Data on the principles of the study of frozen zones in the earth's crust. Issue III

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Data on the principles of the study of frozen zones in the earth's crust.

Issue III

FOREWORD

In 1950 t h e D i v i s i o n of B u i l d i n g Research i n i t i a t e d a programme of permafrost i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a s p a r t of i t s r e s e a r c h on b u i l d i n g problems i n n o r t h e r n Canada. Fundamental and e n g i n e e r i n g s t u d i e s a r e being conducted on a c o n t i n u i n g b a s i s t o gain a b e t t e r under- s t a n d i n g of and provide s o l u t i o n s t o permafrost problems c o n f r o n t i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s i n n o r t h e r n Canada.

Because of t h e long h i s t o r y of i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and c o n s t r u c t i o n

in t h e permafrost r e g i o n of t h e U.S.S.R., p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s being given t o t h e l a r g e body of Russian l i t e r a t u r e now a v a i l a b l e in

t h i s f i e l d . The agency i n t h e U.S.S.R. which i s conducting r e s e a r c h on permafrost and r e l a t e d phenomenon i s t h e V.A. Obruchev I n s t i t u t e of Permafrost S t u d i e s ( I n s t i t u t ~ e r z l o t o v e d e n i y a ) . One of i t s p u b l i c a t i o n s e r i e s i s e n t i t l e d "Data on t h e P r i n c i p l e s of Study of Frozen Zones of t h e E a r t h ' s C r u s t t t and i s i s s u e d about once a y e a r . Each i s s u e c o n s i s t s of a c o l l e c t i o n of papers by s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h workers i n t h e I n s t i t u t e covering a v a r i e t y of f i e l d s i n c l u d i n g terminology, d i s t r i b u t ion, o r i g i n , a s s o c i a t e d phenomena, and engi- n e e r i n g a s p e c t s of permafrost. I s s u e I was a e n e r a l i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e e n t i r e f i e l d of permafrost (&eocryologyT. A t r a n s l a t i o n of I s s u e I1 was published by t h e National Research Council e a r l y i n 1962 (NRC Technical T r a n s l a t i o n 1006). A b r i e f o u t l i n e of t h e c o n t e n t s of I s s u e 111, of which t h i s i s a t r a n s l a t i o n , i s contained i n t h e E d i t o r f s P r e f a c e . These two i s s u e s provide information on s t u d i e s being con- ducted i n t h e U.S.S.R. and should be of i n t e r e s t and value t o t h o s e engaged i n permafrost inves t i g a t i o n s

.

The D i v i s i o n i s g r a t e f u l t o M r . D.A. S i n c l a i r of t h e N.R.C.

T r a n s l a t i o n s S e c t i o n f o r h i s c o o p e r a t i o n and t o Messrs. G. Belkov and V. Topchy of t h e same s e c t i o n who s p e n t c o n s i d e r a b l e time i n t r a n s l a -

t i n g t h i s i s s u e .

Ottawa R.F. Legget

T i t l e :

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF CANADA

Technical T r a n s l a t i o n 1088

Data

on the p r i n c i p l e s of the study of f r o z e n zones I n t h e e a r t h c r u s t

.

Issue I11

(Materialy k osnovam ucheniya o merzlykh zonakh zemnoi kory. Vypusk 111)

E d i t o r : L.A. Meiater

Reference: Academy of Sciences of t h e

USSR,

V.A. Obruchev I n s t i t u t e of Permafrost S t u d i e s . Moscow, 1956. 229p.

(~kademiya Nauk SSSR, I n s t i t u t Merzlotovedeniya imeni V.A. Obrucheva)

T r a n s l a t o r 8 :

a.

Belkov, M. Howson and V. Topchy, T r a n s l a t i o n s Section, N.R.C. Library

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page P r e f a c e

...

4

L.A. M e i s t e r

.

The c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e in t h e

...

development o f geocryolo gy

5

...

P.F. Shvetsov

.

P r i n c i p l e 8 of d i v i d i n g t h e permafroat zone

15

...

