msssm.
^m
FSSDD/AGRIC/98/01
djo-
INITED NATIONS
iCONOMIC COMMISSION FOR AFRICA
:OOD SECURITY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT DIVISION
APPROACHES TO THE MANAGEMNT OF THE NEXUS:
BEST PRACTICES
Addis Ababa December, 1998
APPROACHES TO THE MANAGEMNT OF THE NEXUS:
BEST PRACTICES
PART I: FOOD SECURITY, POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT IN AFRICA
1.1 The Problems of Food Insecurity, High Population Growth and Environmental Degradation in Africa
1. The World Food Summit Plan of Action adopted in 1996 affirmed that food security at the individual, household, national, sub-regional and regional levels exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. Viewed in this context, the food security situation of some African countries has witnessed some improvement in recent years. However, increasing food insecurity in many countries remains a major source of concern.
2. In fact according to an IFPRI Report (IFPRI, 1997) *, although per capita availability of food worldwide is projected to increase around 7 percent from 2,700 calories per person per day in 1993 to 2,900 calories per person per day in 2020, the projected average availability of about 2,300 calories per person per day in sub-Saharan Africa is just barely above the minimum required for a healthy and productive life. Worse still, a large proportion of the region's population is even likely to have access to less food than needed because the available food is not equally distributed.
According to the report, sub-Saharan Africa's share of the world's food- insecure population is projected to increase substantially in the coming years. By 2010, every third person in sub-Saharan Africa is likely to be food-insecure compared to every eighth person in South East Asia and every twentieth person in East Asia.
3. These disturbing figures reflect widespread poverty and poor health and the general problems of inadequate agricultural growth and unequal distribution of incomes and purchasing power. In fact, according to ECA (1998)2, 44 per cent of Africa's population were living below a poverty line of
$39 per person per month in the early 1990s while 50 per cent lived below a poverty line of $34 per person per month in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).
4. The continued deterioration in the quality of life of the average African has been due to two major factors. First, the population growth rate far exceeds that of per capita food production in most African countries. In the next several decades, population growth will contribute markedly to
IFPR. 1997. The World Food Situation: Recent Developments, Emerging Issues and Long-term Prospects, 2020 Vision Food Policy Report: The International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C., December
2 ECA. 1998. The Challenge of Poverty Reduction in Africa by Ali Abdcl Gadir Ali, Discussion Paper Series, ESPD/DPS/98/1. October
increased demand for food. Sub-Saharan Africa is projected to contribute most of the 80 million yearly increases in population during the next quarter century and the region's population is expected to almost double itself from 778 million in 1998 to 1317 million in 2020. A second factor is the rapid deterioration of the environment caused by soil erosion, desertification, deforestation and environmentally damaging agricultural practices which has led to declining land productivity on the continent.
5. Available evidence suggests that environmental degradation caused by these factors is seriously undermining this very resource base on which many African farmers and their families depend for increasing their agricultural productivity. Thus, although many African countries are richly endowed with natural resources such as forests, minerals, water and fisheries, Africa has suffered a severe crisis manifested in the constant decline in the economic growth rate, particularly during the two decades up to the 1990s, simultaneously with a rapid depletion of its natural resources.
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has estimated that of the approximately 38 million km2 area of land which is prone to desertification worldwide, 6.9 million km2 or 23 per cent is in sub-Saharan Africa. UNEP also estimates that more than a quarter of the African continent is at present in the process of becoming useless for cultivation due to land degradation.
6. Food insecurity, rapid population growth and environmental degradation constitute a very important challenge for public policy in Africa today.
Indeed, no cluster of issues has eluded effective public policy intervention more than that inter-linking food security, population and environmental degradation. Yet, the survival and quality of life in Africa can only be guaranteed if the forces that shape the food-population-environment equation are properly understood and managed.
1.2. The Emerging Consensus to Address Nexus Issues
7. There is an emerging consensus on the need to tackle the inter-linked issues of population, environment and food security known as the nexus in a holistic and integrated manner so as to alleviate poverty, attain food security and ensure sustained economic growth and economic development.
This has been particularly highlighted at all international conferences which have been held since the early 1990s including the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), the International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) and the 1996 World Food Summit.
8. A holistic approach to tackling the problems of food insecurity must, in effect, pursue simultaneously three goals namely: a substantial increase in the growth rate of food and agricultural production above the population growth rate, the alleviation of poverty and the sustainable use of natural resources. The achievement of these goals requires that countries understand and redirect their policy responses on the nexus both at the
conceptual and operational levels. There is, therefore, a need for a framework aimed at understanding and managing the nexus issues.
1.3. ECA/FSSDD's Approach to the Nexus Challenge
9. ECA, through a set of reforms, has repositioned itself to meet the nexus challenge so as to assist Africa to realize its expectations. One of the five focused sub-programmes created by the reforms to tackle Africa's concerns in this area is "Ensuring Food Security and Sustainable Development in Africa". Its mandate is precisely to take the lead in grappling with the delicate balance between population growth, agriculture and the environment so as to promote food security and sustainable development in the region. This requires, among others, slowing population growth, harnessing water for consumption and sustainable agricultural production, increasing agricultural productivity, protecting the environment, enhancing the application of appropriate technologies and changing socio-cultural attitudes and practices particularly gender inequality.
