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thiSthesis. . -mule ,d·.UI~ll.on~.c~pagroenl~t1e't~ew.

....

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.EvALUATI ON0;'

~iDE~":EO~NST~~J;O~ : ~

^{. ,}

Ak1J!lLIkELYALTERNATIVI!: TOTRADIT:IONAL ... ,INSTRUcT1:.ON'I~^A·.~IVElt5iT~ S~mNG

'by-

~

^{~ '-" .RtchardIanM}add i glln.B.A. (Hona.)

r

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to •

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l

AT~si.lubmitted.in,pllr':-,7a1 fUlfU 1 !l1e.nt f~rtherequi rementl fo r~edeqr e e of

'Ka ster~fScienc e

:. .:

St..'John'.

Departme ntafPS~ChOlogy '.October 197 8

.',~

Newfound la nd,

. .

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. . .

'

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Much-cur re nt researc hhasaelllOnsttatedthat when

... . ". .>_.. . . .-.

. r: ', ,

"maximum'~ar~,ing ~f£icJ.ency~6 deslre~,-.""t hereareni,coo- -:

.-.

SJ,.~~::~t-;dj,:ti~er~~ce8' i-et~e~.n ·'inBtr~ctional t;1evi~~ciJ:;d:.T .V.~'; · ':a:~-- ~r~di,ti~na:l. i~B~.r~_~~i~n _p'~ !~ l.·~.-;-~~we~~~'~: ·~,f~l.i~~'n~~~ ^.:" :-'.'",

.' 'wor k.her e.

a~: M~~Oti"l.·

^Dn!

v~r~i~y

^:of

N'e~fo~~d~a~d ha~''B~g9~'Bted

.' -thtJ:t_:_')~~~;JliP.q~.·f:~~m. '~-' ^- 'i: .·:~~:s ·':~'p~~i~r,:.t~' " ~e~·~~i~q;:'~; ~·:-I~T. ~' ~: ^.

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Illeth?dof,,~th I.T.~~and? r.'TlIe~posite,~_ftr:a~~t~onal::

,'live lectur'es.would~'~hcV'ideota:pesof'\hose.'--tlc~u~·(:iive '

.lect'~e.s . Whi~_e ' :th~':~PPOd~e

^d

th~

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st~~dard,~stu~io~prO'du;ed

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,~to" p're~~~t, i~ seq~~iice,; ::~'h~:_'.~£s~~~ .. '_~t~~~~:~,·,o~: ,:,~: , '~'

the,sW-iotllpe' l ive,in the'clll'uroOlll. Th,es~-experiments

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TABLE OFCONTEJOTS

RESULTS AND·D ISCUS SI ON'-••••~'^{•.••:••••.••-:•••••}

~tu~~·':~~· ~~

^:.:'

~

^.•••

~> .. ~" . ; : . . ... - ..

, .GroupDiff er ence's•;~••• ••",••••

.

in·d~~liu'al_bi£~erence, ~ar~abl~

".

LISTOf'FI GURES...'•• ••• ••• • •:.~.•••.••• •• ••_ •• • ••_•••vii\

". -;/ /\ . ^{' .}

'N~ODU"" ON

^{;..... ... .•}

:.~-

^{.••\ -·1}

REV'n:W

~F

^•

THtORY~

^{RESEARCH •• •:}

^{J :...} ~ : 0 3

~~~~~i€:~~¥ ~ ." ' <'

. ~::!:'::~:tP:~;~:.~::~:~~~~~~

_{. -. ,'-'}

_.. .~: _. ^{: - : 'i:} _.. ~~:'~'~: ^,.

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Ind i vidua lDiffe r e n ceVar iab l es-; :.. .... 20·

-;~~~ ~SEAI~CIJ·

^{.,'.. ...-:•'••• • •}

,

^{.: ••••-•.••.:23}

METHOD·•• •••~'-.^{•• •}~-:-:^{•••••••••}~^{••:: :.}

' 27 .- ~:u~y o~e ·· : : .::. :; :·~' .. ~· ·.':..:;. :27

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.Pi OCed ure,...

~? ~ .. _~ ....; .. _{:. ~} ...: ..

40·

"I.: '.

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. ','...t~

. '~" s;n~'e ^,:,:: ~~en ^Kener iotra~u,e~\. 'pe r.anal;, ed_.

. ", '." ","," . . ," ., " ' :.:".- c ,·:.:. ,:

-in, ",:', ' ,""'.'

~~s~:s;eIfi' Of_,~n~truc ~i.?~,~~r'~'~ '.~.),',<11:,,,~raZ~lia·uni.ve~sit~_.f or te.achin,gIn~r oducto ry.psyC?hol09Y.m4ny si,milar~nstr\lo:tional

.. in'nova,ti~~s :ha;"~ be~n In~rod.u,:~ a.."d ·e~~l.u~ted \ri_ .~!fr_ hi~~er

.ed~cati'ci)lal:~ettin9:^{',EVe n},thou gh,T r e nt !'lna Cohem-lJ.?7iJi conclude

thal~

;"

". ::> . t

.:•••

·rela,~i;~lY

^£e-,/o£-.the,"

education~l i~~ovati(ms

'.d e v elop e d during"t h e 1960 's withgre a t hope.for.

Q.".th~ irwide.spread,use£uln o;:ssare'in operation.twIay:.

many:_~f'thesein n o v a t'ions"se e mto'~ve'triggered anew~(~'r

. -~~l\;~~dJ -in~e~_'t'

^in,

an~

^a

!>rO~der

^ba:is

·fcir·" ; re~~~rc~· ~'n.,

" '- "

.

thehig1ler ed ucationa l,se t t i n g. '.

. ..~e ~UCh " i~n ~~~t~~\:;;'as '{n ~Od~c_e~

^by'

SUl,H~~~

_atMemorial

U~ivera~ty

^'Of

~ew~o~n<lla~d '

^{(s ee}

Fi9'~re 1 ).

" ,, ' -':.' , -" " , .' ,'t, , , , _'•.

Although th e,pa r t i c ul a r deta ilsof _thi sstudy are not

, .

'dire~tlY r~iev;nt. here'~ -

-the

u·~;~

^-of

vi~eotaped. in8tru~ti~n

·.:in·

l~?~ 'sirice

^it.,

was _~~t :~n1VerBdl);'

^acceceee·'b·;.all

s~~_~eJ1ts

^..

Today' l

thiS method'o~^{-in s,t}r,uc t i on,is_DOt .

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ri90rouslyfollow~d.but ene'<ue e.of vio.eotapedin str uc t ion hO!!s returned as ah Ih teqralpprt of the learn i n g processat ' ..Me mor i a l Unive'"rs ity ofNewf o u nd!a nd becau seconti nu i n g-re~ea rch .. (thepres~ ntincl u d ed )-has discove r ed"n e w pcoceduree for --,incorPo rat"in gtele';'ifil.i.onin~thelear n ing ,process:~

.'I It ",a\ ~cauS'ethe.videotapedin s t r ucti o nof the ./;up i v a n ("1,9 69 ) P~OC~dure:a sn9tgFner.al:y acc~Pted.by..

st ude n t'B.an~ins tructorsthatthe pz-esene'researchwasbegun . The present

.

research'no~^On"ly"bvci.lua ted^{". '} .

the

typeof-video- tape~ins truct,fontHen bei ng used atMe mor i al Univ er5ityof N'ewf ,?u ncU and, but-100~·i~portant1.Y.^{i t}ha s at tempte d

to •

iInprove

l

,

t~vera11

..effecti

ve~~s~

of

videot'ap~d i~strucUon

by,tr yih g"tocoml:'ineit wi th·~th e rmethodsof.instr u~ct -\rn• .andattemp ti ngto fsola te the part i c ularvar iableswhich

" .~ . '

·areclJrJ:;'!'!fa te d with efficiency inlear ning fro mtelevision .(Se e._:h.U

1

s· s #amm.

(.1~67)

^{an d}

DulJin l'~

^{Hedley (l96g) . lndeed}

this B.e@lllls~eleVarit tOd~ayf~r^asJa mi s o n , Sup pes"andwe l l s (197 3) co n cl ud ed.in~su r;e yof't h eap p r opri ateire e cee ore,

""There is veryli t t le evi d.eJl cecon cer ning the effectiveness

~ ~f ~nstr~c'tion~l

^{tele visionueedin wa y:}that ·utilize :he -- ~u~i~~ ca:pab1l1tie~A~fthe'_~e~iWIT"?(P.30).

,-

~In

light,of l!l

tremen~.ous ~unt

of

curren~'r~se~rCh'

( ~~ere"is:

"?"

^doubt,t.ha t learni ng ca n and doestake place\

' .' fromte levi~ ion._ 'rn re.has.be.enconc lus i v elysho wnintwo

I I

-,I

e•

thoroughreviewsof th e literatureon the effectivene ssof instructional television(l.l.v .l,t;!a.mely.Chu and Schramm's .(19 6 1) -Le arn in q ironTe l e v is i o n :Wha t: theResearch Sa ys ·.

and Dubin and Hedley' . (l969);The MediumllI4ybeRela tedto the MeslIag e ; Col l eqeIns-tructi o nbyT.V.- , ~na,completelY differentvein'8oqa t z'a nd Bal'l (19 71 )have~thi!lt: pre-

-

~.,'

.

schOolag ec~ill!renare·8~gnificantlYIIlOre advanced -than childienOf't~esame age.we~e.fiveorten year~agobec aui!l'e

.o f suchtelevis ionpr09r~aas seeeeeStreet.a nd t'belike.

Indeed loT.V. asa'method~ fteac h i ng has eJO: is t e d' si nc e teleV18~ nbec ame.f a s h i o nab l e, and 1t8 forerunner, mot~onplcturf"s, wa sus ed asamethod of instructionas

"e ar lyas the,1920's(Dub in

i.

Tave991a.1968J. tlndoubtediy

le a rning

f~olQ tel evis ~o~ i~

^heretostay since'itsuse con ti nue s~oincreasedraJllatically acc o rd ingto

e

rec e nt_ re port by Dirr"a n4 Pedone 119781. The important que s tio n

~

^teachers.:

in~tructors

^{and educators},lIIust attempt to answer isifI.T.V. is the~.effective.oc.eof teachin9~ available fo rthe lJitu ation'underconsid.eration. AccorcUn.9

to.ltl i.llla(19 761.

Po t e ntialus e r s -cr ins tr uc t iona ltelevisio nshoul d makecerta i n that televisio n isthe best med ia to present their educati o nalob j ec tives .andthe tel e v i siontea c he r mus t develo pa reservoir Q,f techni c alinfoIlUtionre<;lardin9 themos t ef fic a cious

use of the media. ' "

Overthe past 20 yearsther ehasbeenmuc'h discussi':)n cQnce rni~gthe,edve nee q ee , disadvanta q e e lindmi acon c'e p t i o"ns Of"videotaped;_~~atruc~(s ee Tr ottie r . 1970.Slll.i~ "

. \

Ji

\

5.

,

Naga'l,1972). Althod'gh this discussionis not directly relevant her-e it should seem rogieal .to assumethatinstruc- tionth r o ughte l e v i s i o n is bet terth'1"nno~nstr:uc tionatall.

Indeed II surprisin9numberof studi~shav e compar edtele- vision instruct io n wit h!!£i"nstr uct;ion to inves tiga te whe t he"rstudentslearn at

all'f~bm

telev'isio":. The

r'esul~

15 not5urprJ.lllng.theydo. The I.T.V.group 15 cons1s te ntly superdor-totheno lnst.r uctionqroup.

Relev~nteV~denc~h~rewa sper f o rm ed~End ers',.' (1 96 0 )'. He~~OWedthat''Si x th'g r ad e,'5tude;'it~.~hohadvi,:,wed' a. aeriesof,s c i e n ceprograms ontel eviSiOndid significantly betterthanerecnerorgroup whodidnotwa tchthes~programs..

Inde edChriandS'chrinun(-1 9 67 )re v i ewedni ne exarnpJ.es· of research'tha t c.ompaJ".edLoT.V:,,:,i.tb, no instruc tio nat all, _ and in all nine tho s ew~ thI.T'.v;·l earnedsiqn!fic~ntiymore.

However,thecruxof theproblem"of-th eev a l ua tion

'o'f I.T . V.li e s notin itsc;omp'ar ison·withrio ins t r uction,-

~ut

^{in its comparisonwi·rl.}trad itionai

method~

^{of·i ris t}r'uc t i o n, a~dpresen t - day.r~s e a rc_hhas deJlOnstratedconclusively tha.t

in spite of an:/apparenttheoreticaladvantages, inpr~ctice

r.T. I..

produ~e's ·

^{no,greaterlearningthan thet}r a di tion a i metho~s,of instruc;ion._(ThispO~ntwi ll.bed~is~ussed di r ectly ). Undoub tedly,th is i's the major re as onwhythere -ha s been suq.haresistanceto't h e edcptaonofI.T. V.in

the educa tio na l se tti ng (seeEV~ms;19121. Thispres~t"

research argues thatth.e reasons

~hy

^'no