.

S.G. Parkhomenko The f r e e z i n g of s o i l s 34 A.P. T y r t i k o v

.

The e f f e c t of v e g e t a t i o n on p e r e n n i a l l y f r o z e n s o i l

...

69

...

.

N.S. Danilova S o i l wedges and t h e i r o r i g i n 90

N.P. Anisimova

.

On t h e chemical compoeltion of deep-seated ground

...

w a t e r i n c e n t r a l Yakutia 100

...

.

B.I.

Vtyurin Some geomorphological terms in geocryolo gy 102 V.P. Ushkalov

.

Determination of f o u n d a t i o n p r e s s u r e on a thawing

b e a r i n g medium

...

110 A.M. P c h e l i n t s e v

.

T a n g e n t i a l s t r e s s e s produced on t h e l a t e r a l

s u r f a c e s of f o u n d a t i o n s by t h e adhesion of thawing s o i l

...

130

O.A. Martynov

.

The d e r i v a t i o n of t h e b a s i c e q u a t i o n f o r h e a t

...

c o n d u c t i v i t y of f r e e z i n g and thawing s o i l

133

G.A. Martynov

.

The c a l o r i m e t r i c method of d e t e r m i n i n g t h e q u a n t i t y

...

of unfrozen w a t e r in f r o z e n s o i l 143

.

...

PREFACE

The t h i r d I s s u e of t h e "Data on t h e p r i n c i p l e s of t h e s t u d y of f r o z e n zones of t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t " c o n t a i n s a r t i c l e s r a n g i n g o v e r a wide v a r i e t y of q u e s t i o n s of geocryology ( t h e s t u d y of p e r m a f r o s t ) .

The first a r t i c l e i n t h i s syn~posium, by L.A. Meister, d e a l s w i t h t h e development of geocryology from t h e p o i n t of view of u n i t y of t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e . The o t h e r papers, a s i n t h e preceding

i s s u e s , c o n t a i n s new r e s e a r c h d a t a and t h e i r t h e o r e t i c a l g e n e r a l i - z a t i o n s and make a new c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e body o f s c i e n t i f i c know- l e d g e of f r o z e n zones of t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t . The q u e s t i o n s d e a l t w i t h I n t h e s e a r t i c l e s a r e mostly open f o r d i s c u s s i o n .

Thus, P.F. Shvetsov i n h i s paper " P r i n c i p l e s of d i v i d i n g t h e p e r m a f r o s t zone" s u g g e s t s

a

new approach t o t h e zoning of t h e c r y o l i t h i c r e g i o n t a k i n g i n t o account t h e g e n e t i c i n t e r r e l a t i o n of composition, s t r u c t u r e , p r o p e r t i e s , p o s i t i o n and e x t e n t of f r o z e n s o i l s , and t h e v a r i o u s components of t h e p h y s i c a l - g e o g r a p h i c a l cover.

S.G. Parkhomenko's a r t i c l e "The f r e e z i n g of s o i l s and porous rock" i s b e i n g published posthumously; i t was e d i t e d f o r p r i n t i n g by

P.A. Shumskii. The a u t h o r considered t h e complicated p r o c e s s e s of f r e e z i n g of porous r o c k from

a

s t a n d p o i n t of c u r r e n t i d e a s about t h e molecular i n t e r a c t i o n of t h e m i n e r a l p a r t i c l e s of r o c k s w i t h t h e d i f f e r e n t phases of H,O. A few now o b s o l e t e concepts contained in

t h i s a r t i c l e do n o t d e t r a c t from i t s s c i e n t i f i c v a l u e .

Of c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t i s A.P. TyrtLkovts work

h he

e f f e c t of v e g e t a t i o n on p e r e n n i a l l y f r o z e n s o i l " . I n i t t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e e f f e c t of

.a

v e g e t a t i o n cover on h e a t and moisture exchange

between t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t and t h e atmosphere has r e c e i v e d a f u r t h e r development. N.S. Danilova examines t h e formation of s o i l wedges

I n h e r a r t i c l e " S o i l wedges and t h e i r o r i g i n " . The a r t i c l e by

B.I.

