gorizedas:enhancingefficiency,enhancingeffectiveness,enhancing
Collective intelligence gathering
Collaboration support
Innovation process in conceptual design
Inventive problem New idea Problem formulation TRIZ-CBR Process Innovation Knowledge capitalization Solution Collaboration Communication Coordination Control
Rating and review
Tagging and Tag Cloud navigation
Build user profile
Fig. 7. Core components.
competenceandenhancingcreativity.Recently,twomajorchanges aredrivingtheevolutioninCAItools.Thefirstoneisthetechnological aspectbasedontheadvantagesthattheWeb2.0offersasaplatform. Thesecondoneisthemanagementstrategyoftheopeninnovation. Inthisscenario,HüsigandKohn(2011)proposetheOpenCAI2.0 con-ceptasthenextevolutionarysteponCAIdevelopment.Theauthors defineitas“acategoryofCAI-toolsthatusetechnologiesfollowingthe
Web2.0paradigmtofacilitateopeninnovationmethodsinordertoopen
accessoforganizationstoalargeaudienceofexternalactorsandenable
themtointeractindifferentactivitiesoftheinnovationprocess”. Thesolutiondiscussedinthispaperisaproposalfollowingthe principlesofanOpenCAI2.0tool.Themainfocusofourworklies intheadoptionofasystematicinnovationprocess,whichintegrates thecapitalizationofpreviousexperiencesinacollaborative environ-ment.GatheringCIisconsideredinthisframework,asthekey ele-menttoovercometheobstaclescreatedbytheindividualcognitive limits,typicalofacreativeactivity,asitisthepreliminarydesign.
3.2. Corecomponents
The basic functionality of the framework could be expressed in Fig. 6. One stakeholderhas an idea or a problem. He creates a projectandshares it withthecommunitymembers (registered users).Throughanasynchronouscollaborationtheydeploythe pro-cesspresentedintheTRIZ-CBRmodel.Asaresult,theusershavea collectivesolution.
Thecomponentswhichmakepossiblethisfunctionalityare pre-sentedinFig.7.Ourframework’scoreisorganizedasfollow:(1)the innovationprocess,whichcentersinassistingtheparticipantsinthe processofproblemresolution.Itisacknowledgedthatproblem for-mulation(andthenitssolution)endswithdefiningtheproduct spec-ifications(Shaietal.,2009).TheTRIZ-CBRmodeloffersan alterna-tive totraditionaltoolsandmodelsusedforthisactivity.Inafirst instance,theframeworkusesthismodeltoguidetheprocessof prob-lemresolution;(2)theorganizationofactivitiestosupporttheactors’ collaboration,and(3)thetechniquestogatherCIinordertoimprove theinnovationprocess.
Fig. 8. Model TRIZ-CBR. Adapted from Cortes (2006) .
Theroleoftechnologyfollowsothersworksconsiderationtotreat technologyasenablerforvirtualcollaboration(Tickle,Adebanjo,&
Michaelides,2011).Belowarepresentedthedetailsaboutthe
integra-tionofthecorecomponents,todevelopacollaborativeapplicationin ordertoimplementCItechniquesforthefront-endofinnovation.
3.3. ResolutionprocessandtheTRIZ-CBRmodel
TheTRIZ-CBRmodelintegratestheTRIZ,andtheCase-Based Rea-soning(CBR)inordertoconceiveaproblemresolutionprocess, capa-bletoguidecreativityforgeneratinginnovativesolutions.Themodel allowsatthesametimethestoring,indexingandreusingknowledge withtheaimtoacceleratetheinnovationprocess(Fig.8).
