John's STUDENT

STUDENT AND FACULTY READINESS FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION

by

Irene Doyle Barry,B.N.

A paper folio submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree of Master of Education

Faculty of Education Memorial University of Newfoundland

August 1999

51. John's Newfoundland

Abstract

Asdistance education enters the mainstream of higher learning, educators must not only adapt to changing technology but must also recognize and promote it as a quality alternative to traditional classroom learning Outcome measurement including academic achievement and student satisfadion supportstheexpanding role of distance education as a viable and rewa rding choice for learners.This paper folio explores student readiness for distance education and the importanceoffaculty preparation and support, typical characteristicsoftOday's distance leamer,as well as distance education's unique fulfillmentofadult learning theories.Becauseofthe distinctive characteristics of the province as well as a superlative access to the newest technological advances,institutions delivering the Bachelor of Nursing Collaborative Program in Newfoundland and labrador are well placed to offer a world-class distance education program.Distance education is envisionedas an agent forch~nge,expansion, and diversity in the nursing program, particularlyas it responds to the educational needsofadultleamers.

AcknOwledgements

I wish to acknowledge the encouragement and supportofa numberof people in the completionofthis paper folio.

My appreciation is extended to Ms.Marilyn Thompson,my faculty adviser, forher many insightfulrecommendationsthroughout the progressionofthe paper.

Manythanks as well tomycolleagues at the Centre for Nursing Studies fortheir ongoing encouragement.

Iwish to thank my dear friend and neighbour,Janice Winsor,for her generous assistance.

I am gratefulto my husband,Wayne,and our children,David and Susan, fortheirunderstanding each day I left them to workat the library.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction Me thodolog y

StudentReadine sstOt'DistanceLeaming

TheAdvantagesand Disadvantagesof Distance EducatKln...

ProfileoftheAdultDistanceLeamer

TheoriesofAdultEducationand AdultDistanceEducation TheConceptof Readine ss..

Re se archofStudent Fadorsand Cond itionsThatAffect Readine ssforDistanceEducation

Oemog ra ph tcfact ors....

Studentattitude s Locusofcontrol.

... 1

...4

.. ... e

...8 11 13 ...17

...20

. 21

22

..._ 23

Per sona lityCharacteri stics 23

Stud y habits.. . 27

Enrollmentmotivat ion. . 29

Potent ialconstra ints 30

Summary.. . . 31

Faculty Preparationfor DistanceTeaching.

iii

. 35

The NeedfO(FaQJlty Development Programs . 37 LeamingNeedsofDistance Education Professionals 41 FacultyDevelopmentPrograms and TheirBenefits.. . 46

Faculty attitudes . 48

Teacher effectivene ss . 49

Eleme nts of8Successful Faculty DevelopmentProgram.. . 52 Institutional SupportforFaculty ParticipatiOninDistanceEducation 55

Summary . 60

StudentOutcome sofDistanceEdueation.. . 63

TheNeedfOf'Evaluat ioninDistanceEducation.. . 64

ResearchonLearningOutcomes . 67

Oneortwo-way audioand videoinstruction 67

Computer-basedinstruct ion .74

ResearchonStudent Attitude s about Distance Learning 78

Summa ry 83

Conclusion.. . 86

Referen ce s . 99

lv

The number of adultspursuingacademicprogramsisgrowinginrecord numbers.Accordingto StatisbcsCanada(1997),in 1993-94 adultsaged25 and overmade up approximately67% ofall college students,25%ofaUfull-time universitystudents,andthevastmajorityofthepart-time studentbody.Since 1972,theirpresence at universitieshasinaeasedat more thantwicethe ratefor those under25 (St atisticsCanada,1997).Onepowerfuldemograph ic influence isthat ofthe"BabyBoom"population(those bam between1946 and 1964 ) who tend to show a strongdesire for continuedleami ng whether itbeforimproved workenvironmentsorto keep abreastof the rapi dlychangingworld.Amore recent demographicforceinvol vesChildren of theBabyBoomerswhoarepast age25and cocceetoremainin school or toretumto schoollike their parents.

Meniam& Caffarella (1991 )accountedfor thistrendby highlight ingthe impactofouraging population,alarger number of adultsthan youth,andthe increased educationallevet of leday's &dutts (a strong predictorof participatton in continuing education).MacNeil(1986)pointed10the effect oftOday's

inform ation ageonlifelong Ieamingwhichrequires upgrading of knowledge and

skills10 keep pace withmodem workplace demand s.Shoemaker(1998)also emphasizedthatrapid technological Chang es arecompellingadullstoenhance theircareers throughformaleducali on program s.Aswell, with severalcareer Changespred ictedforworkingadultsintOday' ssociety,retum ingtoschool"is

becoming a must and not an option" (p. 5).Regardlessofthe reasons for this growing trend, the education of adults has now assumed a significant rolein society,and enrollment is expected to continue increasing (Cantelon,1995).

Higher education institutions are responding to the demographic and technological changes that are resulting in growing numbersofadult leamers.

With a declining enrollmentofyounger students,aged18 to 25,universities and colleges are placing an emphasis on designingnewprograms and services to meet the learning needs of the rapidly growing adult student population.The missionof many modem universities and colleges includes providing high quality,relevant courses thatreachoutto these non·traditional learners.

empowering them to keep pace with change both in their careers and in their personal lives.AsShoemaker (1998) pointedout,by placing such emphasis on lifelong learning opportunitiesfor the adult community,the institutionbenefits by eJctendingits reputation and credibility,gaining an additional link to societyand enhancing its service to the community.

In particular, the expansion of distance education courses and programs intoday's universities and colleges has opened doors for many adults who have a desireor a need to pursue academic education but are unable to anend on- campus courses.By embracing the benefits of technology in developing distanceprograms in the past decade, administrators and educators inthe field have made huge stridesin improving the quality,quantity.status,and influence ofdistance education.Keegan (1996) pointed out that as a result,distance

programm ingnowplays a newandaucial role as a complement to SChOOlsand univers itiesto accommodatetheinaeasingnumbersoflearners.

Ithas beenpredict edamong advocates of distancelearningthat witl"lthe advanced technologyavailable todaytodelivereducatiOn~msbydistance, thetraditional stnJcture of universitieswillbecomeunnecessary as student sopt fortheconvenience of learning at home orintheworkplace.Futuristslike Dolenceand Nom s(199 5)envisioned a transformationin highereducation whereby students

enccse

from an array of courses ava ilab leattheir location, work independentlyattheirownpace,and completethe coursesnot by semester but whenenough leam ing has occurred to apply thatknowledge direct lyor to future learning.Honegger (1996)pointedoutthat fullsupport for distance educationisstalled by many administrator sand educators in higher education becauseof an unwarranted fear that itwi'llwipeouttraditiona lcampus educa tion.But.in viewoftherapidimprovementsinthefieldthroug htoday's technology.HoneggerenvisioneddistanceedueatiOnin thefuhxenotasa replace mentfortraditional learning butequally balancedwithitto meetthe

increasing demandsfOf"educatiOnamongadults.

Thepredidedburgeoning in distancehighereducation in thenew millenn iumhas majorimpli cat ionsforthoseinvolvedin program design,delivery, and evaluation.In meetingthe growing demand for new and improved course offerings,distance educatorswillbechallenged to ensure program effectiveness and a successful,satisfyinglearner experience.

It is vitalthat,besides choosing among the many technOlogies and other appropriate instructional materials to deliver distance programs,elements of studentlearning,such as individual backgrounds,needs, characteristics, and interests,beintegrated in the planning of theseneweducational delivery systems.There is little doubt that the ultimate goal of education,whether itbe bytraditional or non-traditional methOds,is to facilitate and support students in their learning.AsHolmberg(1995) stressed,itis"any educator's most important task" and,thus,the main focus in planning and delivering education(p. 32).

The application of the principlesoflearning at a distance are no different from thei r application bythetraditional methOd.Distance students,like their on- campuscounterparts, mustbeactive leamers.Insteadof passively receiving informationfromtheteacher,students must actively interpret content,connect it withalready acquired knowledge, and fit it to existingcognitive structures (Schuemer, 199 3).Distance educators and conventionaleducators alike are, therefore,conce rned with the same psychological mechanisms through which the leamer perceives,assimilates,stores,and retrieves infonnation.