Vtyurin i s an a t t e m p t t o s y s t e m a t i z e t h e geomorphological termino1oe;y in t h e s c i e n c e of geocryology.

V.P. Ushkalov and A.M. P c h e l i n t s e v r e p o r t new experimental d a t a on physical-mechanical p r o p e r t i e s of f r o z e n and thawing s o i l .

G.A. Martynov i n h i s two a r t i c l e s c r i t i c a l l y a n a l y z e s and s u g g e s t s c o r r e c t i o n s f o r t h e t h e o r e t i c a l concept on t h e f r e e z i n g of s o i l and methods of c l a s s i f y i n g i c e I n f r o z e n s o i l s . N.P. Anisimova I n h e r b r i e f p a p e r g i v e s i n t e r e s t i n g data on t h e chemical composition of deep-level ground w a t e r i n c e n t r a l Yakutia.

The symposium ends w i t h t h e d i s c u s s i o n by A.M. C h e k o t i l l o of t h e c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n i n g e o c r y o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h i n f o r e i g n

c o u n t r i e s on t h e b a s i s of a v a i l a b l e l i t e r a t u r e .

It i s hoped t h a t a d i s c u s s i o n of t h e p a p e r s c o l l e c t e d i n t h i s volume w i l l make a f u r t h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n towards t h e development of geocryology ( t h e s t u d y o f p e r m a f r o s t ) .

TIE CORRELATION BETWEEN THEORY AND PRACTICE I N TKE DEVEIOPMENT OF GEOCRYOIOGY

L . A . M e i s t e r

S c i e n t i f i c i d e a s and viewpoints a r i s e from and develop on t h e b a s i s of p r a c t i c a l , 1 . e . m a t e r i a l - p r o d u c t i v e a c t i v i t i e s of s o c i e t y . T h i s h a s been proven by t h e c e n t u r i e s of h i s t o r y of s o c i e t y .

The p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t y of s o c i e t y c o n s t i t u t e s t h e source of c o g n i t i o n . P r a c t i c e p l a c e s problems b e f o r e knowledge and t h e r e i s n o t one s i n g l e f i e l d of knowledge which s p r a n g i n t o b e i n g b e f o r e t h e r e was a p r a c t i c a l need f o r i t , nor one which a r o s e independently of t h i s need. F. Engels wrote: " b e f o r e people began t o argue, t h e y a c t e d . A t t h e beginning t h e r e were deeds..."".

By r i s i n g from t h e t h e o r e t i c a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of observed d a t a and t h e p r a c t i c a l v e r i f i c a t i o n t h e r e o f t o t h e n e x t h i g h e r phase, comprehension can develop i n f i n i t e l y , owing t o t h e i n e x h a u s t i b i l i t y of t h e m a t e r i a l world.

One o r a n o t h e r type of knowledge about n a t u r e and s o c i e t y has o r i g i n a t e d (and i s s t i l l o r i g i n a t i n g ) e x c l u s i v e l y i n t h e c o u r s e of t h e corresponding phase o r l e v e l of production development. Great s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o v e r i e s can remain

-

and a c t u a l l y have remained

-

unused when t h e s t a n d a r d of s o c i a l pro- d u c t i o n d i d n o t develop a c c o r d i n g l y .

However, i t would be erroneous t o t h i n k t h a t s c i e n c e h a s t o t a k e an e x c l u s i v e l y s u b o r d i n a t e p o s i t i o n t o p r a c t i c e and i s o n l y capable of p a s s i v e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of what h a s been accomplished by p r a c t i c e . Many examples a r e known i n t h e h i s t o r y of p r a c t i c e when g r e a t e s t s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o v e r i e s r e s u l t - i n g from a t h e o r e t i c a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of p r a c t i c a l achievements s u b s e q u e n t l y e x e r c i s e d a most profound i n f l u e n c e on t h e development of t h e l a t t e r , revolu- t i o n i n g m a t e r i a l p r o d u c t i o n and s o c i a l development. To be s u r e , r e s e a r c h and experiment a r e p a r t of s o c i a l - p r o d u c t i o n p r a c t i c e . But i n t h e end i t i s t h e p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t y of s o c i e t y which i s t h e governing f a c t o r i n t h e development o f s c i e n t i f i c knowledge.