ThesolvingprocessinFig.8iscomposedasfollows:the prelim-inarystepistocollectdataandtodescribethehandlingproblem. Then,theproblem,whichisstatedasacontradictioniscoupledwith thewholeproblemdescription(contradictionandtheotherfeatures), andusedtoexplorethememorycontentforasimilarproblem.Atthis pointofthesynergyprocess,twodifferentsubprocessescantake place:
(1) Theretrievaloffersasufficientlysimilarproblemorsetof prob-lems.Suchasituationleadstotheevaluationoftheassociated solutionstodecidewhichsolutionorsolvingstrategyhastobe usedasinitialsolution.Herethesimilaritybetweentwoproblems iscalculatedwithasimilarityglobalfunctionlikeEuclidean dis-tanceandthenclassifiedusingthenearestneighboralgorithm. (2) Thememorydoesnothaveanysimilarsolvedcaseorsufficiently
similarcase(thesimilarityglobalfunctionhasatoosmallvalue). Underthiscondition,thesystemoffersinventiveprinciples asso-ciatedtothecontradiction,bywhichavalidsolutioncouldbe de-rived.Thecontradictionmatrixoraseparationprinciplefindsits initialuse.
Whateverthechosensub-process,bothconvergetoaproposed initialsolution.Thenthesolutionobtainedisrevised,testedand re-pairedifnecessarywiththeaimtoproduceavalidsolution.Finally, thenewsolutionisincorporatedinthememoryinordertobe re-utilizedinthefuture.TheresolutionproposedinmodelTRIZ-CBR has demonstratedits efficiencyasit isreportedby CortesRobles
etal.(2008,2009)andNegny,Belaud,CortesRobles,RoldanReyes,
andFerrer (2012).Byusingthe TRIZ-CBRmodelwe looktodrive
the innovationprocess (creativity)withina socialenvironmentof collaboration. Thedetails aboutthisenvironmentarediscussedin
Section3.4.
3.4. Collaborationprocess
Situationsofcollaborationintheindustryseektofacilitatethe participationofdifferentactorsintheactivitiesrelatedtoreacha commonobjective(e.g.solvingaproblem,designinganewproduct).
Fig.9modelstheactivities commonto allcollaborationprocesses andindependentofaspecificsituation(Camposetal.,2006;Sorli&
Stokic,2009)
The activities presented in the model from Campos et al., comprehend:
I.Identification of a situation
III. Collect relevant information
IV. Collaboration process
Community
Stakeholder
II. Form team
Collaboration team
Selection
Specific goal
Define
Fig. 9. Generic collaboration model. Adapted from Campos et al. (2006) .
(I) Identificationofasituation.Itisthestakeholderwhoidentifies thesituationthatrequirescollaborationtomeetaspecificgoal. Thestakeholderisanindividualoragroupofindividuals. (II) Formteam.Thestartingactorinvitesthemembersofa
com-munitytoformthecollaborationteam.Forabetterresult,a recommendationservicescanfindanoptimalteam composi-tion.Theactorsinvolvedhavetheroleofcollaborators. (III) Collectrelevantinformation.Theparticipantsprovidethe
nec-essaryinformationforthesituation,bygatheringknowledge fromdifferentsources,processingandanalyzingit.
(IV) Collaborationprocess.Accordingtothenatureofthesituation differenttoolsandcollaboration patternswill benecessary. Itisrequiredtomakeregisterofallcontributionsinorderto tracethecollaborationprocess.
Inthiswork,weadaptthecollaborationactivitiestotheTRIZ-CBR processinordertoproposeacollaborativeresolutionprocessbased onasystematicapproach.Theoperationofthecollaborative resolu-tionprocessisintroducedinFig.10.Therationaleofthe collabora-tiveresolutionprocessconsistsoforientingtheinteractionsofthe in-volvedparticipantsinsuchprocesswithacommonlanguageto com-municatetheproblemformulation(Ilevbareetal.,2013),specifically thelogicapproachofTRIZmethodology(Fig.11).
Thedescriptionoftheoperationofthisapproachissuchas: (1) Followingthegenericcollaboration modelspecification,the
firstactivity—identificationofasituation—correspondstothe descriptionoftheproblematicsituation.
(2) Thestakeholderinvitesotherparticipants,itishighly recom-mendedtohaveatleasttheparticipationofoneTRIZ practi-tioner.
(3) Collectrelevantinformationhelpstoprovidedetailstomake cleartheproblematicsituation.