~~~nif~cf~i~fer-

- r " "

6.

encee have qccurredbetweenI.T.V .andT.l. is because the Il\lljor variablesinfluenc ing le a r n i n g thro ughtelevision haven~tyet beeni.solate~.and present-dayreljlearchin the ar e a of'I.T.V.offersno guidelinelilo-ni howtoprepatean ef1'e c t i ve videotapedaec eur e• Certainlyone purposeof. this prese n tresearchis~oa.t te mpt'toisolatesomeof these variablesand, th'us ; of'fergUide),i..~e~"f o r t hl preparat.Ion gf ane~fectiveL~'.V .~rograi..¹

.:Lea!;"! ";fromTe'l~~islon

Writingin 1967'ceo andSchramm ma deaco mp r ehe ns i v e reviewof the

~it·era.ture ··invQIVin9

^{r.e ,v . 'lheirrev! ;",}

sl.UMIa ri zed421co mpar i s o ns betwe en I.T. V. andT.!.·Their results areshownin.Tab-I.e 1.

TAB LE 1

Resul t s ot421 com~risonsbetween inst ru cti o nal.televi sio nl'

andc~n~entioi\alteaching

No t e ; FrOm Ch u -ene'Schr~U967)

so 28

>4

-u 63

10 Television ,J!IOr ~ef fective

··••Ii,'

308

'. '

152

>4 NOsignifi c a n t

dif f ere nces Elementa ~

sec()ndary College Adul t s

:'" 7. As canbeseen frOl\l Tab l e1. I, T.V,ee eastobe able tobe used Doreeffec tive l y.inel?entary_and seconda ry schoolsthan at'the coj.Leqe~evel: butevensotheper ce nt _q e.

ofall

cu~~ Whe¥:JI.T' V~'~;~

" "

effeeti~e

^is" "

H: a.~

this,perc enta ge1oiOuid undQubtedlybe lowe ri f.i.lls~udies .which'showe d nosigniflc:~t'di'ffei:~nc:esw'e~;;r.~Poib~din

.

.

.

.

. '. ;:

the,~itera.ture~:;

O n

the bUis,of ,the se res u l t s c.lJ.u and."

SChr~

^{we r e'forced}

tQ :c:~nC:lu~,~"t~~' i:T.. ~,.,:,,!=~ :~ 'u.s~r!!

·~fie~ti'Ve1).,,1I.S'T'.I,whenl~arnidg effic;ienc:y'''i~meas~~ed,"

',bu t,'!i~

^{..tth a t'}LT .

· i. f~ :a~;.~~t~er· , c'~r·--";':o,rs~j.: th~~" T:I~'

^.

Sim~lar ·.findin9-~·

wer e 11.110

6 fo~th,comin9 frOll\D~b.i.n

andHe d iey (1969 )•.Reviewinge)C c l u lli vl!1 y atth e,colie g e. level,DUbi~-andlledle~'provide

.

II.1IJOre detailedsurve y.of

.

theeffect ivenessof I.T.V. The yreportedon 191'different·

compa r i s ons :102favoredI.T . V.whil~:89favo r ed'T. ! .

. I . . .

~ev.er.-.>st of these diff erenc:;es (abou t 90U~ere no~

s~9nilicant"'t the~tallldard!eve io~,,~ta tistiCalsignificance', (.OS) . Dubi na~d Hed~ey~ncludedthat in~~higher.·ed~­

cati onal se t t i n9-inst ru c t.i o n a ltel evis ion proouc e dno bet ter

Dubina~dTaveqgi~119681.!?r o vid e a thfrd·s.u~ey wi thasimi la r conclusion. They lIurveyedth~fe-su~ ts'of74, studies'th a t compared

:-,~'rious,_teac~~ng

methods"at

~~e.'bi9h~r .

Ieduoa'tLo n lev el. Du bin and.Tave;99iaC,QnCI \1dethat "froiDall' of th~stud i e ll't a,k e n. tOgether.therewasnoev dde nc e"for the Buperior"effe ctive r:ellS

o t

one~each.ln9'lIethod ov e r-~no~er atthe~ile9'elevel.~•.

,

,~.

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,.'. ;> .:;'"

,'; . .

..

.

'.