Without p r a c t i c e , n e i t h e r t h e o r i g i n n o r t h e development of t r u e s c i e n c e is p o s s i b l e , j u s t a s t h e development of p r a c t i c e i s impossible without science.

Thus, o n l y t h e i n d i s s o l u b l e connection of t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e can l a y t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of knowing t h e e s s e n t i a l laws governing t h e development of n a t u r a l phenomena and t h e i r u t i l i z a t i o n i n t h e i n t e r e s t of

s o c i a l production, a s w e l l a s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e reasons f o r one o r t h e o t h e r branch of s c i e n c e and i t s development.

*

K . lrlarks and F . Engels. S e l e c t e d works, Rus. e d . , Vol.11,

1955,

p.90. - . .

A s w e lulow, t h e i n v c s t i ~ ; a t i o n of t h e zone o f f r o z e n ground s t a r t e d long ago. A s f a r back a s t h c XIXth c e n t u r y sos~e id e a s were expr,essed which even today a r e h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t . However, i n t h o s e days s c i e n t i f i c m a t e r i a l was o n l y fragmentary; i t was c o l l e c t e d u n s y s t e m a t i c a l l y , mostly by i n d i v i d u a l e n t h u s i a s t s of s c l c n c e .

With t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e t r a n s - S i b e r i a n r a i l w a y and o t h e r p r o j e c t s i n t h e e a s t of Russia, t h e b u i l d e r s were i n v o l u n t a r i l y brought i n c o n t a c t with f r o z e n ground, mostly p e r e n n i a l l y f r o z e n ( p e r m a f r o s t ) , which o f t e n

c r e a t e d insurmountable o b s t a c l e s d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n . However, even then t h e knowledge about f r o z e n ground and i t s p r o p e r t i e s was n o t systematized.

Geocryology (permafrost s c i e n c e ) a s such d i d n o t y e t e x i s t .

The development of g e o c r y o l o g i c a l knowledge was mainly based on t h e wide- spread development of production i n t h e e a s t of t h e USSR a s t h e s o c i a l i s t c o n s t r u c t i o n programme expanded t o i n c l u d e t h e v a s t expanses of e a s t S i b e r i a , Yakutia, t h e f a r e a s t , t h e a r e a s of t h e extreme n o r t h ( ~ r c t i c ) and t h e north- e a s t . This, i n f a c t , was t h e d e c i s i v e reason f o r t h e new s c i e n c e of geocry- ology, which o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e t h i r t i e s of t h i s c e n t u r y .

The f i r s t major i n s t a n c e o f t h e o r e t i c a l processing, o r t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f accumulated knowledge on f r o z e n ground and t h e laws of geocryology, was t h e monogram by M. I. Sumgin, "Permafrost w i t h i n t h e b o r d e r s of t h e USSR", 1927. This work g i v e s a c r i t i c a l review and analyzes t h e e x i s t i n g viewpoints on a number of b a s i c q u e s t i o n s of geocryology: t h e fundamental concepts and d e f i - n i t i o n s , t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e o r i g i n , formation and expansion of t h e cryo- l i t h i c zone and t h e s p e c i f i c p r o c e s s e s which develop i n i t . A programme f o r subsequent g e o c r y o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h is a l s o o u t l i n e d .

Despite t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s book contained s e v e r a l c o n t r a d i c t o r y and erroneous concepts caused by i n s u f f i c i e n t f a c t u a l d a t a , t h i s work was a t t h e time unique i n t h e h i s t o r y of development of geocryology by t h e scope of q u e s t i o n s covered and i t s encyclopaedic c o n t e n t s .