(4) The collaboration process uses an asynchronous patternto coordinatetheparticipationsinordertoensureinformation
I. Identification of a
situation
III. Collect relevant
information
IV. Collaboration
process
II. Form team
Problem description Contradiction formulation Adapt solution Valid solution ? Store solution Yes No Yes No Case found? Reuse solution Associated principles
Fig. 10. Collaborative resolution process.
Broker
User Core group
Sub-group
Centralized Descentralized Distributed
Fig. 11. Collaboration organisation ( Nguyen et al., 2012 ).
integrity.Inthisphase,itistheTRIZ-CBRmodelwhichdrives thecollaborationactivities.
Regardingthetechnologytoimplementthecollaboration func-tionality,thisworkfollowstheOpenCAI2.0propositionaboutthe useofWeb2.0technologies,becausetheyprovidethenetwork ser-vicestojoin,createsociallinks,searchforspecificuser,andshare contentinavirtual community(Wilson,Boe,Sala,Puttaswamy,&
Zhao,2009).Inaddition,forCaseau(2011)socialnetworkservicesare
anemergingwayoforganizingcollaborationintheindustry,leading towhatisknownastheEnterprise2.0.Otheradvantageforusing socialnetworksisthephenomenonknownas“thenetworkeffect”
(Esteban-Giletal.,2012):themoreusersparticipateinanetwork,
the more are thebenefits they get fromit. Forcoordinating col-laboration among users ina social network, Nguyen, Duong,and
Kang(2012)presentthreearchitectures:centralized,distributedand
decentralized.
• Centralized.Thereisacentralunitthatcontrolsparticipationsand
informationflow.TheplatformsInnocentiveandNineSigmacould beclassifiedinthiscategory.
• Decentralized. This organization divides the task and assigns
themtosmallergroups.
• Distributed.This modelhasno center.All theparticipants are
linkedinthebasesofequality,independenceandcooperation. The social networks (i.e. Facebook, Twitter) are well known examples.
Thebestwaytocreatetheso-called“weak-links”,andpromote theemergenceofaCIbehaviorishavingadistributedarchitecture betweentheparticipants.Inthecaseofthisframework,stakeholder selectstheparticipantsinvolvedinthecollaborationactivities.Butit ispossibletosharetheproblemwithallregisteredusersviaan open-call,ascrowdsourcingplatformswork.
3.5. Collectingintelligencefromuser-generatedcontent
TheexpansionofWeb2.0technologiesleadstonewservicesin theformofsocialplatforms.Thejustificationtobasethissolution ontheuseofWebtechnologiesistheirrecentincorporationinthe industry,andanumberoffacilitiestheyprovidesuchassharing in-formation,communicationtoolsandthecollaborationamongusers, oftendistributedgeographicallyandintime.Inthisdevelopment,we considertherecommendationsfromAlag(2008)tointegrateCIina WebapplicationaspresentedinFig.12.Theseelementsare:
(a) Facilitateuserparticipationandusercollaboration. (b) Gatherimportantknowledgeineasy-to-sharemodels. (c) Usethosemodelstoprovidetheuserwithusefulcontent
InordertoimplementtheCImechanismsthefollowingmain fea-turesareincluded:
• BeingbasedontheSocialWebtodeployaspaceforuser
partici-pation,andpromotingweaklinksamongparticipants.Thissocial platformallowstheusersthefreedomtocreate,shareand col-laborateinthegenerationofcontentassociatedtotechnical prob-lemsandtheirsolutions.
• ExploringtheuseofSemanticWebtechnologies asa powerful
mechanismfor(CI)knowledgerepresentation(Cimiano,2006).
• Enablingcommunityparticipantstointeractwithinformationof
interestaccordingtoaprofile(problemprofileanduserprofile).
• Theincorporationofaknowledgedatabasetosupportthe
system-aticresolutionprocess.