10. To this end, the mission of the Food Security and Sustainable Development Division (FSSDD), which is responsible for executing the programme, is to assist member states to reverse current adverse trends by raising policy-makers' awareness of the urgency of food, population, and environmental concerns and offer them (member states) feasible solutions drawn from best practices within Africa and around the world.
11. Consequently, the activities planned by FSSDD are aimed at urgently sensitizing African policy-makers on the vital ways in which the interactions between population, agriculture and environment threaten sustainable development. These activities are aimed at bringing about three transitions in African countries: The transition from low to high productivity agriculture, the transition from large to smaller and healthier families and the transition from poor to better stewardship of the environment. The attainment and management of these transitions present a number of considerable challenges as they involve efforts to weave together the substantive issues of population, agriculture and environment while creating better understanding between the technical and political levels of national decision-making.
12. Among the activities planned in the Division's work programme for the 1998-1999 biennium is the identification and promotion of best practices in the management of nexus issues. This publication aims at fulfilling this objective by identifying and presenting some best practices within or outside Africa in facilitating any of the three transitions. These "best practices" are presented in Part II of this report.
PART II: BEST PRACTICES IN THE MANAGEMENT OF NEXUS ISSUES 2.1. Facilitating the Demographic Transition in Africa
13. The demographic transition from high to low birth and death rates took nearly two centuries to complete in Europe and North America. However, this transition is occurring much faster in most developing countries especially those in East Africa, South Asia and Latin America.
14. Although the demographic transition theory holds that the transition from high to low fertility and mortality takes place only at high levels of per capita income, industrialization and urbanization, this transition took place in some developing countries under situations of high population growth rates, low economic growth, and low per capita income, industrialization and urbanization. It is also taking place in Africa under these conditions.
The issue therefore is how did this happen? What policies and strategies did these countries adopt which other countries can learn from. The experiences of a few selected countries are presented below to demonstrate cases of best practices.
2.2 Experiences from South Asia (a) Sri Lanka
15. It is asserted that Sri Lanka has almost completed the demographic transition, with low mortality and fertility rates approaching replacement levels. This is in contrast with most other parts of South Asia where mortality and especially fertility rates remain high. The explanation lies in the socio-economic changes that occurred in the country which reduced the centrality of the family in wider social and economic relations, and placed a greater premium on an individual's own ability and attributes.
16. In 1945 the crude death rate was 21.5 per thousand, but was halved to 11.0 per thousand ten years later. Similarly life expectancy increased by 16 years in less than ten years, from 42.2 years in 1946 to 58.2 years in 1953.
By 1991, life expectancy was 72.5 years, just marginally below that of the developed countries. The decline in infant and maternal mortality rates was even more spectacular. In five years, between 1945 and 1950, the infant mortality rate dropped by more than 40 percent to reach a rate of less than 20 per thousand. Maternal mortality fell from 16.5 per thousand in 1945 to 0.5 per thousand in 1985, representing a fall of more than 95 percent. On the other hand, fertility rates began to fall in the early 1950s and have since exceeded marginally the long-term replacement level3.
3 ECA, Facilitating the Demographic Transition in Africa: Issues and Challenges, vol. I: Main
Report, FSSDD, December 1997.
17. The fall in mortality levels was attributed to an efficient and effective public health system while the decline in fertility was attributed to changing marriage patterns and a strong family planning program.
18. Today, the Sri Lankan family is essentially a nuclear family comprising only the husband, the wife and dependent children. This family structure contributed to fertility decline by raising the cost of children and by reducing the long-run benefits to be gained therefrom. This changing socio- economic system, which reduced the centrality of the family in wider economic relations and placed a premium on an individual's own abilities and attributes, pushed up also the female age at marriage. This age rose by six years, from 18 years in 1901 to more than 24 years in 1981. This increase in age at marriage was the major determinant of the decline in fertility up to 1975. However, more recently, the continued fertility decline has been attributed mostly to declines in marital fertility as a result of a well funded and implemented family planning program.
(b) The Indian village of Kerala
19. The crude birth rate for the district where the village is located fell from 36.5 per thousand in 1965-70 to 26.2 in 1970-75 and 21.8 inl975-80 while the village crude birth rate stood at 18.2 per thousand in 1975-1980. In the same period, the death rate for the district fell from 7.0 to 6.7 per thousand, that for the village stood at only 4.5 per thousand. The two major factors that led to fertility decline were deferment of marriage and control of marital fertility. During the early stages of fertility decline, delayed marriage was the main contributing factor to fewer births. Marital fertility control through extensive use of family planning, played a greater role at a later stage and in general, resulted in a steeper fall in fertility rates than delayed marriage did in the early stages of fertility decline.
20. It is also noted that delayed marriage and the deliberate attempt to limit fertility were a response to overall societal changes, but mainly to the perceived economic cost of bearing and rearing children. The general feeling was that children cost more because of higher living costs and much higher expenditure on children's education and medical expenses. Other major contributing factors included decreasing opportunities in agriculture and the inconvenience caused to women by childbirth.