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I

Jencks "S~iJ:h.,Acland,,Bane';Cohen,.Ginti,s" ~.7Yns andMichelson (19'12). after anothe r.similar.r ev iew,SUlli

'up allthese ins ignificantfindings:-~We'see'no e v i de n? e

that

eithe~

:s c ti<iol.

admb,istr~t~r~': ~r: 'educati~n~l 'e~p~r-t~

~o~>~~~ t~ r~i~e t~~t' sc'~~e~n'"i~h;~ugh ~>l'~ V~!~ ,::

..,_~.^more.t~~~n.t··'re~l~w~^;':Wells·.h·~l7Eh-'~nd:suillv~n

'

'

!?f't.oaax~·

_. '

No

si~lJifican'~

differences

i/ ~he most fr~queriely

quoted-conclusionof eurveya'compa.r,ingtHe effec-. tivenessof altern ativeins~ructional technologies.',' While.t.h d s effecti.vE;nel:lSconc lusiondoesnot differ....

.for't he researchreported here••.~we'.ne ed ),to discuss,altern~tlvecri t eria'formeasurin9~ef£ec~

t.Iv e n e ee'.e n d toanalyze.poten ti41,..researchpr o blems . Why:_.'1s_,there'_"

~'UCh a',~ell;~t~

^{'o f}

insi~n{fica~t ,~ifferel\ces ,

ⁱⁿ

" ". ,'. ",. "',".,'

th1sfieldand what,,'f urth er ''i nte r p r e tat i o nsdan:bem:ad~

;h~ :Pr'e'vioUSlY 'me~tione4 unf~vo~ab'l~: a~t·i~~~'.,tt:~t·

. :.::::~:~:n:~:~:;::;::v:~:· ~.~. ::':e::::c:~ . . . .

i~.t~.

J ., T. tJ. •,

ha,s,ahown,'-~t^'it.pr oduc e s·.n.o~ ti~·tt~r,)ear~in9"·

'. - '."", C'. '

Con aequent.Ly,educators.

·~....

9•

.:,

wil.l-!~t b~.·,~~i.mi~i~hed ::' ;', ,rit .~,~~'d ·'~~;ta'~;:?-y'::;;S~v~'~-\h~" ~:

: .inSt~~'~.tO\_f~o.m.:·,~i~in9 " t~,e, .. ~·a~_.l~~'tiire '_~~~'lri.~}', "':_ ,'. __ < . '. ·~t:'.~.·

^{.. ,}

. .' :To

, s~p~r~!:tJ;ti~.:~on,~en~i~n ._th~.t_.''7he·,i~t#C~i~~ .~f :

I.or;'v;'"Wouid'be.adv'a'nta9eo'~6.

to

'the,'leariii~9'.p~oces'sasa"

.'. - ~~'~i;'~ ,,<~~ :;~d~c'i~'~s ,'of '1. T :V

j

'~~ve': '~s~d" t~~' af6-r~~~~~-~one'd

'~:o~~i4-nifica~~~~i-ff~;enc~>llndi~g:~

^:.tp'"

~~~~rt 't~~i'r ,~-.

...

~

^.

...,.... . . i'.·

• • ." ,' • • "1,,,'"", ", " • , ',

EXPh ininiThese'InSiqnificantDifferen ces~AJ;'roblelll

ot

contro:

~ ,'~~~ '~

:./ :'.',,':",;" '.';..(..

,.~

.'.',_',"";

~" .,

".""','':':'.::,.- .One'.r,~asonoffered~,:,-y s~ 'mllJ\Yoft;~esest,l1die s:Ii<l~e.

Sh'6.~.', i .'~.~

^..

~ .':fin~fidant~ ,·d:l.ff~;~n~~~:

^..

i~: ~.i;'c'~A~rio~' ''v;da'ble/s ~ ,

',.' .'"",

...

,;.-"\.

B,ast!fl'.OIlthist~b;e ChU'<~nd^{Schramm {1!l 67j}~Oh.CIU~~,,~.

,-t here_-.rano ge rier.a_{<.' , - ,}lareawh~retel e visio n_.' 'ca~not_. beused'"_-

.:effectiv~lY^{to:teach,t he}stude~t:'!' ". Thi'6.cert.a l~ly:iseece ,"

but':may-be

a

^littlemis-le~dil'j,_9.sincet:he-lie~di~9'forthi s

' . ' : ::::i r:::.~::r:::::::i::~:h:::u:,~ro::: . • :~::,::~~':~:: :i

. _{~'~ .'.: .'" ··}

'"s ame datll:.hll_~

r;~~1~±~~,~·;;ji~·~}~

{.e~d_~~er~ ~~t_age,~~WhiC~,,~on:,enti

~'~\~

o.n~_~..g~.OUp9

·d·i:~ · aS W~.li·

^<ls..

.'~r '~_t~~r tha'~ ,~e_ ~_9r·o~p~. R th{'a_c'tu~l

-

'.pe~:~e~~g~s : fO~ .,~;.Oh.' :~~~,e~\- ~rea _~d~ld" ~ _, appio_~i~~~e;lY. th~

sameas those'inTab l e 2(from Table'1·)-a nd thi 'sseems-to

0•• '_,__ ,','_ '• . , , _ • ,', .'• • \

• ::?_:~~ . . ~~i~~nce, a9a~ri.st,', th~',i,~~:~d~.C~.io"n·' ~Ij,eff,ec:,~~'~~n:~s,~;

^9f"

'; ,I .T;V•.,.Indeed,~fa.thi·r d.tab~ad:bee n'intrt?du ced",~~er- .

cerit;~~e;:'i~W~ich'

^TV

'sroup~: ~idsJ4niff~a~~ ·better.,tha"~ ' th~

.

' .

.

.

^{', '" ,}~. ^{,.' , '} '-.. ":" ,':

~:,con;,ention~l:9~OU,PS,ft ,thepercenta.g~s-.wo'uld-have'b~.en'-5Cl

'~~~li::' t~,t ~~e'~ '~~ld b{i~ais~if~C'~~'~'-

.'

~t7'~Uld :~eeIii" '~h~t~,

thes e.find'in gs

c::an" ~~" s'i~+y 'i~ter~~eted-"to'fi~' the' ~s'i~io;n" ':

'. '~ ':~~a,~" ;;~~ ~~ld~ . ,'.·:I~ :'~p~e,~~s': ~~a~ona~le, 't;' sim~l;", CO~'~l~~~~'

that:w~t'th esedata •sh'o;'"-is'.tnat,

I,T:'; • .is

"no"be t t e r- or'no

···. :r;:e:::e::~17:::::te~~~~~u,ti~n,.h.,; ~u~~n" ~ffic,,~no~

:',' ,

:-;:.','".

n ,

" : .,

:'.'

ha ,l.be en-suqqellt~.^bySt~ckell.(19 6 3 ) •.S~ckellapplied.,:the

-.

stric~ Bc1~n~c . r~it:ents for ad~ate .~~;.!JnenUl

designto'1 50COlil pa ri so nsofI.T. V.withT,I.·~showed

tha~ '~n1Y

^:10

' (~" /IlI~t'

^these'.

requ~~~ts.:

^TbeIllC?st

f~equ:nt

^.

re a so na

~ tudy ~~~ df~~~ 'fro~·hia.

compar1.,jons.ea e

beC~U8e

· _:: ,~~:::"~7~:;:f~:,~;:~~~n~ti/:~~Y:" \'" ','.

...

'~

^'/

~ s~',~cts, .~~~~'~\:~.ei~.~.,th,~ _~wo d~~.fer~n:, ~~,th~&

^..

~f.:~~.~tr~c-

<. ',:,.' ';;:'

"tio~o~.~e,~.~:ne.t~~iC,.an.d then,comp~~e,t hri t,.le a r n i n g:.:

.'No t'only"'iII't'iiis;unreB.-lis ti~

b u t

It'a1's o ..1s expetimEm tally··..·'

;., ""'..,>,,::,,', .'~ ,"",: ~-',"',',':.."', ,,'.. ' ::.'. ,:','.'.::"':,;'.":_~~~:."':,':.

.'..':::.~nad.::quatobE!cau s e.o t thepJ:"o~l.~~,in~olved,wi th,p'r~g.1'Julsive

,-

.": :e~f~~t·a. Th~~,'::wh~n:\~T.~~.¥d ·.T~~,: ~~~~t~- ,~. ~?m~~e~-\.t~"~~

^...

matc h e d groupsarea·n ece s s ~ ty.,::Mpll,t lItudi es''i nve s t iga ted: 'b Y

stic~eU !a~'ied

^{'t o}

in'eet,~'~i~. ,c~~t~i~~·.: .Ma~~ ~i?·. not

^',,:,"!-

-·~nsu~~eth.,at:·th'edi ffere~t-.~ro.up.sof ~ubj eCt8were atth~.

sCUl\e.

'~~a~~ic leve.~

^or-that

,~~' p~~vious~i~d?~

^of,the

·&,~J:lj eC~p.;..tt e rwas :.,eQuai fo;'the"diU~rent.9~OUPS^{before ,.}

....the.experilll.entai~iplJiat:£oiiswer e.P.erfoF~. 'oth~r~ontrol'.,

:'

..

" '. . '..:-..',

. .

^{; ' " '"}

'," .,:"' "

,; ,' . ':,' .

-.

problem!l.in~lved.uain~diffe r en tinst.ru~toJ:"lIforeach:o,f'.: ,

",th e

diffeZ:~nt .me~~· ~fi~.8t~:~ti~'n o~:'ha';ing .·th~~· s"~~ ;

·

in~.tr·~~~~.;;~,ae~:.~;rd ' ~H:e~e~,t' ~b.j~~.~~~~l1)~\ ~ e·:~.~f~~r~~t:· ~

^:'.,

me t hod s,' Othe r investigatorseeeraee.haveIlIaXlllli2~_the .

~al~ost· un~ontioil~ble'H~~th.6i~e· eff~ct :'·ins·te~

of

attem~~ing

~:::::::;~:]:£;~P:j:~;:~~f::::;r:~£~:::,t·:.::i<

.

^;.

I

[

.. \

j ..

1 . j

· · ' l , r

^.

j

1 i -: j . .. ..

L I _,

':"J

'.[.

l' 12 .

""\

"\ 'I

" \" t . " .

In

a

more xecenecritica lrevfew, Campeau'(I974)'

, ,_.0\

found,only-abou t'a dozenexperimenta lstudJ,. es thatme tthe

.,-'

\

^{. '}

, .

criteriatha t' gavesome assurance'that their.findin'l~were

int~~r~table~

^-,

J- /: .: . - ".

. '" .Thi s prohlenil 6f'i·nslq~ificance."has

been. vi ewe d,

in a

.'.'

. . \

' ,

^.

dif.~er~nt._ve.~~~by _A.ver~~~_

,S :uroU,_

~:~a1~~O~,':" .K~eSl'i~_gand'

pun~uS ' :(1972 J

^;.:

Al~hJ~9h' tMy '·~9r~e. ~hat: l'Io" 'one:lteth~d·_of, ·

i~1

^practices

%~~3:1

^{that doseem-to}h~ve~si9nif~cantly.

~ ~~~ ~ ~:~i'

affectedstudent-outcomes."';'l'~eproblem1,8that other-studles, si mil ar'Inapproa~h.andmethod; . find~t hesame edu'cational:practices',t o-be'In- '.effectivel'(,thus.no si gn i fican t,e f f e ct.overal·l)

and weha ve.n o"clearidea whythis,dis<;:repancy exists.,tp p .x-xi,~,b ra ck ets mine)

Ttii' s'cOu l d:'pOS;'/lbl y-

b 'i;;--a" nior~valid'

^{sutiuna ry}

o f

"the . .. ..'. . ··1··· . .. ,... ," ,.. '. . . . curre.ntrese arch's i nc e aboutc;m e,ha lf"o f:~he:st.u(l.i e N'r eviewe d

~Y 'ChU and' S~h;~'. (1967), " Dubi~,'an(l.Hedrei ( l9~~;·;·:·.'and: D~~lil . r:.'":·

.'and

~'~~e9~ia: ' il:~·6.~/.·'~h04-~~" .~if'!~;e,~c~~ : (~h~wev~r

^.

~'~aiil:, ;~ . . ,:(j.'

.favor of th~'t~ie~isio'n' iniitr~ctlo'n::

~O~;dc::~eA:::;:~,:{~f(::7:,:::eC:::T':!:::g:';~::h

:et,}':l."~ner,.:no..~~plan,aUon'for-thisi1~.sct'e.p4ney"" :lllOJ:'~recen

7

" ' :":" "- ,'>, : ,S~ill\'an

^{l97i;','

l~,.,h h~s ·off~re.d. e~~bn~ ti6~'; :~i '.

(b"wh'y'-:~~if._~~ -_ ti.ese·'st~~·ie/ ~~~6el ' 6Ut: O.~h~~:" ha~i:··

--14 2 _ "' _.~ " ."

b ' • ,..

" ^.

.~. ,

\

.,

~.

se t ti n g..

.'\• .

~3.

AgUn the protJlem

i•.

^{one of}

con~ol~ SUl1iv.i.~·

(1974') 'a / .w e s. 'that

~'ny

ⁱnh e ren t difficulties in carry incjout.

t : . . ... . , . .' . . . ."

·~e·e.xperimentalre s e a rch.inth~ pract~c.. l e4uca t ional ..

. ' . I . . . .'"

Inc l ud ed prominen tlyin'

these

difficultiesare.

the