Student leaming in the distance settingis the theme chosen for this paper folio.Through a reviewofthe literature,the authorwillexplore specific topics in adult distance education:(a) student readiness,(b)facuttypreparation,and (c) studentoutcomes.Although these topicswiltaddress three diverse aspects of

Ihe distance learning experience,they are similar in that they are each relevant 10 endeavours that aim at promoting and enhancing student learning

The first paper addresses student readiness and examines,through relevant research,the characteristics and conditions about the learner that are shown to prepare him or her for the distance leaming experience. It seems reasonable to assume that adultlearners(whousually are fUlfilling multiple roles)experience difficulty incopingwith the demands placed upon them academically.Ifso,then adult leamerswhochoose to pursue the same courses at a physical distance from the teacher must experience additional difficulties.

Adjusting to self·paced.independent leaming,using technology to replace the classroom experience,and having minimal contact with the teacher requires a great deal of seft-crecipnne and self-direction.This author presents an account of those learner charaderistics identified in the literature as being necessary for asucce ssfu l.satisfying.distance learning experience.

It is evident in the literature that although distance education uses methods and technologies that are unfamiliar to most conventionalteachers, faculty are often encouraged to move theirclassroom courses to a distance formatwithout prior training.AsCyrs(1997) stressed,"institutions that perpetuate this attitude and do not provide training for distance learning instructors will notsurvivein the growing student consumer market"(p_ 15).

Faculty preparation, the topic chosen for the second paper, focuses on the critica l role of the teacher in Ihe distance leaming process.More specifically,

thispaperaddresses the special challenges c:ontrontedbythose teaetling at a distance and the impOrtancedongoingprofessional development programs for theminorderto learn thenewskillsofdistance methOdOlog ies.Basedonthe nteranee,theelementsofprofessionaldevelopment programsnecessary to enhanceteachereffectivenessare discussed.

The finalpaper provides 8 reviewoftheliterature onlearner outcomes of dista nceeducation.Because the aimof teaetlingis undoubtedly to help student slearn,educators areparticularlyinterested in 8\laluating the process of student learningrather than other aspects of evaluation,such as the effect ivenessofteaching methoc:lologies.In view of the growing variety of distance deliverysystems,distanceeducators today are especiallyinterestedin examin inghowwellstudent s have leamed as a resultof those unconventional

learningexperience s. Theauthorpresents researchfind ing sofstudent

academic achieve me nt in distanceeducationandhow'these outcomes compare with theoutcome sofconvent iona lstudents.Inaddition,research is discussed that focuse s on students'feeling s,attitudes,andopinions ofdis tanceeducation

Thistypeofdataservestoenlighten educatorsaboutthefundamental question of the effectivenessof distance educationinhelping studen ts to learn.

The purposeofthispaper foliois to highlight the significantrole of distanceeducation as aviable educational optionin the baccalaureate nursing program in Newfoundland and Labrador.Anincreasing numberofstudents enrolling in thisnewprogram are adults who are fulfilling various other roles

while pursuing their education. For these students, the vast majority ofwhom are women, the economics of travel and accommodations, the responsibilities of home and children, and theneed forcontinual income pose obstacles if they must attend on-site classes throughout their program of study.

Nurse educators here,as around the world,are challenged to provide an education program that is flexible,accessible, and adaptable to students'diverse educational needs.Distance education responds effectively because it reduces many of the barriers to adult learners'participation.By facilitating self-directed reaming in off-campus settings,distance education allows these non-traditional studentsto more easily balance the combination of study with work and family life.Through the use of today's sophisticated telecommunications technologies to deliverdistance instruction,nursing education in this province canbe expanded without compromisingtheeducational integrityofthe courses.

P _,

Student ReadinessforDistance learning

Distanceeducationis playinganincre asingl yimport ant rolein academic prog ramsthroughout the wor1d.Student~ingat8distanceis at theheartof thisgrow;ngfield.Toprovideoptimalleaming opportlXlitiesfor every student whoenrollsis theulti ma te goal of programdesignersand educator s alike.This first pape rexamine s one aspect of student learn ing:thatof thestudent conditions or charact er istics that foretellreadiness for distance educa tion.

Ttvoughareviewoftheliterature,severalcognitive,demographic,and psychologi cal fadorsthatcontribute toreadinessfor success andsatisfaction withthe distanceleaming experienceare examined.

TheAdyantage sand Qisadvantagesof DistanceEducation

The rapidgrowthofadultdistance educationinthepast decadespursan examinationoftheattractiveteansesofthis virtu allylM'1familiar learning envirorment.Itseems thatthemostobvtous advantageofdistanceeducation foradultswhotencrtoholdmanyrolesisitseee•••lb lll ty.Thisfeat ure makesit par1iCUlar1yattractiveforadults 'Nhose family.professional,and social commitments makeit impos sibleto aUend on-siteclasses.Distancereamers areafforded the opport unityto determinewherethey willreceiv e instruct ionand

when they will learn.This independent learning structure allows individual students to learn for themselves and by themselves,when it is most convenient, but is seldom encountered in traditional instruction(Stewart.1981).

Willis (1994) pointed to the social equity that is promoted by distance education.Students in remote areas can receive instructionwhich previously was available only in urban or more populated areas.By offering instructional alternatives,these crt-campus programs open

coo-s

to adults such as mothers working at home,the physically challenged,and older adults who may otherwise be deniedthe opportunity to participate in higher education.

Its claimed economic benefits make the distance format a viableoption to pursuinguniversity education.Savings in the cost of housingand transportation. usuallyincurred for on-site classes,makes distance education attractive tomany students (Willis.1994).Institutionswhose enrollmentis decliningfor on-campus studentscan increase enrollment through distance learning programs while avoiding the expenseofconstruction and maintenance costsof facilitiesto deliversuch programs(Cantelon,1995).

A fourth attractivefeature of distance education is the relative anonymity and privacy it allows learners in their learning efforts.Ohler (1989) explained thatthe chanceto operate outside of the educational mainstreamis what attracts some learners and contributes to their success.For these students the ideaof beingin a traditional classroom face to face with the instructor and other students may be very disconcerting. Studentswhofeel humiliated by pressure

10

tospeakoutin a dassroom settingcan,more comfortably,contributetogroup discus sionin an asynchronous environ ment often viatedVlology.Studentswho prefernotto share their progre$$ orfail...-ein learning withpeersareles s press ....edtodosoin a distancestructurethanin a Classroom.

Yetanotheradvantage,reoognizedbyCante lon (1995)and Stewart (198 1 ),isthefrHdom fromtheInft. .i~.Jecture.typeInstruction commoni., tradition al Classrooms,a formatthatcan stiflelearners'individualgoalS,leam ing needs,or interests.In the distance setting,theleameris notboundbythe leamingpattem ofthegro up but,instead,may freely choose to omitcontent that is familiar and learn the necessary content at hi5lherownpace ttvough reading or oth er methOds

Although distanceeducation has greatpotentialto serve as an equal partnerwithtrad itiOnaleducationfor the expanding adultmarket,it is no t without disadvantages.Themaindifferencebetweenconvent iona l and distance educationconcerns theinteractionbetweentheteacher andthelearne r

(Keegan,1996).Despi tedramaticimprovements over thepastdecade,

int erpersona l commun ieat ion,a vitalcomponentofeffective learn ing, may stillbe compromisedforthedistanceIeamer.The learner may facesuchobstacles as nospo ken language,absenceofnon-verbalcorrmunication,absenceof a feedback process,delayed reinforcement.lackofcommunication with fellow stude n ts, as well as non-cognitive factors like lackofpeer support,loneliness, anxiety,and uncertainty.

11

However,some recent writersof distanceedueationgreatly downplay the signifICance of these compromises.Writer-slike Cantelon(199 5) praised distance education

8.

aneffedivemethodfortoday.adultlearners.The geographi c distanceonce recognized as a drawbaCktolearni ng hasbeen elimina t ed, Cantelonsta ted,by""thecyberspac:eofelectroni c networking"(p.9).

As are sult, physicaldistancetodayis noh.xtherawaythanone'scomputer screen(Cantelon . 1995).Still.gurusin distance educationlike Willis (1994) and Keegan(1996 ) stressed that developing strategiestoimpr o ve sludent·leacher interact ion in this non-ccrwenncnateducationalsettingis an ongoing endeavour.