Lessons learned
21. What are the lessons to be learned? The demographic transition that occurred in parts of South Asia in the past couple of years was a consequence of two major factors: an increase in the age at marriage and the control of marital fertility. The delayed age at marriage was a result of socio-economic changes which were mainly a consequence of a better educational and health care system. On the other hand, the control of marital fertility was a result of a well-planned and a carefully executed
family planning system. However, these factors were accompanied by other societal changes that reinforced their impact. Among these were the increasing centrality of the family, the increasing cost of living and the decreasing opportunities in agriculture.
2.12 Experiences from Africa
(a) Mauritius
Population dynamics and trends4
22. In the early 1960s, Mauritius had one of the highest population growth rates in the world. Between 1963 and 1972, fertility rate levels declined from more than six to only slightly above three children per woman, which was considered as the most rapid fertility transition in human history.
Fertility rates continued to decline during the past two decades to just over 2 births per woman in 1991. There has also been a very moderate increase in the age at marriage over the past years which is now estimated at about 24-25 years.
23. Overall, the mortality rate has been improving as a result of rapid increase in standards of nutrition, health care and other social services.
The crude death rate declined from 9.3 per thousand population in 1962 to 6.6 in 1991. The infant mortality rate (IMR) was 19.7 in 1995. Life expectancy at birth improved considerably over the last'two decades. It is as
high as 72 years for female and 68 years for male, only a few years less than that in most developed countries.
Lessons learned
24. Education, particularly for women, was certainly one of the most important factors that affected fertility behaviour and contributed to the control of population growth in Mauritius. About 80 percent of the population is educated and 75 percent of women are literate. Education, right up through University is free with a 9-year primary education being compulsory.
25. The provision of greater opportunities for the majority of the population was the second factor that contributed to the high living standards of the population in Mauritius. The promotion of Export Processing Zones (EPZ) with labour intensive industries created numerous job opportunities for people and particularly for women. Female labour force participation in Mauritius is as high as 44 percent and it has been on the rise over the years. Increased labour participation, especially on the women's side, affected the traditional child-rearing methods and led couples to review the size of their families.
ECA, Ibid.
26. Considerable efforts have also been made both by the government and the private sector to improve the standard of living of the population, particularly that of the workers and their families. Various welfare schemes provided by government include social security for vulnerable groups and family allowance to assist families with three or more children under age 15.
With the rise in life expectancy, additional care became necessary for the ageing population and a policy was therefore formulated and implemented which was aimed at meeting the needs of the elderly so as to keep them in the family units. Several facilities have also been put in place with a view to providing the elderly with recreational opportunities and better welfare.
27. Another factor has been the efficient and effective management of population growth. Mauritius is one of the few countries that have succeeded in managing population growth. Its success in this area has been largely attributed to the government's concern and deep commitment to reduce the rate of population growth through supportive and extensive health care services, family planning programmes and promotion of basic education particularly among women.
28. Initially, family planning was slow to develop partly because of opposition from the Catholic Church and-vocal Muslims to all contraceptive methods. As a result, the government decided not to get involved in the provision of contraceptive services and people were left free to take decisions concerning the number of children they wished to have. The Mauritius Family Planning Association (MPA) opened the first family planning clinic in 1957. Thereafter, a private organization, Action familiale (AF) was formed with the objectives of promoting and teaching natural family planning methods. Family planning thereafter became the main tool used in tackling demographic problems.
29. Today, the rate of contraceptive use in Mauritius can be compared to that in Europe and North America. The two-child family seems to be the norm in Mauritius. The fertility rate was already below replacement level in the late 1980s, while the growth rate of the population was still above 1 percent per year. Despite the lack of a clear and formal population policy, the country aims at keeping the population at the present level.
Perspectives of the demographic transition
30. Mauritius is at a critical juncture in its development. It has reached the stage of temporary success, but much still has to be done for the country to enter the newly industrialized economies. It is feared that in the long-run, Mauritius would face labour shortages as it is already importing labour from Asian and other countries. Another problem is that the ageing population would raise in the long-run.
(b) Botswana.
Population dynamics and trends5
31. Botswana's demographic profile has all the signs of a country undergoing a demographic transition. Infant mortality rates (IMR) were halved between 1971 and 1991 from 97.1 to 48.0 per 1,000 live births.
Currently, the IMR is 42 per 1,000 live births which is far below the sub- Saharan average of 92 per 1,000. Similarly, childhood mortality is down to 32.4 per 1,000. Life expectancy rate rose both for urban and rural population to 67.7 years and 62.3 years respectively in 1991. The recent upsurge in HIV/AIDS pandemic is, unfortunately, threatening to raise the population morbidity especially among the youths. The AIDS infected population was estimated at 180,000 people in 1995 and the figure is still rising. This has promoted some intensive campaigns to reduce the rate of increase.
32. Fertility rates declined from 6.5 in 1971 to 5.2 in 1991 while the contraception prevalence rate of 32 per cent is relatively high. However, this achievement is being threatened by the rise in the incidence of teenage pregnancy. The percentage of teenage mothers rose from 15.4 percent in
1971 to 24 percent in 1988.