~~~b;~~t~~lltn:~~i~ell=~i:e~~~~;~~; .:nll~~e· ,. r

:..:

~~~~~:~o~' :~~:~~~~'~l~6~t:e~~tc:'~fa~~~~~~i"l~"

^....

".~.':

~h~n~~B.(e'9 "'·,in,'attit~~es.)w.hichh~~~tak~n.:Pl,~~e;.,·:.>:,.:.

. . .' ~~l{i.~~n (~ 9!.3)':-~e~nstya~~d :'~~;~h~r·:i~~~t~nt' r~as~n . ,':.~hY th~~e .,r'';~~{t'~'; .~~:y.h~;,~>~~ri~e~'e'';'" '~a'~,~:: ot~~~';'o~t; :::riam'ei~'~· '

.." ','':",.,~

.'

"' . .,,' '. ' .', ,.',

.

one'of,overgener a l iza t i o n of,r esult s,'particula r l y,with ,".•

.... ':.' ",.'. ,',',';',. --'",'..,,--/,:.'.", ' - :,.'i," .,., -: '.':.::o'... ".

reg ardto th~ch~,r~cteris"~csoft~e'~.ear~,er:,.a".~,.~ubje7t-;::r.

·

~.~ter. R~aearc~e~

^•.,in-

,~is, ~.rea"ht~·. ~O~.ti~~aliy. ma~~ . • ~ · ~ ' . :

·nifi~antconclp.~·ona.too~oad'-: for wli.! '."t~es~

ccncruefc

5' . .

"eere

app~~.~ .~ '~ .~if!~rent·=~_l:t~op;· ·o~.

^U:S8.d

·.f~r:.a_·

^...

~i~:~.,~ .tZ!r: '

anbj ectarea .'result. have beetl·ln4nificlll'!'t.'.(Foran'/'~.~.

7~~f~~~~~§}~

·.muc h'cur~erlt,r~aellrch.at ,tempt s:.t,C!.tmp~vJ!..cla~sr.0om i";stru~~

1

-.'

! ....

Hart;·th~t r~s'earch'sh6uld:be'c a r ; 1edouf'iri-the'Cl~~sroo~

:.::G~;~::::::~~:::::3:~:;:·,:~;:::::~;~£~::~~:;:e:.:' ';'.

;.:

... ... .

.' ." .. .,:,:.' ,

..

1t(;?~~ ·~:;.-~/.":;~:.- :~~;~i;~, f,~; k ~~:;z:~:~;~~:~" ^{' c., . 2; : ':'-} .;~ ^.".

....

"

-'~,"" "

~' ,'"

input variablesmigh tnot be;de t ec t ed,b~caus,eof,tb.is,~ontr~i

Pt:~bl~,

^and

th\l~

^w?uld

be\ende~ed

^{us e r ese'( ci..}

~i~e

^{'i err ol!'l •}

.

_ASide ~,.from' :tli'~~' P'~'6bl~~ ' ~f :;~equ~te" '~;ntrOl'~'

^a

~e~6nd

reason'offered-as,'to ~whY·'s";m~ny⁰ 'thes~''s tud i es' -ha ve:~hown

~~s~~'ifi~ant' 'di~£~~~~ces

^in.the'critc

:~~. ~:a:~:iab~es'-~OUld

^'.;

·· ~~~]i~~7i;~~Ei;~ri·· F~r~~eiiOOre; :~'~~

^..

~t~die'~\:~~~· ,be~n:',c~;~'~~ ,~~t 'o~ei ·

.the

pe~'io~ ":ofJa ~~~es~~r:·: ~~/d~~lng.

^{tha t;}

~i~~ _i: ~o~S~d~rab'~e

:

~~~u~~'

^.oz.

'-lear~in~: ',ha~",::'t,a~e~~p~~'~~" o~,~,'Sid~' ,~f. :thE1. . '1~i:rri,i~9 ·'

^'.'

:, sit~ation, ':tha~ is,

^{'individ uals''have"a}

'~tivat~on:' t-o ·~chieve'

^..

" ,.:,.':",,- .'

:,'.

:"",.'; ',--.,,','\,:^" '.'.,,:

"." ,

.,:

and.wi ll pe,rfprrn a,ther,le a rn i ng expe riences whi c h will-.he,j.. p.

th~t~:.::.t::;::a:~Lp~i~n to t~i' t""de~.;~a""'e~n .

~at:tley h~ve','prOduc~',;esu~t,!'wid.tih'-,~'re,remarkabl y'"tnor~' cons!~~~nt',andc~he;ent.- .than::ot~erres'7,~l:'chers

·In .

t~is ,Th~h in~es'tigat1O'ris"which'·'i~~o lved:acOmparison:oflive

and"

~ideota~~4.,~~s~~~~~ion,'. h~~~" di~:~~~,~ ' c : '~~e ' m~jci~~~'y .~

~., __ '. " ":.'" "" ,:'oJ, ,' :_.~, ~".."