Whilecreatingtheproject,theownerisabletoaddfree-tagsas apartoftheCIstrategy.Thisstrategyhasforobjectivetocreatea classificationsystemoftypefolksonomyabouttheproject(Weller, 2007).Then,thesystemiscapabletoprovidecertain recommenda-tionsapplyingCI.Infirstinstancethesystemdeploysamechanismto providealistwithpossiblecollaboratorsinrelationwiththeproblem folksonomy.Oncetheprojecthascollaborators,theycouldenrichthe projectfolksonomywithnewertags.Next,theplatformlearnsmore abouttheuserthroughaprofilecreation.InspiredinStankovic(2012)
twokindsofprofilesarecreated:conceptualprofileandsocialprofile. Conceptualprofileiscreatedwithexplicitinformationtheusers pro-videaspartoftheiraccounts,butalso,bycollectingimplicit infor-mation fromtheusers’interaction—thisincludesinformationsuch astheprojectstheuserhascreated,andtheparticipationsinother projects.Thesocialprofilecomesfromtheinteractiontheuser estab-lisheswithotherusersthroughthecollaborations.
Domain knowledge TRIZ tools Problem
Gathering collective intelligence
Problem formulator
Gathering collective intelligence
Tagging extraction
Review Textual Rating
Tag cloud navigation
Tokenization Normalize Eliminate stopwords Stemming
Build user
profile Social profile Conceptual profile
Uses Community Uses Uses Fe edbac k Defines Influences Feedback Uses
(a)
(b)
Fig. 12. Architecture of participation for gathering Collective Intelligence.
TherequirementsforsupportingthetasktogatherCIaredivided intotwotypesaccordingtoAlag(2008):
• Explicitintelligence.Theuserprovidesthiskindofintelligencein
theapplicationinadeclarativeway.Theuserprovidesthis intel-ligenceintheformofreviews,tagsorbyusingaparticulartool fromtheTRIZtoolkit(i.e.definingacontradiction).
• Derivedintelligence.Theframeworkusingautomatedalgorithms
infersthisintelligence.Inordertodealwithderivedintelligence theplatformimplementsmechanismsfordealingandindexing unstructuredcontent,andthenperformingintelligentsearchin ordertorecommend relevantcontenttotheusers.TheLinked OpenDataisarichsourceofinformationtheuserscanaccessto enrichasolution.
3.6. Human–machineinteraction
The emergence social networks serviceshas changed the way peopleinteractthroughvirtualspaces.Although,remote collabora-tion hasbeenapplied forseveralyears,theimmediacy and feed-backcapabilitiesofferedbynewtechnologiesallowthecreationof moreeffectiveandefficientsystems.Inordertoaccomplishit,the developmentofsystemsforcollaborationteamsshouldallow infor-mationexchangethroughafriendlyandeasytousevisualstructure. Thisstructuremusthaveafunctionaldesignfocusedonfacilitating collaborativemeansanddesignconsiderationstopromoteits adap-tationtoanypotentialuser.Thefirstviewofthesystemisproposed asitisinFig.13,whereseveralsectionsincludingtheelementsand toolstopromotecollaborationandcommunicationconstructthe ini-tialinterface.Thehierarchyofalltheelementswasdeterminedto providethestructureneededbytheuserstounderstandthesystem functionalityinanorganizedenvironment.Thissystemdesignallows theusertoaccessallcontentinthefirstpageofthesystemandalso presentsallthecomponentsarrangedbyitsnature.Thesectionsare:
• Myprojects:Spacewiththeoptiontocreate,editormodifythe
projectsthatincludetheproblemsthatneedtobesolved.
• Collaborations:Spacewheretheuseraccessestheprojectswhere
he/shewasinvitedtocollaborate.
• Latestupdates:Spaceincludingupdatesoncollaborationsorin
projectscreatedbytheuser.
• Informationexchangecomponents:Thesecomponentsallowthe
exchangeofinformationatdifferentlevels.Thisinformation en-ables eachusertounderstandtheproposalsandcontributions fromtheothermemberswithintheteamorthecommunity.The componentsthatcomposethissectionarethestatisticsandthe chat.
• Workspace:Spacewheretheuseraccessestoalltheinformation
relatedwithaprojectandtheresolutionprocess.Itincludesa
markerofprogressandcolorindicatorsofthecurrentsectionthe userisworkingin.