Lessons learned
33. The achievement of the demographic transition in Botswana has been attributed to many pragmatic and positive policies that the government has pursued during the last decade. First, the government took a judicious move to utilize the huge revenue generated from the diamond industry to extend social benefits in health and education to a wide spectrum of the population as well as to invest in key physical and institutional infrastructures in order to facilitate the delivery of these services. Second, it provided universal free education at the primary level and closed the gender gap in education and employment. Third, it promoted a systematic and integrated health care system which incorporates preventive care, primary health care and family planning services including mother and child health.
Fourth, it recently adopted a population policy designed to ensure that population factors are properly integrated into development planning at all levels and that the various intervention efforts undertaken by all institutions and the private sector are properly coordinated. Fifth, the promotion of democratic principles, peace and stability provided an enabling political and socio-economic environment.
34. Botswana's challenge now is that of effectively using its past experiences to sustain the transition in the face of a rapidly growing population. With opportunities for formal employment greatly reduced, alleviating poverty is certainly one of the major challenges which the
3 ECA, Ibid.
government would face in the immediate future. The country's economy has to diversify more and this is increasingly made difficult by the fact that recurrent droughts have reduced the opportunities that have existed in the agricultural sector.
(c) Tunisia
Population dynamics and determinants6
35. The average annual rate of growth of the population between the two last censuses rose from 1.9 percent in 1956-66 to 2.7 percent in 1975-1984.
This rapid growth was due to a higher crude birth rate (CBR) and a lower crude death rate (CDR).
36. The CBR decreased from 50 percent in 1956 to 45 percent in 1966 while in the same period the CBR fell from 25 percent to 15 percent. Thus the natural growth rate rose from 2.5 percent in 1984 to 2.6 percent in 1996 and stabilized at this level before falling to 1.7 percent subsequently. The total fertility rate (TFR) fell from 7.2 children per woman in 1956 to 2.9 in
1994, a drop of nearly 60 percent.
Lessons learned
37. One of the factors that explains the demographic transition in Tunisia is the higher observed age at first marriage. Among women aged 45-49 years, 59 percent were married at the age of 19 while among the women aged 20- 24, only 16 percent were married at age 19. The median age at first marriage rose from 20 years for women of the age group 35-39, to 21.2 for those in the age group 30-34 and 23.2 for those in the age group 25-29.
This rise in the age at first marriage was the consequence of changing socio- economic conditions which occurred during the last few decades (higher revenues, rapid urbanization, higher level of education, etc.).
38. The second factor is the implementation of a well-designed family planning and health programme. Although the political drive to control fertility started at independence, it was only towards the end of the 1960s that this drive was translated into positive actions when the national family planning programme was launched in 1966. This family planning programme was implemented through a network of clinics, health centres and mobile stations that covered the whole country. The result is that 99 percent of Tunisian women now have a general knowledge of contraception and the contraceptive prevalence rate has risen from around 30 percent in
1978 to more than 60 percent in the 1990s.
39. The third factor is the general improvement in living standards. The per capita gross domestic product (GDP] increased by more than 700 percent within a span of 30 years. Life expectancy at birth rose from an average of
6 ECA, Ibid.
47 years to 70 years. In general, 90 percent of the population has access to sanitary installations. The illiteracy rate has dropped to 30 percent while the rate of urbanization has risen to 60 percent.
40. A family planning programme was adopted in the 1960s and involved the participation of public services, non-governmental organizations and religious authorities. The Tunisian authorities enacted several laws that have had a beneficial effect on fertility levels. These include the adoption of the "Statute Personnel" which protects women, promotes gender equality, abolishes polygamy and legalizes divorce and abortion. The Office national de la famille et de la population coordinates and manages all activities related to population. This office is required to operationalize all political decisions, facilitate interventions related to population, play a permanent role in information dissemination and education and make available all the needed services and products for family planning.
2.2 Facilitating the Agricultural Transition in Africa
(a| Poverty alleviation as a basis for improved food security in Malawi7
41. In Malawi, a poverty assessment was carried out in March 1990 and a poverty profile was completed in 1995. A report on the assessment and profile was prepared and submitted to government and intended to guide investment priorities and inform the design of programmes aimed at improving living conditions and increasing incomes of the country's population. A greater understanding of the magnitude and the profile of poverty would also make it easier to implement a monitoring system to evaluate the effects of programmes and to track down the progress of key indicators of poverty.
The poverty profile in Malawi
42. The profile completed in 1995 confirms that the level of human resource development in Malawi is dismal and that poverty is widespread and severe.
Health and education indicators in Malawi are among the worst in the world. Access to land and inputs is so limited that most smallholders have little hope of moving out of poverty solely by working their farms. The generally low incomes, combined with marked income inequality, point to severe structural problems which are made worse by the high population growth rate.
Lessons learned
43. Strategies to reduce poverty in Malawi will require substantial efforts in every sector. The report points out that the following priorities require immediate attention:
7 ECA, Ibid.
Development of human resources: Expanding access and reducing inequities in the social sectors and increasing effectiveness and quality of social services.
Improvement of rural livelihood: Introducing interventions that will enable the poor to respond to the opportunities emerging from economic liberalization, ensuring that economic reforms are broadened to reach the poorest, examining land policies with a view to achieving a more equitable distribution of land, and increasing opportunities for smallholders to earn off-farm income.
Supporting safety nets for the most vulnerable: Introducing short-term income transfers to alleviate the most urgent problems of the poor.