Profileof the AdultDistanceLeamer

Demographiccharacterist icsof the adultdistance learne r do notdiffer significanUy fromthoseoftheadultlearnerwhOparticipatesin oo-sitecourse s.

Firstintrod ucedbyJohnstoneand Rivera inthe1960s andChangedverylittle since tha ttime,theprofi leofadultleafT'l8($suggests thatthey:aremoreoften women than men(approximately 55%);typteallyunder40 years of age;have compl eted some prior post-secondaryeducation;etiOYan above-average

income;are employedfulltime,mostoftenin while collaroec:upations;are

married and have children;and jive in anurbanarea (Merriam& Caffarella, 1991).

In a study of distance education graduates from Alberta'sAthabaska Universitybetween 1985 and 1990,womenwho were 25 to 45 years old made

12 up65% ofthedistancelearning students.Mostparticipantslived in uroan rather than rura l areas(70%),and 73% of enrolled studentshadpreviouspost- secondary educatiOn.AJJwell,an overwhelming95%ofthese distancestudents studiedparttime (Owen & HotChkis,1991).

A similarstudyconducIed partly totdentifythedemographic charact erist ics of studentsenrol~in RyersonPolytechnteal Institut e'sOpen College inOnta riorevea led that these dista nce college students were predominantlyfemale (77.9%).Approximately 46% of the students were betweenthe ages of31 and46years ,58% were married,and 51%hadno dependent children.Approximatelytwo-thirds oftheseOpenCollegestude nts had eithergraduated fromuniversity orhadpreviousuniversityexperience. Sixty-sevenpercentofthestudentslived within50 milesofthe OpenCollege.

83%were emplo yedoutsidethehome,and 62.2%were empfoyed onafun-l ime basis (Robi nson.1992).

Holmberg(1995),whOhas written extensive lyon distance education, pointedoutthatdespite commonaltieslike these,adultdistanceieeme-s eamol beconsi der ed an homogenousgroup.Theirdiversecharacteristics ,needs,and

interests makethemindividuallyuniquedespite the sim ilaritiesident ified through

resea rch.

Althoughthedemograph ics ofbothgroups have changedlittleoverthe pastfewdecades,recentresearch findingssugges t that thedemograph icsof distancelearner s maybeChanging.Aftera decade in which distancestudent

13 enrollment quadrupledata western CanadianUniversi ty,a studyof demOgraphic characteristicswasconductedto investigatethereasonswhy

"historicallyatyparstudentswereenrolling inindependentstudy (Wallace, 1996,p.1).Find ingsrevealedthatthisstudentpopulation has shiftedtowa rd young student sliving cJosertotheuniversity with full-timecourse loads comprising both distanceand on-eampus courses.The meanageof these studentsdroppedsteadilyfrom 32 yearsof age in 1983-84 to 26 years ofagein 1994·95,andthe percentage of students under26 years old more than doubled.

As well,the percentage of students living close to the university (inthesame city)and taking at least one on-eampus course more than doubled in the ten- year periOd.The main reason givenfor purSUing distanceleaming instead of on-sit ecourse s wasworkconvnitments.Students were atVadedtoindependent study becauseit allowScontrolofthetime.place,andpace ofle arning.These findings haveimport antimplication s for thefield of distanceeducationinthatthe

long-held assumpt ion thatdistanceleamersare part-timeaduh studentsmaybe

chan ging (Wallace,1996).

TheoriesofAduhEduca tionandAdultDistance Edueatioo

The teachingofadult sisrecognized goingback 10thetime of Plato and Socrates.However,it wasnot until the1920sand1930sthat educators began to realize that different methods were needed to teach adults than those used for teachi n g children.

14 Inthe 1950s.C.O.Hou le (196 1)id entifi edUvee typesof adul tleamen.

Theyincluded(a>goaJ<ll'ientedle arnerswhOuse leam ingto reachaspecifIC goal SUChasadvanci ng8 career,(b)adivity -ori ented learners whOsemotivation toparticipateisderlvedfrom the soci alcontactortheactivity itself,and (e)

leaming -orientedlearnerswhopurs uefurthereducationsimplytogrow through

additional knowiedge.Houle'sresearch providesaframework ofindividual learner motiv e s.

Two decadeslater,in 19 73.Malcolm Knowlesintroduced thefirst framework for teaChingadults in hiswell·known andragogytheory.Knowles' (1984) theory placed empha si son the important roleof the learners'past experiences innewleam ing,the self-d irectednatureof adult learners,and their intri nsi cdrive andreadinessthat stemsfroma desire to impro ve thei rcurrent job orlife situations.Knowles'approach, addressedinhis book,!heAdultLearner ANeglected Speties,continuestoinspire and guideresearcherSand designers ofadultlearningactivities.

Cross(1981) alsofocused onthenotion that adults areindependentand thus self-direding.Shedesaibedadu lt learnersintermsof their(8)personal characteristics,SUChas theirphySica l,psychological,andSOCioCultlSal dimensions,and(b) situat ional cnerectenstes.suchasfullorpart·time learners, voluntary or compulsorylea rne rs.Cross,like Knowles,focused on id entifyi ng howadults'leaming situations are sharply different from children'slearning situations. Particularl y,thi sisa resultof physiol ogicbody changes, the stag e s

15 ofego and personality development,andthe phasesofthelifecyclein our sode ty.Sheindudedinher theory thatadult learners are typicallypart-time

learners,and thusare usually VOlunteers,addingthe roleoflearnerto their

manyotherimporta nt roles.

These theories,althoughcritictzedfor failing toprovideacomprehensive framework by whtd'lto teach adutts,continueto as s ist educalcn to better understand this comple x.rapidlygrowing studentgroup and toplanappropriate learn in g adivities.Theadult learnerwhochooses topursue leam ing at a distance differ s verylittlefromtheadultwho attendsclassesattheinstit uti on.

AsMoor e (1992)comme nted,itisobviousthat adultdistanceeduca tionbe inform edby the theories andresearchof learning inadu lthood.Adult distance educa ti on differs,however,from conventionaleducationinthatthedistance leami ng envirorvnent is physicallyseparatedfromtheteacher.The result ing differ ence sininterpe r sona l communiCationbetweenteacherandlearners dema nd that learnersbemotivated,self-clirected.andindependentin their learning endeavours.Thetheories of distanceeducationaddress thesefactors.

Wedemeyer(198 1),in the 19505.developed a theofyfor learnersin distance education under the umbrellaofaut onomy.He proposed thatdistance prog ra ms shouldallowthe learnertoproceedthrough the program at a pace that meets hislherindividualcircumstances.He concludedthat courseselecti on shouldbeindivi dualized,and learnersshouldbeable toset appropriate,

individualgoals and strateg ie s with freedom.Theins tructor,hefelt,shouldbe

16

respons ib leforenco.saginglearner autonomy with a viewto developingaself~

directed le amer.

Moore.intheearty19 70$.developeda theoretical basisfor distance educati onthatalso stressed learnerautonomy.Hefeltthatinordertopromote

ind epend ent Ieaming,distanceprogramsshouldbelearner autonomous.The

choosing ofleam lng activities.thereSOlXCeS to use,hOwtopac:etheleam ing, and the methods of evaluationshouldbeleftsolelyto the learner.Asecond dimensionofMoore'slhecHyconcerned"apartness"or distance.Viewi ng

"apartness"asa function ofdialog ue andstructure,Moorestressedthe importanceof ongoing, effe ct ivetwo-waycommunication(dia log ue) andaloose structure thatallows the teachertheflexibility torespond to the leerrer's individual needs,goals.progress,and achievements (Moor e.1992).

Well-knownSwedishwfiter and researd"lerofdistanceeducation .Borje Holmberg(199 5),developedthe theoryof guideddidacticconversation.