• Componentstoreducecommunicationerrors:Thesecomponents
that allowuserstomakecontributionsinallthephasesofthe resolutionprocess.Thecomponentsinteractinginthissectionare thetagsandcomments.
Fig.13correspondstoarealsoftwareimplementationbasedon the proposed framework. This isa first version ofthe prototype, whichisdesignedforanincrementaldevelopment.
4. Discoveringtheuseoftheframework
4.1. Thecaseofrapidprototypinginmanufacturing
InordertovalidatethereasonablenessoftheproposedOpenCAI 2.0tool,webrieflydescribehowthisapproachcanbeusedina spe-cifictechnicalproblem.Rapidprototypingisatechnologyfor generat-ingphysicalobjectsfromgraphicalcomputermodels(Jacobs,1992). AccordingtoJacobsthetechnologyisused forengineering proto-typeandmanufacturingapplications.Inproductdevelopment, pro-totypingisanessentialpartbecauseitallowstoassessingtheform, fitandfunctionalityofadesignbeforeproduction(Pham&Gault, 1998).Technologiesforrapidprototypingincludeaddingmaterials andremovingmaterialsmethods.Plasticfoamcuttingisaremoving materialtechnologycapableofproducinglargeplasticfoamobjects directlyfromaCADmodel(Brooks&Aitchison,2010).Accordingto BrooksandAitchison,theincorporationofpolystyreneinrapid pro-totypinghasdifferentusessuchas:conceptualdesignofcommercial products,automotivedesign,aerodynamicandhydrodynamic test-ing,amongothers.RapidHeatAblation(RHA)ispresented(Kim,Lee,
&Yang,2007)asamethodtoimprovethecuttingmechanism,and
tosolvetheproblemsofexcessivecuttingtimeandleftover mate-rialbydevelopinganewmaterialremovalmethod.Theobjectiveis toreducetheheat-affectedzone,thuswiththesupportofTRIZfor guidingtheconceptualdesignKimetal.formulatedtheproblemasa physicalcontradiction.ThesolutionproposedbyKimetal.is apply-ingtheprincipleofseparationinspace(seeFig.14).Theresultisa toolthathastangentialgroovesonthesideofthetoolseparatedinto tworegionsforminimizationoftheheat-affectedzone.
Thecasewetreatinvolvesanewconceptualdesignforthetool proposedbyKimetal.TheapplicationoftheOpenCAI2.0proposed inthisworkistoreformulatingtheproblematicanddevelopinga dif-ferentsolutioninthedesignoftheRHAtool.
4.2.Theuse-casescenario
Members located in three different countries conducted the firstexperimentations within the framework:France,Mexico and
Fig. 13. Overview of graphical user interface.
Fig. 14. Separation in space principle.
Table 2
Participants profile.
Function TRIZ practitioner Number
Associate professor Yes 2
Mechanical engineer Yes 1
Computer science engineer No 1
Lithuania. Theywereselectedtakingintoaccountto have partici-pantslocatedindifferentgeographicallocations,andwithdifferent cultures.Nospecificrolewasimposedtoeachparticipant,andtheir participationwasatdifferentlevelsofengagement.Theprofilesof eachparticipantarepresentedinTable2.Becauseoftheinitial oper-ationoftheframework,theprofilesarestillundercreation.Profiles arecompletedastheusersinteractwithintheframework.
Duringthecollaborationprocessforsolvingtheproblemindesign oftheRHAtool,theframeworkoperatesaccordingtothe functional-ityexposedinSection3.Theprocessstartswiththecreationofthe projectintheplatform.Oncetheprojectiscreated,theprojectcreator (i.e.stakeholder)describestheproblematicsituation.Theframework
includesformsanddialogstoguidetheparticipantsinorderto prop-erlydescribetheproblembyusingfree-textformularies.Participants haveaccesstothethreemainoptionstomodifytheproject (Gen-eralaspects,ResolutionprocessandAssistant).Theinformationand detailsaimstocommunicatetheessenceoftheproblem.The incor-porationoffree-textdialogsintheframeworkdealswiththemeans ofhumanscommunicatesontheWeb.Theuseofnaturallanguage, andparticularlytextbasedcommunicationiswidelywidespreadin mostoftheavailableWebapplications(Cimiano,2006).