Poverty monitoring and analysis: Continuing activities and analyses aimed at monitoring progress in poverty reduction.
(b) Project for promoting food security in Mali8 Objective of the project
44. The aim of the project is to improve upon the traditionally weak relationship between the NGOs and the government and to build a basis for partnership in the delivery of services to the poor. The Mali pilot project has been chosen as one of 5 Participation Presidential Flagship Operations in the Africa Region of the World Bank due to its innovative nature and successful planning process. The project maintains an iterative dialogue with communities, implementators (NGOs and local authorities) and institutions (local and central government) in supporting multi-sector interventions in capacity-building and in policy decision-making. The impact on the ground was as follows: A steering committee composed of government and NGO representatives has been a key player in developing the project. A 3-day planning by objectives (ZOPP) workshop brought members of this committee together to design the framework of the proposed project. Participants included communities, community-based associations, women's groups, Malian and international NGOs and central, regional and local government authorities. A 6-week community needs and capacity survey was conducted by a local NGO in 31 villages that identified community priorities that could be implemented during the pilot phase of this project. NGO capacity assessments and field visits to local authorities, local NGOs and villages by steering committee members and World Bank staff have contributed to progress in project development by ensuring continuous consultation and information-sharing.
Best Practice. Infobricf: Findings, Africa Region, No. 18, July 1997.
12
Lessons learned
45. The World Bank's notion of what constitutes a project, its development cycle and budgetary allocations may not be consistent with the innovative nature, pace and goals of this project. Therefore, the project's success depends on (a) a strong commitment from all - stakeholders, particularly influential government actors; (b) a clearly participatory process from the project design stage forward; (c) availability of resources up front to begin project preparation i.e., funds allotted specifically for this purpose such as the Client Consultation fund; and (d) a full-time contact point in the Bank's Resident Mission to reinforce the partnerships.
(c) Food insecurity in Tanzania9
46. The United Republic of Tanzania joined FAO's special programme for food security (SPFS) in 1995. Although the country has the potential to produce more than enough food grains to feed its people, it faced a food grain deficit of nearly half a million tons in the years 1995/96. Thus the initial focus of SPFS is to boost national capacity and increase yields to achieve food self-sufficiency. To sustain food self-sufficiency, however, increased yields need to be processed and marketed efficiently.
Lessons learned
47. According to two research experts who visited the SPFS pilot areas in Morogoro and Dodoma regions which have a high potential for rapid expansion of rice and maize production, policy changes are required to support farmers' progress towards intensive agricultural practices and increased yields as well as free-market operations. The experts also stressed the need for the farmers to co-operate with fellow farmers for better prices to help establish public market places, to increase their off-farm income and, to be trained in cost-benefit analysis and grading of rice and maize.
(d) Guinea: Moving towards food security10 Context of the situation
48. The Guinea National Agricultural Services Project's overall development objective is to improve nationwide agricultural productivity and production, incomes of farmers and food security. Initiated in 1996, the food security component of this project was undertaken in conjunction with the Food and Agriculture Organization's Special Program for Food Security (SPFS), and had the objective of helping countries with low revenues and a food deficit to rapidly increase their food production in order to contribute to food security.
9 FAO, Partnership in Action, No. 1, 1998.
Best Practice. Infobricf: Findings, Africa Region No. 31 August 1998.
13
49. The SPFS strategy is based on pilot projects to identify technical assistance packages and the intensification of their application while eliminating the institutional obstacles to their adoption. The pilot phase will be followed by an extension of five years during which technical solutions, policies and investment programs will be implemented to ensure food security.
50. The pilot operation covers five prefectures (districts) and impacts on farmers situated in nine village communities. Its impact was as follows:-
The average yield of mangrove rice in the pilot area increased by 78% more than the national average.
The revenue per hectare in the pilot area is almost three times that of the non-pilot sites.
Lessons learned
51. If an initiative such as the SPFS is to be successful, adequate and timely information needs to be provided at the field-level by the institutional partners before it is launched to ensure buy-in by partners such as farmers'
groups.
52. It is possible to leverage existing financial resources such as the IDA credits so as to establish functional partnerships that reorient technical approaches and strategies towards addressing a food-deficit situation.
53. If the impact of the SPF is to be increased and its approach mainstreamed, three areas need more focus:
Strengthening of monitoring capacity, evaluation techniques, and the economic viability of proposed economic assistance packages;
Extension of the SPFS to crops other than rice and to techniques other than small-scale irrigation, through acknowledging and addressing the overarching problem of managing soil fertility; and
Strengthening mechanisms for cooperation and collaboration between development partners.
54. It is possible for donors and governments to establish a sustainable framework for effective collaboration on the ground. This convergence of purpose has to be based on a very clear understanding regarding mutual roles and responsibilities.
(e) Guinea: Livestock rehabilitation project11 Context of the project
55. The livestock sector rehabilitation project, operational from 1986 through 1995, was seen as essential in facilitating the new government's implementation of its economic strategy when it came to office in 1984.
Previous government policy had required that 10 percent of all herds be sold at a fixed price through the State cattle marketing agency, ENCOBE. This caused many herders to emigrate and hide their animals in forests or outside the country. In addition, poor animal health represented a severe constraint to agricultural productivity and growth on which approximately 30 per cent of the country's rural population (160,000 families) depended.