Holmberg's theoreticalpoSition . hkethatof Moore,was based on ahl..manistic viewthat high lyvaluesstudentindependenceandautonomy.He placed an emph asis onindi vidua l leam ingin distanceeducationttvougha form of communication betweenthestudent,thepeer group,andthe"supporti ng organization"knownas guideddidadieconversation.Followingsuch principles as (a) wefl-dev elopedself-instructional materials in aneasilyreadablewriting style,(b) invitatio n tostude ntsto exchange ideas andque stions , (c) explicit adviceandsugg e stio nsas to whattodoandwhattoaVOid,and(d)a personal

17

styleinint eracting with students,Holmbergpredictedthatdistance educatorswill beeffective in motivatingstudentsandfacil itat ingind ependentlearni ng at a distance.

TheCo n ce pt of Readiness

The term "readiness" isnotclearly defined.Merriam-Webster',1993 collegiate dictionary did not includeit,and adult education literaturethat directly addresses theconceptofstudent readinessfor leamingis limited.However, consider abl e research hasbeenconductedthatadc*'esses a child'sreadiness for learni ng,particutarty readine ss to begin primary school.Two mainconstructs ofreadinessare realizedbased on the child'sdevek)pmentaland academic progress:readiness forleam ing and readinessfor school.Readinessfor lea m ing involves a child's attention span,motivation,and developmental status.

Readinessfor school.on the other hand,is linked to children'sknowledge at any particular time ,and it includesthe child'sspecific cognitiveand linguis tic abilities.

Some authors,like Kagen & Neuman(1997) ref erredto a thirdconstruct, maturat io na l readiness,inexplainingthisconcept.These authors pointedout thatthe child'smaturitylevelto the standard necessary to entersehOOtisequally import ant to readiness.

These same constructs of readiness canbeapplied to leamingin adulthood.Adults'developmental tasks,however,have less to do with biologic

18 andseear maturahonandmore todowiththeirdeveloping rolesin lifeincluding social,professional.a'ldpersonalroles.Knowfes'(1984 )theOryof adult learni ng proposed that an adulf sreadinessto learnisincreasinglyorientedto these developmentaltasks.He elaborated on thisassump tionbynoting thatthe timingoflearning experiencesfor adultsmust coincidewithwhattheyneedto knowatthattime sothatimmedi ate applicationof knowledgecanOCCU".Adults need to understand whytheyshould learnsomethingbefore they are willing or ready to learnit.Knowles' positionthat adults are ready tolearn whatever will hel pthe m cope with their present circumstances or roleswas reinforcedby Cross (1981) when she referred to the "teachable moments presented bythe developme nta l tasksofthe life eyeIe"(p.238).

Stagetheorists focus onhOwadults'needs and interestschange asthey prog re ssthroughtheperceivedstagesof adult life.Oeveklpmentalstage theorist,BerniceNeugarten (197 6),ref err ed to the lifecycleas a phenomenon of time thatisinfluenced bysuchladen as one'sage,backgrtU"ld.andSOCial expectations.SheCSaimedthatas an adult takesonnewroles,such as areturn tothe workforce.whichrequiresh6thereducation,theadult willbereadyto learn becauseitistherighttime.

Academicreadiness in adulthood.like in childhood.relatesto the leam er' s cognitive ability to actively interpretnewinformationand connect it to leam ingalready acquired.The studenfs learning style and preferences, attitudes,study habits,and prior learning experiences are Significant influences

I.

in hisorherreadiness to learn academically.N adult learningtheoristKnowles

(1984)stressed,thelifeexperiences an adult acaaTlulates are a rich resource

for learning.To enhancetheleamer'sunderstand ingof the content beingtaught andmainta inhis or herinterest and motivationtolearn.theadult'sideas, thoughts,andpastexperience smJ$ tbe acknowledgedin the learning process

Theadultleamer's maturationalreadiness relates totheadolf'abilityto balancethedemands of the learning adivitywithother role demands.Adults.

aCCOrd ing to Knowles' (1984 ) assumptions,see themselves as self-directed and respo ns ib le for theirowndecisions.However.theperceived need for and usefulnessofthe content at that moment in timewill ultimately affect the extent towhichthelearneriscomminedto being successfulin the learning quest.

The constructs ofadu lt readinessfor learningapply equally in the distancelearningenvironment. Distancelearnersare,fir stly.adultlearnerswho bringvariou s persona lfactorstothete aming situat ion.These factorsinfl uence

readine ssforktamingand ultimatesuccess.Adultdistancestudents'prior

mastery of fundamental conceptsandSkillsrelatedtothecourse,their learning styles,strategies,andpriorleamingexperiences as well as theirindivid uallife situati on s will affect readinessand,inturn,their abilityto meetcourse demands

However, inview of the level of COITWTlitmentdemanded of thOsewho choose to leam inthe homeorworkplaceinstead of in the classroom,it seems likelythat demographiccharacteristics (like age and marital status) and personality Characteristics (like intrinsic motivation,8 positive attitude,and

20

learningindepenctenee)may also influence one'sreadinessforthenon-

tra dit iona l method.

Readinessfordistance learning invotvesexternalfactorsaswell.HaYing aquietStudyspacewiththe necessaryphystcalresout:esimpactsCOU"Se success asdoes a strongsupportsystemoffamityand friendswho ef"ICOIS8g8 the learningactivitywhilefulfillingotherliferoles.Lastly,thedista nce learner whoreams throughtech nologymustpossesstheskills requiredforits usein order tobeready for leami ng

Researchon Student Fad ors and COndition sThatAffectReadin e ss forDist ance

~

Numerou s reseercnstudies inthe fieldofdistance education have demon strated no signifICantdifference in theacademicachievementbetween distancele arners andtheirtraditionalcounterparts(Kabat&Friedel,1990), especially within nursingeducation(Kec:k,1992;Shoemaker&Fairbanks.1997).

Theliteratureis reple te,too,withempirical investigations aimedat demonstra tingtheeffectivenessdvariou sKtformatlonandcommun ication technol ogieson studentperformance(seeWetze l,Radtke& Stem.1994,fora discus sion oftechnologyeffect iveness).Bycomparison,fewerresea rch stud ies existthatare devoted tosuchpsychologicalfactorsasreadinessof these learnersforthe distance education experience.

21 DemographicfactOrJ.Some researchers,though.have fOQJsedon profilingtheeffectivedistance Jeamer,concentrating onidentifying the demographiccharacterist icsassociated withreadiness for distanceeducation.

Oxford,Park-Qh.Ito & Sumrall (1993) reported that female students were signifICantlymore lik elythanmalestudentstosucceedin learninganew

language by distancemethods because they demonstratedmore skillthan

malesin usingaPPropriate team ingstrategies.

Sink,Biner,Huffman.Greer,& Dean(1995)found that bothstudent income andsodo-eeonomiestatushadlittle to noimpactonstude nt achievement.Exploring thepotentialimpact ofprioracademicexperienceon distancestudent peffonnanceas well,Binketal.(1995)reportednorelationship between students'success andthenumber of previousdistance courses they had comp leted.

Pri orresearchbyDille&Mezack(199 1)wasalsounabletodemOnstrate thatprio r distancecourseexperience waspredict iveof studentperformance Theseresearchersalso examined studentagein relation to theirperforman ce in televi sed distance COlSSeS.Theyfound thatthe averageageof successful students in theirstudy was 28 as opposed to an average age of 25 for non- successfu l students.These authors conlended that because age often brings greatermaturity and self-discipline,olderstud ent ,canbeexpected toperform better.Marital status,aswell,was shown tobea predid orof successas marriedstudents over 25years old performed althehighest levels.

22

Because older students ar8 more likely to have full-timecareers,a family, and the responsibilityofpaying

tot

theirowneducation,Dille & Mezack (1991) argued thatitwould beviewed by these mahXe learners as waslingtheir valua bletime,money,andeffortiftheywereunsuccessfulordroppedoutof the course.Theserese erenfinding s supported the previous findingsofDelbeq&

Scates(1989)whodemOnstratedthat matlXity,highmotivationlevels,and self- disciplinewerenecessary characteristics fO(succe ssful adult distance leami ng.

Studentattitudes. Siner,Dean,&Mellinger (1994)investi g ated the impact of student attitudes on distance students' success.Theyfound that the maintenance of positivestudent attitudes resulting from their satisfaction withthe program can resultin a number of benefits for the student. These include higher lev els of motivationand greatereommitmen tand loyaltytotheprogram.