, ',.< '. ..

of,studi es'in'tilb'.area;in .ehefollowing,wa.ys:

."''-:'., : : ,;..,..,. , '"

..

^'..^{' ,} " . ":,:.': - ,,,', ^{' ,'}

Fi~s,t ~ ~eY':hav.ew~,rke~ ~ith CO?C,~PtsWhi~~',:,~",~e

m'e·asuiei,·p~~cis.~~Y

^an;

:in.- ~hi~h

^the

:l~~e~;:;o~ ~~e~io~S kn~~

led~.~·' ,i~,: ~~~''''':'-:,i>'~a~,-,t~~s,'~po,~9;~~1~' ~o~:m~,asu~:~ ,j~~ie~~~rit' '·f

\ i th

~reater P-~~ci8i~n ,t.t;:,in

^{,mois t}

&tudie~.

^{. . . .}

"~

9,,?-~h a6ind~viduallearning'from

o th.er

sources,h~s"been

gr eatiy'

i~duced~

·· ·.··.di(fi~ui:;i::2~~:O:i::r:::~i;::n:~::::l:e:;::.:71:t '

'. . :::1~1:·~:!:i7::'~~fe:::t::.:!:.' ·;~::~~:n::t:'i::o:~::e~ . ..' .

.(l??:n',~h ~:S

cettinq :

^or,fl~O.~"effe~t:/6.11',consi.~~e~,~rPbl~

iri, ~d~ca~~onal" re~~a~ch ,o~'·.th~.S· ty~e ~~d

^{,h e}

,S~~q~~tS .t~i~·~"-·

.." ': '.".-", ' "'

..

',:.' .,' ,': ',".-."::,,':': ''- . "':"":'. ',

~:.~,S~ ibleeX~l,anat:i,o~"for,~he o~e~~a~~n.daJl.ce'o f insig~:,."',."

; ','.

~ifi~anr~if ~~.~~:n:~s.:~~~n th.~ e~~:iti~enes,~ ,~;~:.;,;a:.i~t:.,.:

^{:. ,}

t::e achinq..rn~e shav,eb~eninv~.s t1ga t~d.. '" .:".'.•

A dditi or;a'r.:

suppo r.t·fo r.ene,imJ?Ort~n'C'~"o.f'a

'carefU l ly

~c~ns~~u~~ed':po'~tt'~8~':m~~';~'te': ~~~b~~'~ ~'rovi'd~d.by:'~~;~::an~ .~.

,:

: ~::r:,::I:; . . '::::\~::f:.:::n::v:n~::J::od",~ .

. ' . .. •..•.•.· • ..{ : . . • :~~::::':r::n:i:~::t,::::::~~::::::i::::::::t~;:~ ~

, ·..~~~.Chh~S:,~i~ldE;d,~.' prec~.~e, me.a6.ur~Ofs,t.u4ent'_,a ttlt:des .

'< foi.lo~i~g

.; ar i o us,

v'~deot~ped pre ~e~.~~ro~s·:~~- ~·

^{.' -;:}

. ,....

:

...:,-. " -,••.._~:. ; :~.:. :._/

}~.;~;~;:,'~t."~~~ffi/;~~" ,.,~~-~, _{- - . - - - -- - - - -- --}

~

(,I)~

o

~ - .-

0 ""',-

' (J

(j)-. -

[~ 5

^{1' -}

(fj -~- . l!J •

r-- -,-

f- .

(!) - -

o

C!.

"I

LL T v i, P I CONDIT~ONS

FIG. '2 Resu lt s, N ov.197 0 Mean Po stre st Scores

_{- . ~".}

(af;:-er Sull i\."",n~l-ayl

18.

lectureand. the text . Sig ni fic a n tly wors ewastheproeJriUlPed ins t iu ctionan dtilestudiotapes.

In1971 thi &st.udywas repeatedfourdifferent ti"'es;

....ithfourdiff e r e n t in s tr uctor sand .1nordifferences in the lIIet hods·used(impr ovedscrip ts.etc .I• t:heresultli,·aver~9ea eve r-all ttvestud ies,were eJl'actlythesallie ". for the firs tstud y (see Figure31..Su llivananc:!.Har tle y ecnc rueea 01'1 tbe baslsof all cneee stud i esthatth eli velecture 1s th~au perLcr- method ofins truc ti on whilethe studiotape s II.T.V.)and theprogrll/Mledins t ru c ti on produce th eleas t effectivelearning.wi ththe videotapesoftheliv e !-ecture and thetext conalstentlybeeve eothesetwo extremes.

Furtherevt e eece for thi s order inthe effective n e ss of these different teo1leJ1ing modes COD'Iesfrolll •more rec e n t st ud y doneatPennsylvan i a StateUniversit y (Go a. "Croft.

1916 ). Thi sstudy'inve&tiqatedthre'e

di tt~rent'me~s

^of

inst ructionin a'beq inn inq qraphic9course :tradition al instructi on Hive receuree),telev i sion inatructio n , and individualproqr~instruction. AlllIlethod.pr oduced. si 'JIIifi c an t learn ingwh enpos ttestscores_reCOIlIparedwit h a pretest gi.ven atth~ be~inninq^ofthecou~rse,^{but't h e}

t~ adit iona linst ructiOnwa s ai qnif icantly superi o rtothe t.elwisi onqr oupwho,in~urn.scoredsignifican~lYhigher than theind ,ivi du al,prog r ammed gro up.

/,Sul liva nand Har t ley's (1971)reBUlu andtlIoseot ,sees and Cr o t t (19 761ar ecLe~rlyinco nsistentwi ththe

otherfinding.al ready mentionedwhichconc l uaivel ydelllOnsU a ts

I~

' ''T1 (j)

.(,J

' :t> n

~J,~ ,0 1J'" Z ID III 0 ... cc -

III lD -l

;;D .o

i ~ ~ ~ ~

"; CD r+

e '(Jj

in

ID

• g ... _III ::I 0

...

~ o ' <'

;- ::::J C1l

~ (Jj

...

POSTTEST SCORES

. '

,~."

.

.: :

...

^'.~''''"... ;;.

thatI.T. V.

20.

isas

g OOd ' S

^{any ot he r method 'of i}ns tr uct ion.

Thus , one purposeofthe present re s e ar ch wa s tore p l i c ate theSu llivan and Hartley(197 11inve s tig a tio n.

Individual/ ' Differencevariables

Ano.t herimportant factor relatedtovthere lative effective~ess,of videotapedlnst'ruction is thefa c t that .indiyi du al di ff e r e n cevari abl e s alllOngstuden.ts areaomet.Imee ..corr,;le.ted withlearningeffectiveness.

The impor tanceof these variables cannotbeover- stressed . Indee d Sullivan (1973)demonstrated th eir importanoe inthis way:

Anygiv e n method of instructionmay produce an impro veme nt inthepe r torraence of one gr oup of le a r ner s,but thatsame methodma y not necessarily fa cilitate theper f o r ma nc e ofothe r groupso.f studentswho do not have thesamecharacteristics- and may, infa -ct , actual lyproduce a decrementin

~heperformance'of studentswhose characteristics

are markedly different, -

KoganandWall a c h 1196 4) have expl ained this finding inanoth er way, In9tud:linq t:h e conseque nces

0t.

risk-taking be hav ior they•nev e demonstratedthe .import an~ eofwha.t the.v call~moderAtor.·persona lit y var i.able s, For ex ample:

If the slJ..JUple.. understudywere divided interms of sometheoretical ly-re l e v antch arac t e rist ic lvariable ),such asdegree ofemotional dis t u r- ba nc e , i t cou'l d be fou nd th atapar ticula rk'ind of rel ationshipmight.hcLd foroneof thesesub- samples butnotfo rtheothe r. Emotional dis tur -

• be n e e under <suc hcfrcceseenc escould be descr i bed as a characte ristic which~moder ated·anot h e r re l -at i onshi p- that is, whi ch influenced the form oftlliare l a t i onsh i p (pa gevii ,bracke t s mine )•

.;., ' :, . '

','

~,

. 4

~ 21.

Thus the present researchhoped to in v e s ti g a t e the ty p eof relationsh ipbetween,some ofthese,variable s and the different methodsof Lns t.r uo'ttonused.

Muchwork has al r e a d y been done inthisar e a. Recent reviews of thesfi! tr a i t by t-reatrnent interaction studies.