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e of t h i s work

i s

t h e a u t h o r ' s approach t o t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e formation and p r o p e r t i e s of t h e c r y o l i t h i c zone from a

p u r e l y meteorological ( c l i m a t o l o g i c a l ) p o i n t of view. The o ~ i t s t a n d i n g r o l e i n t h e formation and development of f r o z e n ground was a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e c l i m a t e , whereas t h e m a t e r i a l composition i n t h e o t r u c t u r e of f r o z e n ground was o n l y given secondary importance; t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n of phenomena predomi- nated i n e v e r y t h i n g . The main c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e f r o z e n c o n d i t i o n of s o i l s was considered t o be n e g a t i v e temperature.

In 1930 t h e Acadcmy of Sciences of t h e USSR appointed a commission f o r t h e s t u d y of permafrost

-

an All-Union Geocryological c e n t r e . This was an a c t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t e p d i r e c t e d towards f u r t h e r planned development o f t h i s branch of l e a r n i n g .

Large q u a n t i t i e s of s c i e n t i f i c d a t a bccanle a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e f i r s t time d u r i n g t h e implcmentation of t h e e x t e n s i v e t h r e e - y e a r r e s e a r c h programme t h a t was c a r r i e d o u t a l o n g t h e r o u t e of t h e Baikal-Amur r a i l w a y l i n e d u r i n g 1932

-

1935. E x p l o r a t i o n s by varioua e x p e d i t i o n s and g e o c r y o l o g i c a l ( p e r m a f r o s t ) s t a t i o n s were organized a t t h e l o c a t i o n s of l a r g e f u t u r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e s

I n t e r r i t o r i e s with f r o z e n ground picked f o r immediate economic development (Vorkuta, Nor11 bsk, Igarka, Yakutia, Chukchi Peninsula, e t c . ). A t t h e begin- ning, t h e s e e x p l o r a t i o n s were e s s e n t i a l l y e n g i n e e r i n g , g e o l o g i c a l and hydro- g e o l o g i c a l , c a r r i e d o u t under p a r t i c u l a r , h i t h e r t o unknown and complex n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s .

The accumulation of s c i e n t i f i c d a t a from o b s e r v a t i o n and experience and t h e i r t h e o r e t i c a l p r o c e s s i n g lagged behind t h e p r a c t i c a l requirements i n n a t i o n a l economy. In most c a s e s i t was n e c e s s a r y t o aubmit conclusions based on I n s u f f i c i e n t v e r i f i c a t i o n of t h e o r e t i c a l assumptions. It i s o n l y n a t u r a l t h a t i n such c a s e s t h e g e o c r y o l o g i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s were o f t e n n o t j u s t i f i e d . Deformation of s t r u c t u r e s d i d n o t cease and p r a c t i c a l needs c o n s t a n t l y demanded t h e developnlent of new c o n s t r u c t i o n methods e n s u r i n g s t a b i l i t y of b u i l d i n g s on t h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e c r y o l i t h i c zone.

The i n v e s t i g a t o r s were compelled t o s o l v e p r a c t i c a l problems without any e x p e r i e n c e . They s t r o v e t o c l a r i f y t h e c a u s e s of deformation i n b u i l d i n g s and s t u d i e d t h e h e a t and mechanical p r o c e s s e s t a k i n g p l a c e i n s o i l s d u r i n g t h e f r e e z i n g and thawing under v a r i o u s g e o l o g i c a l , hydrogeological and p h y s i c a l - g e o g r a p h i c a l c o n d i t i o n s .