TheemergenceoftheCIstartswhentheprojectowneridentifies thecollaboratorsandshareswiththemtheprojectresource.The col-laboratorshadaccesstomakecontributionsinthedifferentoptions oftheresolutionprocess.Regardingtheproblemformulation,we in-cludetheoptiontodefinecontradictions(technicalandphysical).The frameworkallowstomakemorethanoneformulationoftheproblem inordertoreflectthedifferentopinions.Inourexample,the partici-pantsformulatedsixdifferentcontradictions.Inthelistof contradic-tions,thereisacolumnwithasequentialgeneratedname,thename oftheauthorandtheoptionstoeditorremoveadefinedproblem. Inadditionthelistincludesavotingsystemtoexplicitlypromotethe mostappropriateproblemformulation.Oneadvantageofthevoting systemistherelativefacilitytoresolveconflictswhenthereismore thanoneopinionabouttheproblem.
ContrarytoKimetal.(2007)wheretheauthorsbasedtheir solu-tionintheformulationofaphysicalcontradiction,inthisexample we formulatedthe problemasatechnicalcontradiction.The con-tradiction formulatedtopropose thesolutioniscomposed bythe positive characteristicTemperatureandthenegativecharacteristic object-affectedharmfuleffects.TheTRIZprinciplesassociatedwith thecontradictionare:
• Tackingout/extraction • Localquality/localcapacity
• Dynamics • Periodicaction
The next step is tolook forsimilar casein theCBR database. However,astheframeworkisbeginningitsoperation,therearenot enoughcasestomakethesearch.Infact,onedrawbackintheCBR systemsistheinitializationoftheknowledgedatabase,butasthe TRIZ-CBRmodelclaims,itispossibletoproposeasolutionusingthe TRIZprincipleswhenthereisnotasimilarcase.Thus,theenvisaged solutioninourexampleusesthedynamicsprinciple.Uptonowthere isnotaformalmechanismintheframeworktotakethedecisionto useeitheranexistingsolutionwhenthereisasimilarcaseinthe knowledgedatabaseortouseaparticularsolutionprinciple.The con-sensusaboutwhichprincipletouseisdoneusinganoptiontomake commentsintheproject.Infact,thecommentsoptionisa commu-nicationtoolbetweentheparticipantsthathasbeenhelpfulthrough theentireresolutionprocess.AccordingwiththeTRIZtheory,the dy-namicsprincipleisabouttochangeparametersintime.The concep-tualsolutionproposedfortheRHAtoolisfollowingthesub-principle: Ifanobjectisfixed,makeithavefreemotion.Theadaptationofthis principleisdescribedas:Thetoolintheaxisisfixed.Thus,we pro-posetomakeitdynamic(asadrill).Thesolutionrequiresadetailed design,buttheobjectiveoftheconceptualsolutionisthatthehottool turnsinitsaxistoincreaseitsefficiency.
ForthelastphaseofImplementation,theframeworkproposesthe optionstoselectthesolutionproposalthatresultsfromthe commu-nityconsensus.Also,itincludestheoptionstodocumentthebest possiblesolutiondetails.Theprocessendswhentheuserconfirms thesolution,withthisactiontheframeworkstoresanewcaseinthe databasethatwillbeavailableinfuturesearches.
TheAssistantoptionisconceivedtohelptheparticipantsinthe resolutionprocess.Itisfocusintwomainfunctionalities:discover helpfulcontentonLinkedOpenDatarepositoriesandprovidingalist ofpossiblecollaborators.Itisworthtomentionthatthisisanoption currentlyunderdevelopment;neverthelesssomepreliminaryresults areavailable.Forexamplethereisanoptiontoextractrelevant con-ceptsfromthetextualdescriptionoftheproblemsituationbyusing NaturalLanguageProcessing(NLP).Thependingdevelopmentisto usethesekeywords,aspartoftheproblemcharacterizationtogather onLODsourcesandenhancetheresolutionprocesswithuseful in-formation.Theotherenvisagedfunctionalityistousetheproblem characterization,tosearchintopatentsdatabasestoprovidealistof possiblecollaborators.Apatentcitationstudythroughsocialnetwork analysisisproposedinordertogetalistofinvertorsandtheir rela-tionships.Thisremainsaspartoffutureworkandperspectives.