(likeGa g n-e.,1967~Cr o nbac hand Snow,1969~.Berlinerand Cohen, 19 73)su'ggest , with cautious'op£irni sm,tha t si9niffcant and important interacti ons'of this type are, in fact,not a rare occurrence~i? e;duclltioM~settings.•

Yet, Jamiso n et a!. (.19?}) w:reforced't~concl~ude that"a'bett~i::under stand i n g is needed'of howstudent vari- ables relate toachiev~rnent". They,s~:_this 11;,because researchershavege ne ra ll y ch,0sentoinv e s t i g a t e student va r i abl e s whi ch ar enotappr op ri ate for their ' par t icu l a r

~ea sureof achievement. They emphasiz Eltha t much further YOrkis.necessary in thisarea . (For exc eptions se e Williams

~1 9 6 ),1965) on intelligence,Shrable andS~ssenrath(1970),

on anxiety,Attiyeh?-nd Lumsden (1972) of} stud,ent background variables,Witkin(1"97~)on cognitivestyle, and Brown, Brown and Danielson (1975)on student ability).

Afteracarefu,lreviewof many of these aptitude by

.

.

tr e a tme n t int e r a c tio n s , Sullivan (1973) concludedthat in.the highereducationalsettingthe thr e e mostimportant"i nd i- vidual dif ferenceva z-Lahfe s " were intelligence;le v e l of an~iety, and degree of exe eeveestcn or introve rsi on.

From stric tlya theoretical point'o f view, stud'ies comparing liveto videotaped'ins t r uc t i onare a necessityif

/

22.

we <Iretodiecover whichmethodproducesthe'be s t"learninq:

howev~r.1n the applied,s e ns e am~chmore i.rnyortanta

7

^{Pli - .}

cationC?fth.istypeofre s ear c h,is t.o beable to answer the qu es t i o nof'h o wtomaketheme:!st effectiveuseafT.V .as anins trumen t of teaching and, learni ng. To thisend, a better'understanding is needed.or:h?W's t ude n t,,:a r i a bl e s relatetolea r"dn~.et~iciency,from,.t~1~viB.I,Qnbeforethe' moaeeff e cti ve'use

of

T.V.

Is'

fourid,( sE:!e·sera~in._1956) .'

jFo r

~~ ~~ng. ~U,~l'to:s

^{ha v e}

a~temPt~~tO "~_i~cO';er" a~

instructionalmethod whichwil~it^{a11students. I tis} tim~to realize.thati~div ld\lal'dUfer ence sexistamong iJll studen ts;arid thatsince all st.udent.s areno e.thes~methey are all.

.

not,l i k e l y to benefit

.

fr o m the sallie kind

.

ofinstruc- tlo fl;' lapproach. Maybe' thi sia"why",; e l at.iv el Yfewolf th e educ,ional'i n?0 vati ons devetopedduri ngthe 19'60·.'s.•.are in ope.re e tcn tOday"_:{Tr e n} &.Cohen ,19 73),0:r why-t he si9 nif~ ca n tin p u tva r i abl e s inonestudyar e indgnificant, inanothe~'similarstudy" (Avet:d~'et~l.,1972 ).

Th e author'Bgpinion is,c o ncur :rent'wi th'that

o f

Chu and Schramm(1 9 67)arrdCl a rk'(l97S"a')whohol~that it is tim~educatorsand ed ucati,:ma li~ 8 t it u t ionBoffere d student:

al te:nativeways,

o f

~e.arning••^and:'1.T.V'•.may,very well,be a viable.al te r na t iveto'conven tional lIlethodBof instruc t i on.

Asafinalnote here,it"isiJnportane;tonot ethat Bome'investigatorslClark, 1978a, 1978b, COOllIba,19 76) have

. .

at,tributed,thegenera1Insi gn iti pan ceand dba,rray ofthe ins tructional't e l e vis i o n fieldto-the di relack ofa

:..~

23. theoreticalframewor kon whi'l!!'hto beguided. Thisabsence of aworkable tel evision- learnj-ng.theory hu'rendered edu~ationa ltechnologypractical l y impote nt whenconfronted withproblemsO,f and malt.i ng··predictions about learni ng fromteLevf aton,' Ind eedClark (1 9 78a) has.c onclUded:

In my estima tion. ....earenot at the point yet wh~rewe have~ig nifican~gu i Qa Jloe. £rollr.es earch .

~~eh~t:~~~eoi~~:~~1~~:ss:;:1.i;~t; .~o~~:m!'ng

prodUcer,for the producti?no.f,nledi~ tedi.nsl:r uc,-·

:ionthatimprove.s'lea r n i ng',' .. . . . ....

PRES~N'1''RESEAR~H

In an attempttq explai n why Sul livanandHart l ey (l911)cOntin~ed

-r-

^{th e live.lecture~up~~or.t o t h,e}

.st u dio- v i d eo t a pe resul t ,th,: presen t.ree eeecb·t ook a closer

loo k atboththe live lec turea;d 8;OOio'tapepresenta:tio~s.

Itwa,s~cite<l^{that the} iilBt~uctorwhogavet.helivelec t u te s vas notal waysthesameonewhopxepered the studi o.t a pes'.

and....henthe instructorei'were"the"iJame the scripts/l e cllures

were'.not. .Sothe presentresear chkept instruc~ors<.theWsa me"

and SC];~Ptsas identicalas p~ssibl e ; Ano th er difference betweenthelive and'studi o methods wa s thatthe l ive'l ect u re s .did not,contain_,~,;

. t~e

^.."; sarne tytr e^.' 0;^.-.v^.i.s ual"~".

materi~Hs

^{' ' -'"}

the

..'

,slUdi~

".'." ^{: '}

tape. Abouton e -half of the stud,~9 tape~....alc~mpri aE\dof·~

~lideS,.^{graphic s aiul}fil~ 'Clips^while

the:

^{vi s ual;iaterial'o f}

'th e . livele c ture'cofupr isedc:n:ly what.the instr u c tor.put on

the blackbOard. The,'pu rpos eolth e Vis ua laid s ill:'the8tudi~

24.

tapeistwo f o l d ; to bet ter explain the concep t ~in.9 tauqht.and two, to make th elear ning interesti J19."C~uld itbe that by4tte~tingtomueth elear ningofthe.stu dio ta'pe interes ting. the vis ual'IIateriafaet.uall'y int e r fered .viththe learn ing oftheiJa~r~ntconc epts'and rende redthl!'

/tu;~,~;o·,tape8.1~81aef~e~tive? " anattem pt.to..an8~~r ~is' question,t h epres en t re se archinc l ud e s.anunusuallIlethod'

.. .

'::. . '

" : ' . .

.

ofinsvuc t ion , l ive':'with':'vi s ual s:

In

t111slIIethOdthevisual

. , " ~',.

•mat~rialofth~'~~iotape'b ahown 48sePllra te'clips,und~r

~e~~la~'cla~8room dO~dittons~·

.

. .

^.•

^{w i th} :~~ a~~~~pr~a~~" :l'iV~

explanationsilllilar,to the,studio tapebet.we~~ each clip . If-th e visual.,III.!Iter1~1 11interfe~ ingwith'l e arning.tnth e , lI~uc1i~~.pe,^{it should also interfere';ith a}live..se t tiriq• Bll,ti fitdO<lfln'.tand thel1ve.:.with-vis~al.peodueesmoJ:e eifiC'i~tle s'r n l n g- tha n.~studio tape.'thenthe'a po r tin t. vsri~leinthis'tY~Of i~ar~~qisnot thekind of vis ua l.

"';';'. :.--..'> -... ,

.

. . . ,

-.mat~r,ial

Per

s'e. bu'ttllelIle~odof pr.~~-:n tln9i t.

.Thisv!s,:" a l_·t~.rialwasd~s'i9n'~d-~~ ~ettwo Q

_ criteriaset down.i n·th eliterat~re ."'~~.~chant <;'75~

andcOldev~l~(19 75 ),'ha~~demonstrated th a t·therepet.iti~n .'Ofmate ria l

ill a

hel pf u l f a ct.or,in

I.T·:V.

productions. so'

some'

,'(~~ui:Zf1ve. m~u~e,s

^.intauU"of

thi~ IlIat~riai,

^was;

in fa c t:'

~e' villua:i ,'~~~ition

^of'

llIat~,~i~~ " th~t

^.had;r eVi ? USI Y been apoken,

Goas'a:nd 'crOf~'(1 976 )ar gue thataomemateria llends

itllelf,,~tter

^{·t o·te le vis ion}

lnSU.\,lc.ti9.n ,"th~n: C!ther .

^'.'they'

malntai~ th~t viaU~lly~~r;lented mat~rl~i

(likethe.c umulatf Ye

. .

, .'.~

25.

curve- the mate rial her e ) canbemade inherentl y more.

in t e re s t ing.on tel evis i on by theuseof appro pri atevis u al materia lt!'tdn'merel ytalk ingabo utth a tpar tic ula r topi c . So theremainin~si x toseve nmin ut e s ofvi sualmafeii al invol ve dtbe ~wi n9of gra phs ,.e tc. _~ma nneruni que to .te levi s i on.