Siner .Summers,Dean.Sink.,Anderson,&Gelder (1996)extendedprior re search onthe roleofstudentdemographicsandpriordistanceexperienceby linkingittothepotentialrole ofthesevari abl e sin predictingstudentattitudes (i.e.satisfactionwiththeinstrue:tionancIinstruct or,techno logy,logisticsand mana gement).Resultssugge stedthat male studentswere more satisfiedthan femal e studentswiththek)gistiesandmanagement aspeds of the course.The resea rcrerscontended that because these aspects01thecourses canbetime- con suming activities forthestudent, females are more likely tobecritical of the time consumption posed by such activities due to the multiple roles they lend to assume.Student age,personal income,and socio-e<:onomic status were found

23 tobeunrelated to satisfadkln and success while prior distance experience had a positive effect on satisfadion. Collectively,these findings serve to create an awareness for educatorsofdistance education of the importance of maintaining positive altitudes among the students enrolled in these programs.

Locus of Control. The relationship between students'locus of control and theiracademic achievement was investigated by Dille & Mezack (1991).The more successful students in their studywere those with greater internal locus of contro l. locus of controlis characterizedbythe belief that personal achievementis due to ability and effort as opposed to luck or situational factors.

Parker (1994) examined locusofcontrol as a predictor of dropouts from distance education,and she determined that students with an extemal locus of control are more likely to drop out of distance classes than students with an internal locus of control. The author noted that,by identifying potential students whoexhibit an external locus of control,time is available to advise them to reg ister for time management in-serv icesand to determine clear goals prior to registering.

Personality characteristics.Bineretat (1995) investigated personality characteristics to determinejf distance students had a unique personality profile

when compared to on-site students and whether specific participanttraits could be predictive of success.A widely used personality assessment questiomaire was administered totwogroupsofcollege-levelstudents enrolled in the same course.One group learned through televised classes at remote sites and the

24 other through face-to-face instructioninthebroadcast e!assroom.Student performance was measured by final course grades.Findingsindicatedthat the distanceleamer' s personality profile differed markedly fromtheprofileofthe traditiona l student.Distancestudents tended tobemore abstractthin6l;er5, emo tion ally stable,truSling,compulsive.and non-conformingthanthetraditional stude nt s.As'N'811,severalpersonaldlaracteristics werepredictiveofsuccessful perfo rma nce amongthedistancestudents.Data revealedthatself-sufficient,

introverted individuals performed better than thosewhowere group oriented,

extroverted.Higher grades were also reported for distance students who demon strated greater expedience than traditional students.Given that distance students often balance multiplecompetingpriOfities,having greater expedience worksto theirbenefitas they jugglework. schoOl.and familyresponsibilities.

In sunmary.thestudy bySineretal.(199 5 ) of distancelearner personalityand achie vementfOUldthatstudents mostlikely tosucceedin distanceleam jogarethoseindividualswhoareresourceful and prefer to make theirowndecisions.Theyarenotconcemed withfoll owi ng social rules.and they often disregardthemaltogether.Fina lly.these students areintroverted.

self-indulgent (probab ly considering the varietyofactivitiestheyhave chosento engage in on a daily basis),and tend tomeetresponsibilities in an expedient.

efficient manner(Bine r,etal.1995).

A similar stUdy by Powell,Conway & Ross (1990) at Athabaska University identified severalimportant predisposing student charaderisticsthat profiled

25

successful and unsuccessful distance students.A combinationofdemographic, academ ic,and personalitycharacteristics identified by these authors as indica tive of successincluded(a) persistence to complete difficult tasks, (b ) beingmarried and female, (e) having aneedto succeed academically, (d) choosing a designatedplace and timeforstudyand having goodorganizati ona l ab ili tyin terms of study activities,(e)a high rating of the valueofprior learning to prepareforuniversityeducation ,(f)independence in completing courses,and (9) a high Ifteracy rate. The resul tsofthis study closely resembledthOse of Bineretat(199 5). The determinantsofsuccess in distance courses arenot surprising.considering the highlevelofinde pen dence and self-direction that distan ce study demands.Bernt &Bugbee (1993) examinedfadorsthat affect academicachievementamong adultdistance learners.These authorsfound thatstudent s with a highgrade pointaverage were morelike ly to report beh avioursthat reflected self-directedlearning.

Cranton and Knoop (1990)in theirstudy of personalit ytypes found that theintroverted , in tuitive personality type is bestsuitedfor self-directedlearning

Learners with thispersonalitytype liketo studyalone,need a quietenvironment to concentrate, enjoy the opportunity to think independently,and excel at creatin g theirowndirection .The authorspointed out that an individualwiththis person alitycharacteristicnotonly needs timealone but also does not require teacher directionto learn.Undoubtedly,because distanceeducation requires the indiv idual to proceed withlearning having minimal inputfrom teachersor

26 facilitator s,itis logica l to assume thatindividua ls with anintrov erted. intuitive persona litytypearesuita~efordistance study.Thesestudi es relatingto personality characteristics offerbotheducatorsandstudentsofdistance educationval ua bleinsightint o thei~ofpersonality traits on readine ssand successin distanceleami ng.

Willis (1994),a wellknownresearcherofdistanceeducation,pointedout that "adult swhoare most likel yto completecourses usingdistance technology hav e a cluster ofimporta nt characteristics,SUCh astolerance forambiguity,a needfor autonomy,and an ability tobeflexible"(p.54).He found that those whoare most likely to drop outofdistance courses tend 10prefer a great deal of struct ure,tece-tc-tecelectures,andtheopportunityto interactwith the teacher.

Will is (1994) claimed thatconsiderable research hasfocusedon the personali ty characteri sticsoffield dependence andfieldindependencein explainingsuitabilityfor dista nceeducation.FieldindependentindivKkJalsenjoy autonomyandphysical,emotionaldistancing fromother s.Theylendtohavean ab stractorientationto learningandarelikelytoworkwellwrthlittleorno guidance.Theselearnerstendtobewell suitedto learning envirorments which demand self.-diredion.ind ependence,and minimal int eraction withtheteacher and othe r students.

Fielddependent in di vidual s,ontheotherhand,aresocially oriented and depend on visual cues for leaming_They are influenced by authoritative opinion:they need detailed explanations and a good deal of reinforcement.

27 Theseind ividua ls are, thus,likelyto experience ditrK:tJltyinindependent study activitie s(Willis.1994).

Luk (1998)fot.rIdintwo studiesof Bachelor of Nursingstudentsin distance educationprogramsthatfieldindependentl'1I,S$8Sperformed signifi cantl y better academiealtythanfield dependentl"U"S8S.Theauthor explainsthatthis differenceinacademicachievementresultsfromthenat\Xeof distan ce educationwhichisteaeher-independentand se/f-direetedthusaeating learningdifficultie sf04"the field-dependentstudent.Havingfewer abstract and analyticalthought processesthan the field independent learners, the field depe ndent leameris prevented from followingthe guidelines of instructional packages.So.too,thelack of immediatefeedback and contad with teachers andgro u ps impedes learning for the fl8lddependentind ividua l.

~.Theapproachto study,too,canbe anim portant fader in detennining student readines sfordistanceeducation.Duetothediverse learningenvironmentinwhich distancestudents enter ,thestudyski llsacquired in elementary andhighschoolmay no kx1gef"beappropriate.Distancestudent s needaddi tion alskillsin studying ind ependently,bett er time managementin termsofstudy time and self-d iscip line .

The skills and approaChes to studyof distance students,partiOJla rlythe motiva tionsand study strategiesneededfor success,were studied by Ekins (199 2).Her resultsind ica ted that deep motivation (intrinsicmotivation) combi ned with a deep studystrategy (relatingnewinform ation to previously

28 teamed material and deriving meaning from it) seem tobekeys to successin distance learning.Students inherstudywhohad persisted in the system longer, on average, rated themselves more highly on study skills than novice students.

For the more experienced group,themost marked areas of study improvements werein organizing their time,acquiring necessary background skills,and in making notes ofcontentstudied.Ekins concluded thatthedistance learning students tend to have deep motivation,asdomost adult learners,butin order to attainsuccess,they must develop appropriate study skills.