5. Discussionandperspectives
5.1. Discussion
Giventheimportanceoftheincorporationofcollaboration pat-ternsinindustrialactivities,thisworkanalysestheimplicationofthe conceptOpenCAI2.0tofosteropeninnovationactivities.Specifically, thepaperexaminestheincorporationofalogicalapproachtodrive thecreativegenerationofsolutionsduringtheinboundprocessofthe front-endofinnovation.Thepreliminaryresultsallowustohighlight thefollowingfacts:
• Although most open innovation literature focuseseither on a
management (Chesbrough, 2006) or an economic perspective
(Enkeletal.,2009),itisimportanttoincludeanengineering
view-point;specially,regardingthegenerationofcreativeideasand in-ventiveproblemsolvinginthefront-endofinnovation.
• The use of collaborative technologies implicates the accessto
anundefinednumberofnumeroussourcesofinnovation(Enkel etal.,2009). Howeverexistingcrowdsourcing solutionsto fos-teropeninnovationpracticesarelimitedtotakeaproblemand
broadcastittoacommunityofsolutionproviders(Majchrzak&
Malhotra,2013).
• ForMajchrzakandMalhotra(2013),existingcrowdsourcing
ser-viceslackofcollaborativemechanismamongparticipantsto con-structacommonsolutionislimited.
• TheuseofTRIZmethodologyasacommonlanguagetoformulate
technicalproblemsfacilitatescollaborationwithinacommunity ofproblemsolvers.
• TheWeb2.0collaborativetechnologyprovidestheelements
re-quiredtoimplementagenericcollaborationmodelsuchasthe oneproposedinCamposetal.(2006).Moreover,fortheindustry thesocialwebserviceshelptounlockthepotentialoftheCI.
• TheadvantageofusingWeb2.0technologiesforcollaborationis
that theframeworkcanbeaccessibletoawiderangeofusers, whichcan resultinreducingthegapbetweennewcomersand TRIZpractitioners.Inaddition,theframework isplannedtobe usedinacademiccontextinordertospreadtheinterestinthe methodology.
Despite the positive aspects observed in the preliminary re-sults,itisworthtomentionthatcertainlimitations—openresearch problems—arealsoobserved:
• Theproblemsolversoncrowdsourcingservicesdonotnecessarily
constituteavirtualcommunity(Frey,Lüthje,&Haag,2011).
• Thesuccessofcollaborativeinnovationismainlydeterminedby
the selectionofappropriatedparticipants (Geum,Lee, Yoon,&
Park,2013).
• ForMartínez-Torres(2013),thehugeamountofinformation
gen-erated byusers,makesdifficultthe identificationofapplicable ideas.
• Relianceontheemotionalstatesandmotivationofparticipants. • Difficultiestoattractskilledpeople(Stankovic,Rowe,&Laublet,
2012).
Ourfindingssuggestthatitisnecessarytoovercomeseveral bar-riersinordertoachievearealcollaborativeinnovationinanopen context.Inthispapersomeofthemhavebeentackled:social inter-action,knowledgemanagementandthedefinitionofaninnovation processbasedonproblemresolution.Asolutionthatintegratesthese elementsusingtheWeb2.0platformwasdescribed.Theconcepts fromCIexpose thepossibilitiestoimproveparticipant’screativity inthephaseofconceptualdesign.TheCIprovidesawaytoexpose knowledgethatisotherwisehiddeninacollectiveenvironment,for example,bubblingupinterestingcontentordynamiccontent classi-fication.