The a t t e n t i o n of i n v e s t i g a t o r s was d i r e c t e d p r i m a r i l y a t t h e most a p p a r e n t phenomena connected w i t h t h e deformation of s t r u c t u r e s , 1 . e . t h e formation of s o - c a l l e d thawed "bowls" under b u i l d i n g s ; t h e d e p t h and r a t e of f r e e z i n g o r thawing of t h e s o i l under b u i l d i n g s and n e a r t h e w a l l s , t h e l a t t e r i n r e s p e c t t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e b u i l d i n g ; t h e accumulation of snow d e p o s i t s , e t c . Simultaneously, o b s e r v a t i o n s were c a r r i e d o u t on t h e d i f f e r e n c e of f r e e z i n g and thawing of s o i l i n s u n l i t and shaded p l a c e s , t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h e t h i c k n e s s and d e n s i t y of t h e snow cover have on t h e tempera- t u r e of t h e ground, t h e i n f l u e n c e of v e g e t a t i o n and t o p s o i l , e t c . A t t h e same time i n v e s t i g a t o r s worked on t h e physical-mechanical p r o p e r t i e s of f r o z e n and unfrozen ground. I n t h e beginning t h e s e e x p l o r a t i o n s were c a r r i e d o u t p a r t l y under n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s , b u t mainly i n l a b o r a t o r i e s and mostly w i t h only sna 11 samples

.

Information on t h e geographic and g e o l o g i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e zones of f r o z e n s o i l s ( c r y o l i t h i c zones) was assembled from p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s t u d i e s i n v a r i o u s r e g i o n s of t h e c o u n t r y where c o n s t r u c t i o n had been planned o r was a l r e a d y i n p r o g r e s s .

The comparison and g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of t h e d a t a r e s u l t i n g from experience and o b s e r v a t i o n s i n n a t u r e brought o u t a number of i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s p e r t a i n - i n g t o p e r e n n i a l l y f r o z e n s o i l s

-

t h e i r composition, s t r u c t u r e and p r o p e r t i e s , topography, ground water, c l i m a t e , v e g e t a t i o n and o t h e r components of t h e physical-geographical environment. It was t h e n p o s s i b l e t o begin t h e c l a r i -

f i c a t i o n of t h e o r i g i n and p e r s i s t e n c e of permafrost and t h e p r a c t i c a l s i g n i f - icance t h a t t h e s e problems have f o r i n d u s t r y .

The very f i r s t a n a l y s i s showed d i s c r e p a n c i e s i n t h e e x i s t i n g opinion on the predominant r o l e of c l i m a t e i n t h e h e a t exchange and t h e development of t h e c r y o l i t h i c zone. It showed t h a t i n t h e s e p r o c e s s e s t h e g e o l o g i c a l forma- t i o n and hydrogeological condition8 a r e of primary importance. The observa- t i o n s showed t h a t t h e c r y o l i t h i c zone was discontinuous and t h a t i n a number of a r e a s with s e v e r e c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s t h e r e were channels w i t h i n t h e f r o z e n s t r a t a , where ground water was c i r c u l a t i n g . In t h i s manner, t h e q u e s t i o n of water supply f o r t h e c r y o l i t h i c zones, p r e v i o u s l y considered a r i d and com- p l e t e l y impermeable, was t h u s solved. T h i s was proof t h a t t h e i d e a s expressed i n t h e p a s t c e n t u r y by L.A. Yachevskii and V.A. Obruchev, and, i n o u r time, those advocated by B.B. Polynov and o t h e r s , were c o r r e c t . T h i s was t h e f i r s t blow d e a l t t o t h e p u r e l y c l i m a t o l o g i c a l tendency i n geocryology.

On t h e b a s i s of t h e assembled r e s e a r c h m a t e r i a l , c e r t a i n methods were developed f o r the r e g u l a t i o n of t h e heat-exchange between s o i l s on t h e one hand and atmosphere and b u i l d i n g s on t h e o t h e r . Two p r i n c i p l e s were developed f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n i n c r y o l i t h i c t e r r i t o r y :

( a )

t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of t h e f r o z e n s t a t e of foundation m a t e r i a l under b u i l d i n g s and ( b ) t h e p r i n c i p l e known a s " d e s t r u c t i o n of permafrost". In a d d i t i o n , t h e f i r s t e f f e c t i v e ways t o coun- t e r a c t t h e heaving of t h e ground were developed. C e r t a i n physical-mechanical p r o p e r t i e s of s o i l s were s t u d i e d , which helped t o e s t a b l i s h in i t s s i m p l e s t form t h e dependence o f t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s on temperature, moisture, i c e c o n t e n t and p r e s s u r e .