Wong (1992) compared the learning characteristics of adult,part-time, extemalstudents to adult,full-time,lotemal students.He found also that externalstudentsused a deep approaCh to study(i.e.they interrelate ideas and focus attention on the underlying meaning) and they had highintrinsic motivati o n.Theinternalstudents,on the other hand,used a surface approach tostudy and tend tobeextrinsically motivated.This author concluded that the significantdifferences in students'approaches to study couldbedue to the differinglearning environments or the age distribution to the two groups.The older distance students,Wong found,tend tobeless motivated bypragmatic concem s and more liable to adopt a deep-level approach to their work than younger students

Carr,Fullerton, Severino, and McHugh (1996) compared specific characte ristics of students who were successful in a distance graduate nurse midwiferyprogram with thosewho,forvarious reasons,did not complete the

29

program.The greatest differences identified from these data were related tothe academic characteristicsofthe two groups.Members of the dropout group were less likely to allocate sufficient time for study,less likely to persist in studying, and less likely to use the resourcesofa study partner or the modesof communication available,although they had claimed tobefamiliar withusing com pu ter s.

These research findings emphasize to educators the importance of monitoringstudents' study habits when teaching distance courses ancl,when necessary,assistingstudents to develop an effective approach to study.

Enrollment motivation.Due to the unfamiliar nature of the leaming environment,itseems reasonable to assume that a high levelofmotivation is required for success in distance programs.As adult learners wtIovoluntaril y enr oll,distance students are undoubtedly motivated to learn.However,their reasons for enrolling in distance education need to be closely examinedto determinetheir level of motivationfor this unconventionalmethod of education.

Some reeeerchers focused on whether or not distance students were intrinsically motivated as opposed to extrinsicallymotivated and the factors that were involved.Robinson (1992) examined distance students'motivationto leam for itsapplicability to oneofKnowles' assumptions oftheadult learner.Results fromth is stUdy supported Knowles'belief in that students are motivatedby intri nsic rewards, such as ina-eased self-esteem,recognition,or ina-eased self- confidence.

30

Gordon(1992)comparedtwogroups dIOJIteduCationgraduates from off-campu screditprograms to determ inetheirmotivationsforparticipation.Both groupsindica ted the faclor 'professionaladvancement'asthegreatest motivator for enrollingfollowed by'cognitive interest.'Another study of enrollment motivat ionby Miller (1995) among graduates of an otf-campus agriculture degree program,89% of which were male,indicatedthatthepursuit of a degree wasthemostimporta nt motivatingfactorforenrollingfollowed bythedesireto acquireCUtTent knowledgein theirchosen field

MacBrayne (1995)exam inedtheenrollmentmotivation s of a largegroup ofruralconvnunity COllegestudents,approximately ttYee-qua rters ofwt1O'nwere women.'Nhenasked the mostimportant reason forenrollingin distance courses,one-half of the studentscited job-related reasons,such asthe desire to earna degree, while the other half cited self·improvement,suCh as the desire to obtainnew knOwledge that would lead to a more satisfying future.

Enrollmentmotivation sof adult distancelearners asind ica ted aremultiple anddiver se.Havingaknowledgeoftheforcesthatdrivethelearnertopursue distanceeducabon can assisttheteacherinprediding the leamer'slevelof determination tosucceed.

Potentialconstraints.Anexaminationofpoten tial constraintsthat distancestudentsconfrontis also significant tothis disaJss ionof readiness Identify ing,through the literature,common barriers to distance education can shed additionallight on those elements that students need to prepare for a

31 satisfying and successful distance learning experience.Hezel&Dirr(1991) surveyed 100 higher education distance learners about the importance of variou s potential barriers for them and whether any of those barriers contributed to their taking distance courses.Students indicated that lime rather than distance is the major constraint facing adult distance students.Managing their time,in view of the common competing demands from jobs,families, and other responsibilities,was the greatest challenge.

Brindley(198 7 ) studied theinc id ent s that hindered or facilitated persistencein distance courses at Alhabaska University in western Canada.

Among other student experiences,such as background.academic.and demographiccharacteristics,she identified personal variables like hours of employmentand family responsibilities that limit time for course work.Her study high lightslimited timefor course work because of competing family and work demands as the major barrier to success in distance education.This is not surprising considering that the majority of these leamers are mature adults between the ages of 25 and 45,predominantly female,whoenroll in part-time courseswhile working full time as well as managing a home and family.

Summary

A review of the literature has revealed several important elements that contribute to a studenfs readiness for the distance education experience.

Among the studies reviewed on demographic cneractensncs,it appears that

32 age, gender,andmaritalstatus are determinantsofsuccess in distance learn ing.AuthorSofthesestud iesmaintain thatqualitiessuchasrnatIXity,high motivation,andself..<hseip line typicallydesaibethe mature le arnerwhOis fulfill ingmultipleroles.It seems reasona ble to assumethatstudentswho possess these desirable c:haraderistics arereadyfor the independencethatthe distancelearningexperiencedemands.

Specificaspect sofpersonalitycharactaristics,too,wereshownto predict success in distan ceeducation.Individua lattri buteslikeanin terna lIOQJsof control,self-suffi cie ncy,resourcefulness, expedi ency,self·i nd ulgence,theability to beflexibleas well as anin troverted personalitytypeseem todeterm ine readiness for this non-traditionallearningexperi ence.Positi veattitud es about learningbydistancethatresultsfroma highlevelofsatisfactionwith thecourse alsoseems tobeanimportantcriterion fordistanceleame r success.

Thestudy habits of students werehighlightedintheliterature as a valuable measureofsuccessindistanceeducation.Part icu lar1y significantwas theneedfor students to deveq, adeepapproachtostudy whereby theyattempt to deriv e meaningfrom course content,to makenotes,and to organizetheirtime so thatsuffi cientlimeisanotted for coursework.

Anotherguideli neofstu dentreadines s fordista nce learni ngwasthe enrollme nt motiva tion s of theselearne rs.Important enrollment motivators focused specifically ondistancelearning toindude a desire for independence, a betterfit wil hindividu allearning style or preference,and a chance to study

33 outside of the traditionalsetting.Profes sional advancementand cognitive interestin learningwerecited8Simportanlreasonsforervolling aswell. For these students itseemsthetypeof learning environmenlchosen wasoflesser

importance than their desireto achieveacademicsuccess.The student

motivat ion sidentifiedareapplicab le toadlHtlearningtheory.Consi d eri ng Knowles'(1984)fiveprinciplesofadultlearning,Cross'.(198 1) learner cterect enstcs.andHoure',(1961)frameworkof adullieamermotives,the tene ts of these theOries seemtohave been widelysupportedinthe student's enrollment goals.

lastly,poten tial barriers thatchalleng e distancelearn ers are knownto impe d e readiness.The authorprobedthe literatur efor evidencethatfactorslike anxiety and lack of confidenceaboutlearning at a distanceor lackofrequired sk ms,such as computer skill s,hamper students'abilitytolearn by thismethod, butlitt le evidencewasfound.Instead,arteria relating topoortime management

forindependentlearning andineff ective studyskillswereidentified

Thefindingsofthiscomprehensiverevi8'lfofrelevant liter atur e on student readinessfor distanceeducationhaveimport an timplications forprogram developers,educators,anddistancestudentsalike.Findi ng s providevaluab le

in sights intothe relationshipbetween success and satisfactionwithdistance

learningandtheprerequisites thatare likelytogenerate that success.Inview of the ongoing pressu replaced on distanceprogramsto provide evidenceof its effect iv eness for student teamin g,the predictors of academic achievement and

34

satisfaction outlined here can serve as important considerations in the design of those programs.

In the first paper of this folio,specific predisposing learner characteristics and conditions that are apt to prepare studentsfor the distance leaming experience were discussed. However,in addition to considering student readiness,thesignificance of faculty readiness 10assume the new challenges of the distance teaching role cannotbeunderestimated.Administrators and educators alike must recognize that distance teaching is unlike traditional classroom teaching,and they mustbewillingto invest the time,effort,and moneyin preparation for the new role.

35

P~r.

FacultyPTeparalionfor DistanceTeaching

DistanceCOU"S8Smustbedesigned and deliveredina way that gives carefulconsiderationtothose learner variables andteac:hing approaches that arelikelyto achieve the mostpositiveoutcomes.Besidessuchteaching compe tencies as subject mastery and deliveryskillsdemandedofalltea ch ers. the distance instructor mustbeequipped with specialized leaching strategies and tools that maximize the involvement of eac:tlleamer despite the distance betweenthemand their teaChers.