5.2.Perspectives
Althoughthecontradictionmatrixisanimportanttool,its utiliza-tionisnoteasyandreliesontheuser’sskills.Thislimitationcould beovercomeusinganautomaticmethodinordertoscanfree-text andfindthespecifictechnicalparameterstoformulatethe contra-diction(WeiYan,2013).Inrelationtotheworkinprogress,weintend todevelopmissingfunctionalityaboutCI.However,itispossibleto presentsomeofthecharacteristicsexpected.Firstly,incorporatetag clouds.Thiscomponenthelpstheusertomakearapidsearch us-ingthetagsconceptsgeneratedmanuallybytheusersorthe pro-cessfortagsextraction.Secondly,providereviewfunctionality:the reviewsareusefultoquantifythequalityofthecontentgenerated bytheusers.Intheplatformthe reviewsarefocused onproblem solutions,andtheycouldbeoftwotypes:textualandrating.Both kindsallowtheuserstoprovideaninstantfeedbackaboutthe so-lution’srelevance.Theratingoptionhasanadvantageoverthe tex-tual review because theinformation provided isquantifiable and useddirectly.Thirdly,completetheAssistanttoolwiththeoptions todiscoverinformationinLODrelatedtotheproblembasedonits
Table A1 Reviewed journals.
Journal Database Coverage
Technovation ScienceDirect 1990–2014
Computers in Industry ScienceDirect 1990–2014
Journal of Engineering Design Taylor & Francis 1990–2014
Computer-Aided Design ScienceDirect 1990–2014
Expert Systems with Applications ScienceDirect 1990–2014
International Journal of Computer Integrated Manufacturing Taylor & Francis 1990–2014 Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing. Springer 1990–2014
Conferences Proceedings ACM Digital Library 1990–2014
Lectures Notes in Computer Science Springer 1990–2014
characterization.Inaddition,otherfunctionalityenvisagedis discov-eringcollaboratorsafterasocialnetworkanalysisinpatentcitation. Andlastly,createauserprofile:theimportancetobuildauser pro-fileisbecauseitallowstheframeworktoprovidemorerelevantand personalizedinformation.Ourframeworkproposestogeneratethe profilebaseonthecontentusergeneratesandthesocialinteractions. TheuseofTRIZtoolsanddomainknowledgeviatagextractionare thebasetobuildaprofileofconcepts.Thecollaborationbetweenthe userandthecommunityisthebasetobuildthesocialprofile.For ex-ample,Stankovicetal.(2012)proposetousethesocialprofiletofind possiblecollaboratorsforaparticularprojectinarecommendation system.Thefirstteststotheframeworkweretosolvetechnical prob-lems.However,TRIZhaspropagatedtonon-technicalfields(Ilevbare etal.,2013)suchasmarketing,psychology,sociologyandeducation. Inthenearfutureweareplanningtoextendtheapplicationofthe frameworktono-technicalfields.
Acknowledgment
ThisscientificworkwassupportedbytheMexicanNational Coun-cilforScienceandTechnology(CONACyT)andtheGovernmentof FrancethroughtheEmbassyofFranceinMexico.
AppendixA. Literaturereviewprocess
SearchingforliteratureofrelatedworksabouttheuseofCIin in-novationactivitieswasachallengingprocess.Amongthedifficulties foundare:theuseofrelatedtermsisnothomogeneous(e.g., Collec-tiveIntelligence,thewisdomofthecrowds),thedifferentmodelsfor theinnovationprocess,andthelackofaspecializedjournal.To en-surethattheliteraturereviewcoversrelevantworks,theliterature reviewwasdrivenbyaconcept-centricsearch.
Thekeywordsusedinthesearchinclude:‘collectiveintelligence’, ‘crowdsourcing,wisdomofthecrowds’,‘problemresolution’, ‘con-ceptual design’,‘TRIZ’,‘creativity’, ‘systematicinnovation’, ‘innova-tionbroker’and‘innovation’.Thereviewwasperformedusing jour-nalsfromthefollowingdatabases:ScienceDirect,Springer,Taylor& Francis,andACMDigitalLibrary.Andtheperiodcoveredwasfrom 1990to2014.Thecriteriatoselectthearticlesweretherelationship withthesubject,impactfactor,andthecitationstothearticles.The listofreviewedjournalsisincludedinTableA1.
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