T ~is _-... manne~

^was. ^'

Cc;:i~~nt

. ^wi"^ththe

9~ideline~

of Dwyer (1.976) withr~spect~,;supe riJtl~ siti.On'.de ta iled·line dr a wi ng presentation ,

and

ptiot~graphicpresen~tion. AII,of ilie

Vi~ual-

^{inser t s}

w~r¢ explai~ed b~' VOi~e·-'Over ' ~r~a~~C;;~.

of I.T~V·.,_~hepre sen e researc h"· 1iIVe sti gat.e d..fivedjf'f~rent me thod s of.ins tr\lctio~ :i.ave~cture_s.'vid~tapesof~ive le c ture s, aeudLo-ipr-c -duc ed videot a p.s , a ivewit h vi su al s and a textcond iti.o n . Toilaximize le~rningdif f e r ences 'each cOnditionwa spre cededby a pretest. (Fora_re~vj.ewonth e useof a pretes tseestudi es by'Uartle y'(1 97 31who ' shOi'l'ed that'itseffect

depe~dB ~pon

^the

pi:i~~' JmOWled~e

^{an d l:;heu}

char acte ristic s ofthele a rner.>.Eac hcondd,ti onwi!sthe n

f01l0we~/:

^an

.tmmed~ate Postt~st.

" "

cum~~at.~ve,:~rve

wascho s e n as subjec t matter ..Nulilerous inve stigations have

: I. .:.'

demonstr ated that the s:ubjectmatt er ~hose n.Le

,a

critic a l variablewru;.n'1'. 1.,an d IoT. V.aretO,becomp ar ed;' Bi-owri et

. . '

al.,(197 5)"~l1ionand !:;eb r i ng (1976),eoe s'andCroft-'(1976) an dSul l i v a n'a nd'Ha r t l ey ' s

WO~ks S~99~S~hat

^the CUIIlulatl.ve

. " '. .I . ' '

curve fsappro pria:t e fo~th1~typeof.inv e s t igation'.

The'

tin~l;'

^al

th~U~h .ee~t41nlY

^not-ieast

impo~tant;:

^q

reaso~for-the p~s'ent^researchaiso'stenllD.~.d. i.n,p ar t , from /

'.~

. .

26.

th eSulli vanahdHar tl ey 1197 1)observatio n that when video - .ta ped inlStructio~ w.n co mpul s ory.att i.tu de ..,'towardJ. T.V.

range clfrt?JD extremelyfavorableto extremelyunf a vo rab l e for both st~ent sand faculty_ Thisinvestig a t ion is arso born e ou tin fact. Detailedinv e s t i g a tionsof

va

evers' attitude s ccreev.ie(1975,19 77),Duckand 3ilg9111ey (197') have shown

t~ll~

variables' su c h asthe

'lectur~~ ' 8

^age,

b~ck9round . ·

expe~ti8e.. ~tc.ca~'produc'e_diff~r~tialvi e w.e) attitudes •

•." Undoubtedl y sODlestudEmts"liJce'and'le~r n^{'fr om'}x.e.v.

Ii 8~me,of,

^{the se'}

s~u~e~t person~li:tY chllr~oteristlcs

^{whi ch}

.

^{~ .}

.

^.

.

co r r el at ewithlell.rn~n9frOllI. T , V•.COUld,bebolated•.it. wo uld beMfit both stu de n t and instruc tor al i ke• .I fany educationa l instituti on could pr edic: t bef orehand wh i c h stude nts ....ould bene fi.t Ma t -f romwhich method. of instructi on . i t wouldinprov e learn l nqeffic ie ncy . Co n s equently. the.present researc hatt elllpt ed to ide n t ify the

-eyp.-

of Itud ent who

ie~rns

belt frOllldiff erent'me thodsof inst r uction,par t icula r ly liveverace videO t apein s tructio n (a eeSullivlUl 4?dSk~nes (1971) andSkanes ,'Su lliva n,ROwe andShannon(1~n 41 for

_ >c:

. .

Theindi vid ualdif f e re nc e vllri able llchosenwere

concurre~t' with S~livan.

^(1973,-'-

i~telliqenc~.

^{deqre e6f}

-anxhit; linddeqree.

~f. i~t~overSion

^-i;r axt r llveraio n.:

\.KnOw~edge

'. ' "

.

, . .

of the'intera c tiOfl. ofth osevariabl~ Bwiththe different'

method s i?fIn8tr~~,t'ioJlcou ldvastl~Improv~.thele a r n i ng e.f.ficiencyofthe se'"tYpeSM of stud e nt s.

' l ':

:.~

.

-:

·CHAPTER II

METHOD

Stud yOne

4

Sub jects

Thesub jects were236fir~t-yearstuden t s'~egiste:red for~...theInt~oduc tory.P9 ycho lo9Y 'course (Ps ycho logy, 'l ? OO)at' Memo1a~ vniversity.~~Ne"':f o untl l a rld , T~'$~'2j6sub jects comp.rised }Sclass groupingsor&s e c : i o n5 . '. .

Theassigningof individua. l subj ects to a given section (class)is no e akintotr ue ran domiza t I o n

at'

Memori a l Uni ve rs ityof Newfou~dland . The reg istrat i on proce d ureat Memor ia l Univers ityofNewf'oun~an.dmak e s itpossible~ha.t a groupof atypicalstudents could allregister in the eeme ee ce.ic n. Thus, the dat umuni tinthes e,s tudi e s issec tion s (cla sse sl.a~dnotind i v i dual subjects.

Since's e ctiQlls we r e randomlyaSSigned.to the9i~

trea:mentconditi o ns rathe rthanindiV'~ du a lsubj e ctsand

I.-

stnce .~tlese

^se.

ctio~S

^{ar.e neste.,dwi t h in}

~.e~trn

^•.nt S" bo th-.

f. e

intern a landex te r na l validit yof ,thi swork is indoubt

.

^{',"-,._ .}

beca use rll,ndOmeerec..io n andassig nmentofsubjec t.cennc . beas sumed '( se ecamp~ll&Stanley,(196 3 ) ,the'n~nequivalnt

Co~tr~l

Gr o up "DeS ign ). . .

j

Inanat t e!flpt to bet t'e,rmee t both theinterna.l~nd exter nalvalid i t yo't.these studi" sthe ..t.ol ; owingBtepswe re takerJ,:

lB.

l } Apretenwa s I.dminh tere<ltoall subject s iuledlately t.>rlor totheir qivent re atae nt Icond:iti on. This ~1,I1denableprevious

krKN'ledgeof the subject ut terto be ucertainlld.

{ ^{. .•..}

,2) Itgeneralachievementmeasure"(Grad e 11 '.avera:gej

."

"!l.is obt a.i ned onai"i

s'u1lj~9t~t6

' .

'

see i favera geil~hievem~;n,twa s con s t an t acr d ss"'c ond 1t.Icns,

" ',' '. 0"

3) As.it:turned'out; whenmere .t.han on e

sect~on ·t.I~~ht

^by'

t,he.·~~llIe

^{i.nstructor WAS'.}

';used (i natr u cton eachte ach threese cti ons) .each oft,he s e sections~nded.up Ithro UC]h

random.a.~i9rnnent) ^tobein

dl

Heren t tre ",tJne nt..condi.tio n s.

."

.

. . : \

.'

....

.'

. .' _ . .

.

.

requlr.Cl u sroom,i;'t the r~qui.llr:~iaS8 ti~~^•

..

expeime nt~WCl: 6

to

ta;';e piace., !Otal inlltr,- .uc on l~lt~d.^or(ly 20 ainutu~ ^{thepOst tes t}

wa . adm i ili.t e red"imme dl11tely"aftertheinst r:

-,uc't i o

a~ ::~1

took.'·Place1n.t he

.Ubj eC~' a

',"

":>."

29.'

in

one t"";nty--arlnq teper iod:'-

" '.' " ", . ' ., ' .

.

~41 Jl;no-:'l edgeor itsbalicfa t t l canbemeasur ed. reliab~y^and accuratel ybyawe ll-eo n struc t,e d po.t~eat .

5) ~heeopfeten d.,itselftoapplication ""'7Ype .:problem..and these novel pr?b1emllcan a~,~?

for thefo llolli nqrea s on, : . ' ; ll~The eub j ec t s',prEl.viouskt1Oll~edqBof "this

topi c isverylowandth~reforethe patt ernofJ,.;"arni nq lhouldnotbeco~~afll­

ina ted byvaryi nq level s of previous

expe.rienc aacross section•.