56. All the livestock sector reforms took place within the context of a major overhaul of the National Livestock Directorate. As a condition of credit effectiveness for World Bank assistance and in line with the government's new macroeconomic policies, the National Livestock Directorate staff were reduced by two-thirds and some 1,200 employees were laid off. Those remaining were required to re-qualify for their positions through training in other countries.
57. The project had three macro-components. These included (a) support for the privatization of the livestock service through the establishment of herders' associations; the creation of a veterinary input supply center (CABET, Centre d'approvisionnement veterinairel for the production, purchase, and distribution and sale of livestock inputs, and the provision of a pilot credit component to establish private veterinary practices, animal production farms, herders' associations, and system of distribution of livestock inputs;(b) strengthening of the National Livestock Directorate (DNE); and (c) provision of technical assistance and training. The visible impact on the ground was as follows: -
The most significant achievement was the creation of 240 herders' associations and the training of more than 1,000 veterinary auxiliaries, the majority of whom belonged to herders' families.
Another important achievement was the restoration of trust between the government and the large number of herders who had' fled the country during the previous regime. More than 600,000 head of cattle are estimated to have returned as a result of the government's new liberalization policy. The census revealed a 66.8 percent increase in bovines and an 8.9 per cent increase in herders over the 1988-95 period.
Best Practice. Infobricf: Findings, Africa Region, No. 31. August 1998.
Improvement in the country's general socio-political conditions also resulted in the liberalization of cattle marketing and more reliable livestock data.
The training program helped promote a better understanding of the problems affecting livestock and gave a certain amount of autonomy to the herders to carry out some of the animal health programs such as vaccinations, drenching and animal disease prevention. Technical assistance was an essential component, particularly the lessons learned and expertise transferred from the Central African Republic where a similar livestock project had been successfully implemented.
A symbol of the project's success and a reflection of the strength of ownership was the development of a national livestock fair by the herders, which has attracted participants from around the country and received extensive press coverage.
Restructuring and trimming of the DNE has resulted in a more committed work force.
Lessons learned
58. The project reflected the development gains possible through the government's genuine commitment to its reform objectives and a good working relationship between the borrower and co-financiers. Joint supervision missions were carried out with the participation of a number of donors and non-governmental organizations.
59. An important component for success was the development of ownership by stakeholder groups. Because the project was focused on livestock, the herders' organizations and the government agency responsible for implementation, along with the veterinarians, were able to build on common interests.
({) African Nutrition Database Initiative
Context of the initiative
60. The African Nutrition Database Initiative (ANDI) started in April 1997 as a collaborative inter-agency effort to create a common, low-cost database regularly updated with data coming from databases managed by different agencies. While the World Bank's Africa Nutrition and Food Security Affinity Group has been its main promoter, the United Nations Administrative Committee on Coordination/Subcommittee on Nutrition (ACC/SCN) is coordinating the participating agencies including the World Health Organization, the Food and Agriculture Organization, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and the United Nations Development Program.
61. The initiative's primary objective is to facilitate quick access to good quality nutrition data for African countries. Apart from designing and implementing a new approach in data sharing among UN Agencies, it is also contributing to the Food Insecurity and Vulnerability Mapping System (FIVIMS) coordinated by the Food and Agriculture Organization. Its impact was as follows:
A standardized nutrition database accessible through the World Bank's Africa Region Webster;
Improved data leading to better project design and quality - the reference databases for each indicator will be controlled for quality by sector specialists, and by generalists, as has largely been the case; and
Elimination of inconsistencies between databases, even in the
same agency.
Lessons learned
62. Data quality varies considerably even within the same technical agency.
Clear guidelines should be agreed on as to what data should be considered acceptable and which agency should be responsible for providing indicators according to these guidelines.
63. The 'non-technical' issues have caused more problems than the technical ones. Some agencies are unwilling to share their data or to implement minor modifications to their databases to ensure data quality and comparability.
64. More initiatives of this kind are needed to improve data sharing and the data quality of health and population indicators.
65. The focus of ANDI should shift towards the countries themselves and this will be done by expanding and disaggregating the initiatives to country- based nutrition information systems.
2.3 Better Stewardship of the Environment
(cD Natural resources management: The Sahelian operational review
(SOR)12
The context of natural resources management
66. The Sahelian operational review (SOR) is a Bank-managed activity funded by the government of Norway that has been in existence since 1990.
Best Practice, Infobrief: Findings. Africa Region. No. 25, February 1998.
■ 17
The objectives of the program were to accelerate the application of operational lessons from natural resources management projects and to seek better information to improve environmental monitoring and reporting systems for such projects in the Sahel.
Lessons learned
(i) Environmental policy and monitoring
67. A well-researched strategy paper is a good basis for the development of a national plan. In Niger, the World Bank's Country Environmental Strategy Paper (CESP) served well as a starting point for the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP), developed in partnership with the government.
68. Financial resources are needed to expand opportunities for more public consultation and discussion while developing environmental policy.
69. Environmental database development in Senegal shows that there is a need for long-term technical and institutional support if environmental monitoring is going to be operational.