Distanceteachersmustacquirea sound knowtedge ofthevisual and in teracl:ive capabilitiesofthegrowingvarietyofin structi ona l lech nol ogi e s so as 10 planinstruction effectively.Adequate preparat tonininstructiona l designfor distancedelivery.effort les soperationoftheequipment,andactive faci li ta tionof meaningfulleaming ata dist ance serve to enhanceteacher performanceforthe benefitoflearners

However.theliterat ureabounds with evioeocethatteachers,especially thosein conventiona leducationa l institutiOns,are notadequately prepared 10 convert from traditional Classroom teaching practicesto those required in distanceeducation.Despitethe explosion of technology to deliver distance instrudion to the growing student market.several studies cited resistance by

36 faculty in adapting these new educational methods (Bal1l:er & Dickson,1994;

Gunawardena.1990; Spotts & Bowman, 1995).Distance teachers acknowledge that they lack the knowledge and experience required 10use these technologies.

They claim they are unfamiliar with how to organize and deliver instruction that issuitablein content and formatfor independent study.Many distance teachers feel uncomfortable,often skeptical,about these non-traditional teaching methods. As a result,they continue to rely more on traditionalmethods of delivery such as print-based materials than on innovative technologies (Spotts &

Bowman,1995).

Willis(1994) attested that in order for faculty to successfully make the transition from the conventional classroom to the distance leaching environment, itisimperative that specialized trainingbeprovided.To stay current and competent in utilizing these technologies.faculty and other professionals involved in designing and delivering distance education programs must receive continued institutional support through comprehensive faculty development programsthat address their learning needs.Only with adequate attention to facultypreparation can instrudional quality and long-term success in distance education be ensured.

Through a review of relevant literature,thispaperaddresses the critical roleof faculty in distance education.Theauthor discusses the special challenges that confront thosewhoteach at a distance and,subsequently. the competencies requirec:l to teach in this demanding educational environment.

37 Faculty developmentprograms areexamined,includingtheir benefrts in increasingteacher effectiveness end instillingposruveteacherattitude s about thismodeofdeliveri nginstnJc:tiOn.A desaiption oftheessential elementsof succe ssfulfacultydevelopmentprogramsisprovided.Theauthor roncludes with a brief discussiondadditional facultydevelopmenl:issue s thatrequire careful considerat ionbytheeducational institution,issuessuchasproviding adequatetimefor course prepa ration,consideringcourse workload,and allowingopportunitiesfor promotion.

TheNeed for Ea cyl lypeyel opmentPrograms

Thedistance learningenvironmentis significantlydifferentfromthatofa traditionalclassroom,and,therefore , specialchallenges confront those teaching at8distance.Inanattempt toovercomethebarrier of physical dista ncefrom student s,thedistance teacher mustcarefully selectandincorporate leaching strategi e s,technologies,andmaterialsthatpromote effectivestudent learning Thisrequiresspecialskill s and knowledge utilizedless frequentlybytraditional dassroomteachers.

Moore&Thompson (1990)identifiedthreedistinctfeatu resofdistance educationthat demandspecializ edteacher education.Theseauthors contendedthatdistanceeducation uses technologies that areunfamili aras the primarymedia forcommunicat ions to mostteachers.Theydaimedthatdistance education require steacher s to specializein the variousrolesof teaching ,

38 especiallythoseofcounsellor,contentexpert, facilitatorofongoinginteracti on.

coursedesigner,technica lexpert. ancllearner.Lastly,they pointedout that distanceeducation requiresp1arY'ling,development,produdion.and distri bution onalar gerscalethanisfamiliartomostteachers.Eachofthesethreefeatur es requiresmajorintervent ion sbypolicymakers

Mood(199 5)ec:hoecItheopinions of Moore&Thompson (1990)by emp ha sizing thatthedis tance teache r mustassume a numberofnon-traditional leach ing roles.She contendedthat,besidestheknooNledgeancl skills required of all teachers,distanceteaChers need expertiseininstruct ional design,useof technology (inc luding technicalsupport),and skillsin broadcasting or television presen tation ifsuchmediaere used.She also noted the distance teacher's rolesof studentsupportsUChascounsellOl" andlibrarian usuallyassumedbyon- siteprofessionalsinconventionaleducation programs

Willis(1994)contra stedthechallenges facedbythedistance teacherwith thosefacedbythe traditionaldassroom teacher.He stat edthatinOfdeffor trad ition al teacherS to shifttotherOleofdistance teaeher(whichc:orrwnonfy

occurs), the facultymembermust

(8) viewthecourseinanewway.Even forexperienced classroom teachers,distancedelivery can pose diffiQJltiesbecauseit requir es sign ifican trethinkingand adaptation.

(b) convertfromtheroleofcontent providerto content facilitator.Not only expertisein the subjectbutthe abilitytoincorporateindividual leaming styles and backgrounds of studentsinto the teaching process is required

39 (C) acquire comfort and proficiency in using technology astheprimary

teacher-student link.. In order to acquire technical competence and confidence. an understanding of delivery system strengths and weaknesses and how to use them effectively is required.

(d) leamtoteecn effectively withOutthevisual control provided by direct eye contact.Visual cues that allow the teacher to identify students' reactions to the teaching are few or lacking by the distance mode.In fact, unless a real·time visual medium such as television is used,the distance teacher cannot determinejf students are listening,sleeping, or even present during the dass.

(8) develop an understanding and appreciation for the distance student'slifestyle.Because a large numberof distance students live in rural,often remote areas, they tend tobeculturally and socially diverse.DistanceteaChers need tobefamiliar with their varied backgrounds to ensure effectiveness,

Beaudoin (1990) emphasized theneedfor faculty accustomed to conventio nal teaching modes to acquire many new skills to assume a teaching rolein distance education.FaCUlty must eSpecially realize the potential of technologyto facilitate learning.He provided an example-a seminar course orig inallydesigned for a small,intimategroup of classroom students who are knownto the instructor cannotbeoffered to an off-campus classof several hundred students,who may have never met the instructor or each other,without majorreconfigurations that require the knOWledge and expertiseof a specially traineddistanceeducator.

The change in role from a classroom to a distance teacher was described byBeaudoin(1990 ) in this way. "Facu lty must recognize the roleof inslrudional technology as a learning resource.Theteacher is increasingly an intermediary between students and available resources"(p. 22).Dr.Gunawardena. a

distancefacultymemberattheUnivers ity ofNewMexico,describedherchange in rolefrom thatofateacher standing infrontoftheclassroomat thecentreof theprocessto one ofafacilitatot'whoseroleistosupportandguidetheIeaming process (Gu naw ardena,1990).PurdyandWright(1992)deSCribedthisnew roleasguiding learnerinitiatedinquiryandexplorationratherthanknowledge transmission.

Consideringtheradicald'langes requiredofdistance teachersin orderto makethe transitionfromthe classroomsening,it isnotsurprisi ngfor authOrs of distanceeducat ion literature toassertthattraditionalteach ingtechnique s are ineffectivein distance senings (Dillon, Gunawardena,&Park er,1993;Garris on

&Shale, 1990;Milheim,1991;Wolcon, 1993).AsMilheim (1991) conte nded, deli veringcourse contentina lecture-basedformat(commonty usedin classroominstruction ) is not effectivewhenthecommunicationwithstudentsis medi ated through tectvlOlogy.

Theneed forspecializeddevelopment program s for faOJltyand others

involvedinteaching at a distanceis strongty attested(Thach&Murphy,199 5;

Willis,1994).Suchtrainw,gprogramsare necessarynowmorethanever before as communicationand informahontech nolog ies havebecomemore sophi stica ted andava ilableresulting in therapid transform ationof faculty roles.

There islittledoubtthat bringingtothedistance leamingseningaclass that was originallydevelopedfor the traditional Classroom, withOutmaking optimal useof

41

ava ilabletec:hnok)gies 10meettheunique leamingneedsofdistance learners, would beunfairtoboth thestudentsandtheteacher.