21I t~8i~<:lUded:a~:a·.t~P lei~'the,"1nt~oductory

,_: . -: ·,<~.Sye~~.J.:O:Y.: .~~~~_~e~

^:

a.~· ^. ~~. t.h~i ,~he ~t~e,, ~.~,,- ^{..'- :}

.-e.-'--.".-,""

should,

underst~~"-d..i',,,'~h~e

'","",'

;.to,..: ._c_-,-t_eh ~e ": ."' ~ :

^.;

-;::-:-~2

. ,

l1te~~~ur~" i'n

-.'~"

be

^{_aa ur ed}~eliably .

or •floor-'.~f "fect1....not likelytobe

:'~he fOllO... ~~,~_~;i~i.·~·~r~

pre p a:r ed:"

·li ·.p·re~~~t· ~' co~~trllc~Bd

^{. .;}

a , con'troli~chni~ue ~

measur e

'~revio'u~ k~~1~d9~, t~e·"~ret'e.~ :c~n~ilt'e~- ~f '~ou~ ;

,~ul:i;J.e .~noi~.B 'q~j.ti~n8 ; '

^Two

oi\h~'8e :-

.

.

30.

itemsrequi red the

8t~den t

^to

:~o~ re se~tion.Of

^both•

' - , "

..

^{- " ,' ,}

cumu lative curve ilnd • perf9.rmance-per-uni t -o f-cu rve (see

•-.".0 .' . ' ' . :. .

.Flqure.4).Vhi letheothe r twoas ked thestude nt.toid e nti fy_

..':

. ,....

{

. .. . " . ". " -. . . specIfic5ecti~n.of_~given"t;:uDiuht lvecu rv:_vhi.~b~6r;

.:

...

:1. respond ed toapartic u l a r.r•.teofre spon se'lll~. e"5) •

~~~ ^{, :1 " , '.: "} ".:"

-.'th.e·l1.veJec~ur:w~r,~.bett~~_.

~~i.±:[~I

s~i'te~,~o',this tY'pr' ,:

Of-inCI,> ~J

J' .. uc~'ion~~ ~~.~i_~.~),;>h~ ; ,·~Ud.en~.~· ~~~-[~-~;:~f.:~,~>~i··r:e~f,r< r:~ ::~~ ':

I work s hee t~. It,c~nsis.ted o f ~ouritems,th r e e:o f whi,?hj..

I

requ!.r ed the'

',t~deni"

^to-

dra~ a dHf~'rent'·~h;~i cur~~' ~t

. :~~:::::::~~::::;,::<::::;.:::,:e:~ :::::~~,i ;, ; ' .

•·.. :::::: f::~::::.: ;:::~:lt.:tL7:;1.::~:~:q:r·;'i:7t"·t,

:.. th~.~.~~~t~·~O.dn~ th~_a~.prOP.r1..atef~rv~a.,:

G

/n.~c:~~;'

... .: .

.itn~dUtely_,pr~vld edthe st~en~swah,the cor r ec t iln~ r.:_.:',

·· ~

ana examp les

I 2;;;::

I,.a n·;inti-eduction

; ;;

'to

~:~

',thecpncept

;~~~~~~

ottho.cumulativ e

"t~;

,."..'

.

: : . . .

·.:·~~~ie:r~t r~tel.'

t:;:;~·.:7d:::: ~:::::>:::I~ht.::':i'tv.·

~l·~~8po_ndin9'. ~

_ .i~~:th:O::4 ... :: .:.~-r S:e:. ::.·e"·o'l ,:,, ,'

^'0:

··w .··~_. i,i·.:.:.·· .

^.•,:.

^>

" . ;.> '" . ..• .. .1 ·' ....\; .;.,."'-

...;',.' : ·.\<L i:,j:

.'

"

..

^"

" ~

/

,

\

.

~

,

' \

I . . , . ' .

•

Whi~h

curve on thE! right corresponds to the indicated porti on of the 'cu rve' on the left

',..

, \

. .

Per Unit of Time I:l'

J '

)

Cumulative ; a

d

F IG .4 ·Sample Item f rom Pretest

"";;"":':~," :;':;':_:-J!~'~::;-"

1:,'(:;r:e

I '

d

Cumulative Curve

\ . ' I

I

^I

I I

C _.;-- - -1

'I I I I

I I 1 1 - "

r

b"· I I I

I I I I

I I I I

I I J ~

a

I

! ^{I I}

" ,1.

Which section of this curve presents an increasing rate of response

a 'IS c

d

L~...

2. Section d represents

a an

inc're asing rate of response

c. a

stable rateofresponse

'b .a decreasing rate of response d no responding ','

j : ^{FI ,G.5 Sa~ple Item from Pretest}

' ," ^{~'t;';~ -.} tX i;/.

^~

..

^"'

- .

(

,4)Live lec tu r e. Thismethod of instruction is thetradi tio nalface -to- facelectur e met hod. The instructortaugh~the topic inawaythat in volved exte nsi ve ueeof the clas sroom bl ackbo a r dto demons trat.e approprh,tegraphs,visualmaterial,etc.

Thismethodinvo). ve dthe use ofthe wor k- she e t, theins t r u c t o r wouldput dataon the blackboard,and onthe irworksheets th e students wererequiredto drawa cumulative curve toillustrate tha t da t a. Inthe se "s olo"livesituations, the in s truc tor was fr e eto ada p t hispresen- tationtoany individual prcb.t ees a!:is ing in theclas s since.hewa s ori e n t e d tohis audi e nce(t h e students) . The same ins tr- uctorusedexactlythe same pre de fi ne d scr i ptfo reachof the differen t classes thatcomprised th is conditi o n. Tbe to t al instruction time was22mi']utes, eight of wbichwat!wor k s be e ttime for,the st ud e n ts.

b) Videotape of live lecture. Thismethod wasthe videotapeof a live lecture delivered undercl a s sroo m condit tons.

In one of the clas ses.that receivedthe live lectureinstruction (c o n d i t i ona, above)an educationaltelevisioncamera

crewcecccde d the entireproceed ing s (i ncludi ng any graphsor di ag ramsdrawn onthe blackboard andtime spent on the worksheet)onvideotape. Thill video;

ta p ewa s then usedas a separat e experimentalcondition and shownas a methodof instructionto othercfaase a , It i:s importantto neeethat any·learningdifferenc.es betweenthismethodand thelivele c t ur e coil:4itlonca nonly be at tr ibu ted to differences inthe mediaof instruction si nc ele c t u r er , sc ri pt , visual material,paCi.1 etc., are,by definition,exact;y the's~ . (From o.n experimenta l me t ho d pointof viewthistype ofcompa r i s o n between·tro.~itiona l instruction and instructiona ltelevisionoffers"khe pu res t control~.) Although th i s methodof 'in s t r uc'tio n is a video- tapedconditionit is not the-no r mal " or~traditional- type of videotapedinstructionsince thelect ur e rmade"!!£

~to"Lc okat the eeeere'": instead,hi s orient ationwas

""\. "t o thestudents. Any dif ferencebetweenthistype ofVi deo-

tape andth e -normal~_stU<:\io';produced~ape.scou ld,pfcourse, be attr ibutedto this. (A taped live lecturechanges the sta t u s ofth estud e nt viewersfrom tha tof dire ct ob jects

of

instruction to"i nd i reTt observersof theinstruc tion:) cl Studio-pr uc ed videotape's: The"- trad itional-

made - -the-studi o ty'peof lns J;r ucti on

________1:hou9 htofwhe n instl'ucti~naltelevi sion

is me nt ion ed. Thisstudiovideo tape,

.~

>S.

prepa r edwiththehe lpofaui educa tional televltli onpersonnel. wa sjud g ed tobeof hig hqualityin tenllB of le a rni ng fr Oll'l televilionlinceitcont ained 900<1 slid e s. d1a9 r 4';'.,and.graphic •.as illus t ra tions.

Th e tOtaldur ationojthistapewas 23 .1Rutes, 11~inutell^{ofwhichwasvisual} insert••

Thi.lIlethod of instruc'tlonco,vere dexac tlythesame materi alall in th eli vele ct u re;indeedmuchof.the dat a , gr a phs,etc., wer e id ent i c al. Thele ctur erOnthi stapewa li theI/lmeindividualwh oaam i nister e d theliv ele cturecon- .di ti ons;hewa s experienced wi th vi d eo t a ped lIlet hodsof •

in s truction ,havin qprepa r ed

_ny ,

studiotape s befOr~~~nd.

(Theexpe rie ncewithprepar inqstud lo-ta~.se emll

to

^bean

.

.

~~

es.ent i,lIlvariab lein. ~obta in.inqa-/proper -ccxnpar iso n

"""? "

liv eandvideo taped method s of(I n st ru cti o n·(seeCh~" SChr_ • .1967 1 . Int~iJproduc tion, t.he lectu rer-·wa s,of COur-se .

pr im,u i lyori e ntedtot.tle can>er-a.

d) Livewithvisua l s. Inan attemptec lealat ewha tvariables are produc inq ~e le arninq whic ht.a kesplaceduring both videoe..pedandlive cond it.ion ...a combina t i on ofbot.htypes ofmethod s calle"- livewi thvis u al swasintroduced. Thisnewmeth~~t.ruction^{was a} livele c t ure in the tradit ionaloriented-

.0