(ii) Dryland management
70. There is a need for a 'new' approach signified by a more profound understanding of the rationality of traditional practices, greater reliance on local community institutions such as pastoral associations, more open- ended and flexible programs, greater participation of all stakeholders in shaping the interventions, and the provision of an enabling economic environment that provides market-driven incentives for change.
71. Views differ about the degree to which outside technology and assistance can actually improve upon traditional practices.
(iii) Community-based natural resources management
72. Community involvement raises the chances of success and decentralization of responsibility is critical. There is an important role for government in providing information and training to local communities.
73. The study on park fees in Tanzania concluded that tourists could be willing to pay more for access to the parks. In fact, fees could be raised to almost double the present revenue.
74. An analysis of different benefit distribution schemes to reward local communities indicated a preference for community development projects as opposed to cash benefits.
(iv) Water management
75. Scarce water resources can be saved by incorporating water management into road construction as illustrated in Burkina Faso.
76. There is a need to emphasize the appropriate use of incentives and user involvement in water management.
(v) Forest management
77. Positive results can be achieved if governments are willing to unleash the creativity of the private sector to make use of forests and forest-related products.
(vi) Fire management
78. Current legislation banning burning is not only unenforceable, but also inappropriate and should be replaced by a policy of controlled burning in most areas.
(b) Institutional environment assessment in Sao Tome and Principe13 Context of the assessment
79. The institutional environment assessment (IEA) carried out in Sao Tome and Principe in October-November 1996 sought to assist the government in identifying the root causes of the country's poor economic performance and in formulating strategies to address them. It was a self- diagnostic exercise based on the active participation of local stakeholders so as to foster ownership of the follow-up reforms. It entailed comprehensive data collection and analysis through field reviews (by three working groups focusing on technical, administrative and structural problems respectively);
desk reviews of relevant consultant reports and economic and sector work;
and a survey of governance and indigenous institutions impacting on economic management. A ~ 4-day assessment workshop was held to synthesize, analyze and prioritize the information gathered, and to map out future strategy. Follow-up workshops are being held to formulate an implementation plan and apportion responsibilities between implementing agencies. Its impact on the ground was as follows:-
- All the key stakeholder groups participated in one or more activities of the IEA exercise, including civil society organizations, members of the parliamentary opposition, donor organizations, NGOs, the private sector and the media;
The exercise received wide coverage in the press and on national radio and television;
13Best Practice. Infobricf: Findings, Africa Region. No. 15. April 1997.
The assessment workshop provided a forum for a thorough analysis of the major causes of poor economic management;
Workshop participants were, through debate and dialogue, able to reach agreement on the causes of poor economic management as well as on the obstacles that had hitherto hampered efforts to address them;
Through a weighting process, the relative importance of the different impediments to sound economic policy was determined thus facilitating the prioritization of next steps;
The workshop culminated in draft strategic action plans targeting the various problems identified, which were disseminated to a larger cross-section of civil society for comments/validation thereby ensuring wider participation in reform and government accountability;
The IEA will feed into country assistance strategy and public expenditure review discussion, as well as into the upcoming national long-term perspective study and public administration reform efforts.
The IEA is an appropriate instrument for identifying the major institutional causes of economic under-performance.
The involvement of all the key stakeholders was a positive and strategic move. In many cases, it would be these stakeholders who would ensure follow-up on measures agreed, thus making government more accountable.
The participatory IEA exercise also succeeded in uniting feuding factions and made them set economic and public administration reform above party differences.
(c) Natural resources management14 Context of natural resource management
80. Participatory, community-based NRM projects have been implemented over the last 5 to 6 years in Benin, Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger with the support of France, Germany, Norway, the USA, and the World Bank's IDA facility. Furthermore, pilot operations concentrating on specific NRM issues are underway in Chad (pastoral perimeters) and Guinea (land tenure security). Since 70 - 90 per cent of the land in these countries is collectively
14 Best Practice. Infobricf: Findincs. Africa Region No. 8. Scntcmbcr 1996.
owned, such projects are in fact trying to reinforce common property- management systems with the dual objective of alleviating poverty and improving the management of (crop) land, water, pasture and forest resources. The impact of this was as follows:
Under NRM projects, local communities have rehabilitated village land through soil and water conservation measures (Burkina Faso and Mali), improved management of pasture (Chad), and forests resources (in Niger and in Houet and Bougouriba in Burkina Faso). Hundreds of thousands of hectares of agro-pastoral areas, savanna woodlands and grasslands which were formerly degraded by 'open access1 regimes are now being regenerated under effective common property management systems.
Community-based NRM projects have helped to resolve land-use conflicts, both between farmers and herders within the community and between communities and outsiders. In Chad, for example, community-level decisions on livestock rotation have reduced the need for crop protection, and in Mali, local communities have been able to agree on the boundaries of their territory ('terrier') with neighboring communities; and have negotiated with transhuman pastoralists where livestock trails should be established.
NRM projects have a potential not only for improving the management of collectively owned lands, but also of government-owned resources. For instance, in Burkina Faso and in Mali, local community involvement in biodiversity conservation in gazetted forests has led to a remarkable improvement in their management.
Lessons learned
81. With the proper institutional environment, rural communities can bring bottom-up solutions to land tenure and other natural resource management problems.