Le amj ng Needs of pista!"!C!lEduea!ion Professionals

Before plaming ed.Jcationprogramsforprofessionalsofdistance education.itis necessary toidentifythe specificskillsand strategi estheywill need tofunctioneffectivelyinthiscom~xeducational environ ment.Several studieshavesoughtfaculty's identifi cati onof the necessary skills.Koehefy (1997),inasurvey of distancefaculty atthe University of Minn esota,ident ified twogeneralneeds consideredbyfacu ltytobeimportant for tra in ing. They included (8)maximizinginteradianandfeedbackwith studentsand(b) developing instruction via availabletechnology.

Forher doctoral dissertahon,Fuli ga(199 5) investigatedamong an experienced groupof distancefacu lty,adminis tratco,and educational tectYlolog ists,theirperceptionsof the mostimportantknowledge andSkill requirement sfOf'distance teachers usingvideoOfaudiomodes of delivery. Consistent with later findingsof Kochery(1997),most importantto these professiona ls,after subject matter expertise.were strategiesforfostering stud entinteradion and forusingthetech no log y to promoteeduca tiona ltheory andpractise.She concludedthat,becauseaspecific knowledgeand skillis required by distance faculty,appropr iatefaCUlty development programs should

42

beprovided by administration.and teachers should complete thempriorto assum inga dista nce teachi ngrokl.

It is noteworthythatthefindingscIbotI"lthese studiesrefleda majOr concernofdistanceteachers:to prov;de an optimallystimu latinganddynamic leaming envirormentforstudentsthatattempts toovercomethebarrieraealed bythephysicaldistancebetweenthem.Althoughstude ntsmustplay., active roleinthedistanceleaming experience,successfu linter adions aredependent toa great exten ton the distanceteacher's effectivedelivery of in struct ion,Asin thetraditiona l classroom,the distanceteacheristhecentral figurewho transmits knowledge and stimulatesleamers tobeadiveparticipants.Regardless of the selting ,allteachersmustbecogniZantofthefad that effectiveIeamingis Mdepend entonactivenegotiations and explorationsof meaning s.Itis not a passiveind ividua l experiencebasedon mere exposition .recept ion,and retention"(Kochery,1997,p.2).

Twoother recen t studieshaveclassifiedtheIeamingneeds of facultyas roles and competencies required of distanceprofessiOnals;nacademic in stitutions. Cyrs(1997)and Thach&Murphy(1995) identiflGd similararea s of competence(assummarizedbyCyrs.199 7):

(a) courseplann ingand organizat ion (b) verba l and non-verbalpresentation skills (c) collaborative teamwork

(d) expertise in questioningand providingfeedback to students

43

(e) suI:liedmatterexperti se

(f) student involvementand coordinationof activitiesatall sites (g) basic leam ingtheory

(h) knowtedgeofthedistanceleamingfl8ld (i) designof study guides correlated withthevisual field (j) graphic design and visualthinking

These tencompetenciesde$Q'ibe thedual importanceofbothcommuni cation and technical skill sin distance education.These studies.likethOseofKochery (1997) and Fur iga (199 5),emphasi zedtheimpo rtanceof facu ltyknowl edgeof the capabilities of thevariousdelive ry systems and howtheir stren gt hs and weaknesses affectplann ingand delivery.Equally importantto distance prof e ssiona ls isknowing howto usethetech no log ies effectivelyand having general knowledge ofinstrlJdionaldevelopment.

In addihon,theseresearchers noted thatdistance education teachers mustpossess effective conmunicationskills.Dista nceteachi ng demands competence in ensuringongoingeffectiveinter act ion s with students,such85 provid ingappropriate cues tostudents(oft enintheabsence of visualcues), stimulatingactivepart ici pa tion,enSIling students'ISIderstandingofcontent, focusing theiratten tion ,and managing di5O.lssion betweensites.

Landstrom(1995),in aStudyofdistancefacultyanitudes and opinions at theUniversityof Windsor,foundthat the majorconce rnof mostinstructors regardi ngthei r experien ce inthedistance courses isthelackof interad ion with

44

students Asa result of these andothe r findings.t'NOini ti at ive s were undertaken at that university:workshopsfa(newandformerimtrudors toerVlance the sharing of experiences and tedvliques for effectiveinteraction with distance students,and more information aboutdistNlceeducationincludi ng relevant research disseminatedamongf8OJlty.

CoUaborativeteamworkisanothet" importantsKillofdistanceteac:her$.

Althoughamajor adjustment maybenecessary fortradi tionalte ache rs accustomed toworkingind ependently incourse designand delivery,teamwork skillsfor thedistance teacherare consi deredcriticalforsuccess.The instruct or must learn toworkcloselywithsite faci lita tors,technical suppo rt staff.and administrators.Collins& Murphy(1987 ) foundthat a positive working relation ship withthe technicalsupport staff resultedin effective deliveryof courses.Dista nce faaJlty,intum,mustberesponsib leforpromotingteamwork amongstudents,especially in isolatedareas, to improve studentlearn ing(Jones

&Timpson,1991).

Cyrs(199 7)andThach& Murphy(1995) alsoincludedkrlowM!dgeof learningtheoryamongthetenmostfrequentlyCitedcompetencies requiredof distance faculty.Unlikeon-site student s,distancestudents are more likelytobe adultsovertheage of 25.Furthermore.they are expected tocarryoutagreat deal ofleaming on theirown,oftenatageographicdistancefromtheleaching instituti on.Distance faculty,whoare moreaccustomed10traditional teaching wherebystud ents tendtobeyounger andfaculty have greaterinstructional

45 contr ol,must make fundamental tnsttudional role changes.The distance teachermust possess the skillsto organize appropriateinstrudional resources suit abl e forindependentadultleamers.

RecogniZingthediverse leaming styles of these mature learnersand their need formeaningfulleamingapplications,thedistanceeducator rrostthen choosethe formatinwhichto delivertheinformation.So.too,thedistance teacher mustbeskilledinprovidingthe aiticalelementsofdia logueand direction to leamers at varying stages of cognitive and psychological readiness for self-directedlearningadivities.This required change in faculty roles for distance teaching supports Knowles'(1984)theoryof adults as self-directed learnersand proposes that faculty training programs for distanceteaching shouldincludeadultlearningand teaching principl es.

Knott(1992)feltthatdistance teacher$needknowledg e andSkillinhOw toconductalearnerneedsassessmentbasedon leafTlef" Characteristics.She stressedtheimportanceofidentifyingthelearningneeds ofindividual participa nt sindistanceeducation inview ofthegrowingdiversityof needsand valuesystemsamongtoday's students.

Wolcott(199 3),ina qualitat ivestudy thatexaminedhow distance teach ers planin struct ion,identifiedthat among distance teachers there were infrequent referencesto studentcharaderisticsorlearn ing needs.She attributedthisweakness to teachers' lack of understandingoftheprocess.She also iden tified that subjectsdid not have effectiveplanning skilts,such as

46 curriculumandday·lo-day lesson p1aming. and lacked anunderstandingof adultlearners.LikeKnott (1992),Wo lco tt highlightedthecriticalimportanceof distance teachers being adequatelypreparedinincorporatingthe needs and motivation sofadult distance learners in instnJetionalpla M ing.

Theleam ing needsofdistanceteacherstendtobeasdiverse asthe learningneedsoftheirstudents.Itisstressedinthe literaturethatadditional trainingandin struct iona l support isessen tialifdistance teachers areto effedivelyplanand deliverdistancecourses.Professiona l development programs musl focu s onthenecessary skil ls and strategie sidentified as well as on the unique learn ingneedsofindividual faculty.

Facu ltyDevelopment Prog ram sandTheir Benefits

Manyofthesameteach ing skillsandstrategiesacquiredforclassroom teaching are usedwhenteachi ng atadistance.No dOubt,theCClU"Secontent andgeneralprinciplesoffacili tating adultlearning are fundamentallythesame regard less ofthedeliverymethod.Dis ta nce teachers have, as well,used some technologyin theirpriorclassroom teaching role.Thefocusofprofessional develOpment programs.then,isnotsolelyon impartingnewskillsand knowledgebutalsoonhelpingprofessionals to applytheknowledge andskills they alreadyhave(Lowenthal,1981).

Rutherford&Grana (1995)referredtothenewtechnolog ies usedin distanceeducationas somewhatsimilaryet faster.better.and more variedin