82. Governments should allow for innovative legal and regulatory measures suggested by local resource users to be tested in selected areas before proceeding to larger-scale implementation.
83. Rather than heavy-handed state intervention, improved NRM requires governments to recognize and if necessary help enforce locally designed solutions e.g., where governments gave officially acknowledged locally agreed boundaries between communities, land tenure security has improved.
84. Successful local-level management of natural resources necessitates investment in community-level capacity building and empowerment in the
areas of organization financial and natural resource management.
Experience shows that this usually requires more time than is allowed for donor-supported projects.
85. While community-based NRM must eventually become integrated into the key line agencies (agriculture, livestock, forestry, etc.), a dynamic national program is necessary to facilitate the initial spread of the participatory methodologies involved, and their progressive adaptation to local circumstances.
(d) Ghana: Building local capacity for integrated coastal zone management13
Context of coastal zone management
86. During 1996 and 1997, a series of Bank-assisted workshops were held under the auspices of the Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana. They intended to (a) raise awareness among coastal communities of the need for better management of the marine and coastal ecosystem; (b) identify the priority needs of coastal communities; (c) identify appropriate, cost-effective interventions for addressing these needs; (d) raise awareness with regard to ongoing initiatives to support such interventions; and (e) assist coastal communities in the design of appropriate small-scale initiatives. The impact on the ground was as follows:
High degree of ownership for the initiative was developed at the local level through a participatory approach that emphasized capacity-building at the local level using participatory approach.
The workshops served to increase awareness with regard to the range of initiatives available to support the needs of communities in terms of access to basic services such as sanitation and water supply, through IDA-funded or other donor-assisted programs.
The strong linkages between marine and coastal resource degradation and poor income and health levels of coastal communities became clearer to the communities.
Communities recognized the need for better mobilization on the ground, for increased ownership, accountability, monitoring and supervision, for successful implementation of local initiatives.
Increased collaboration among local entities, whether public, traditional or private, was seen as vital to managing the marine and coastal resource base.
Prar-tir*» Tnfnhnpf PinWinoc Africa Rpninn Wn 07 Anrll 1 OOQ
Lessons learned
87. Lack of education, awareness, requisite skills and/or motivation to access and manage development assistance: In many coastal communities, there is a significant-lack of awareness of ongoing initiatives that aim to address some of the priority problems. Where there is no awareness, requisite skills to access development assistance are not developed. This is a serious constraint to community development interventions.
88. Costs associated with participatory process: Raising awareness and building ownership for initiatives through an intensive participatory process requires a considerable amount of time and perseverance. Participatory processes are costly to the community as well. The time spent on discussion is time taken away from productive activities. The community needs to be convinced that it is worth their while to engage in consultative processes that may not always result in improvement in their conditions.
89. Need for simplified procedures in accessing funds or services:
Participants often complained that the procedures involved in accessing targeted funds or services are so complicated that they no longer tried to access these services.
90. Lack of awareness of "win-win" projects: Communities generally did not have exposure to "win-win" types of projects that would improve their socioeconomic conditions while protecting and conserving the marine and coastal ecosystem. There is a critical need for dissemination of such experiences, particularly of projects where a proven track record is available.
The workshops were important in disseminating this type of information.
91. Need for leadership: In some countries, there was a noticeable lack of motivated individuals with the entrepreneurial spirit capable of initiating the planning, organization, monitoring and supervision required for implementing local-level initiatives. An opportunity exists for local NGOs to adapt such communities -that lack leadership and promote an entrepreneurial spirit amongst them.
92. Increased collaboration at the local level is key: Good working relationships between district assemblies, traditional rulers and other local entities are ess.ential for successful implementation of local-level initiatives in integrated coastal management.
2.4. Technology Transfer
From Bangladesh to Zambia: Technology transfer in small-scale irrigation16
Context of the situation
93. Human-powered pumps for small-scale irrigation can be an important tool for farmers in developing countries such as those in Africa where rainfall is often erratic and financial resources are severely limited. Under the programme concerning the use of experts for Technical Co-operation Among Developing Countries and Countries in Transition, a treadle pump expert from International Development Enterprises (IDE) in Bangladesh visited Zambia as part of FAO's Special Programme for Food Security (SPFS).
The IDE is a non-governmental organization that specializes in small-scale irrigation techniques.
94. In Zambia, water is simply drawn by bucket from ponds and shallow waterholes and carried to gardens in dambos or low-lying land near the water sources. This approach is very labour-intensive and also contributes to the deepening of waterholes. Appropriate, low-cost irrigation techniques have the potential to increase substantially the benefits of these small gardens.
Lessons learned
95. The Bangladesh treadle pump introduced in Zambia was received by the farmers with enthusiasm because of the volume of water it could pump and the ease and speed with which it could be installed by the farmers and extension workers.
96. At Mungu Camp Kafue, one of the pilot areas, interviews were conducted with local farmers who stated that earlier they had had enough water, but lacked appropriate water-lifting devices. The treadle pump resolved this problem. One farmer confirmed that he had made a substantial amount of money from the sale of his cash crop of only one season, showing the potential for increased earnings if farmers used low-cost irrigation pumps.
There are plans to manufacture the pumps locally.
16 FAfl Pirlnnrchin in irlmn XTn 1 1 OOG