The second phase I n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l development of geocryology was com- p l e t e d by 1941. A number o f comprehensive works were published. Some

examples a r e

he

b a s i s of mechanics of f r o z e n s o i l " by N.A. Tsytovich and

M.I. Swngin (1937); t h e second e d i t i o n of Surnginls monogram "Permafrost s o i l

in t h e USSR" (1937); "General permafrost s t u d i e s t ' by

M.I.

Sumgin, S.P.

Kachurln, N. I. T o l s t i k h i n and V.F. Tumelt (1940); "Ground water in the f r o z e n zone of t h e l i t h o s p h e r e " by

N.I.

T o l e t i k h i n (1941); c e r t a l n important papers i n t h e t r a n s a c t i o n s of t h e Committee on Permafrost S t u d i e s and t h e I n s t i t u t e of Permafrost S t u d i e s , and o t h e r papers a t t h e c l o s e of t h a t decade of

Two t r e n d s became p e r c e p t i b l e i n both g e n e r a l and a p p l i e d geocryology a t t h a t timc. However, t h e b a s i c concepts of i n t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s i n t h e develop- ment of t h e p e r e n n i a l c r y o l i t h i c zone remained i n t h e g r i p of t h e a d h e r e n t s of

"energy l e v e l s " , although t h e opinion was voiced more and more o f t e n t h a t It

was e s s e n t i a l t o t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of composition and t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e f r e e z i n g and thawing s o i l s .

The c l i m a t o l o g i c a l concept i n t h e r e s e a r c h on t h e c r y o l i t h i c zone was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c r e a t i n g s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c methods f o r zoning, photogra- phy and mapping of permafrost s o i l s . The main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r a f r o z e n

l a y e r were considered t o be t h e temperature, t h e t h i c k n e s s and t h e depth of occurrence of a f r o z e n l a y e r , whereas t h e m a t e r i a l cornposition and h y d r o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s were considered t o be of secondary importance and t h e i r r e c o r d i n g unnecessary. T h i s l e f t an i m p r i n t on t h e approach t o t h e s t u d y n o t o n l y of r e g i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e c r y o l i t h i c zone b u t of t h e c r y o l i t h i c mass a s a whole.

A s we know, t h e demarcation of t h e g e o c r y o l i t h i c zone was based on land s u r f a c e c o n d i t i o n s and ground temperatures. In t h e p a s t , some endeavours were even rriade t o d e f i n e t h e contours of t h e c r y o l i t h i c mass a c c o r d i n g t o a

d e f i n i t e a i r isotherm and t o e x p r e s s i t s zonal p e c u l i a r i t i e s w i t h t h e a i d of a s p e c i a l c o e f f i c i e n t , derived e x c l u s i v e l y from t h e c l i m a t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e r e g i o n .

Such a t h e o r y d i d n o t h e l p i n t h e d i s c o v e r y of c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t h e development o f such a complicated phenomenon a s t h e c r y o l i t h i c zone with a l l i t s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s . Knowledge was t h e r e f o r e l i m i t e d t o m a t e r i a l s which sometimes were o n l y of l o c a l o r secondary importance and, a s a r u l e , of n e g l i g i b l e p r a c t i c a l value.

The l a c k of a g e n e r a l t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s was l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e e m p i r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i n t h e development of e n g i n e e r i n g geocryology, based mainly on l o c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n experience and f i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n s . The l o c a l experience was t h e only source of p r a c t i c a l recommendations. N a t u r a l l y , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e o r y was l a g g i n g behind p r a c t i c a l requirements caused (and i s s t i l l c a u s i n g ) unproductive e x p e n d i t u r e s

.

With time i t became more and more e v i d e n t t h a t i t was impossible t o e x p l a i n fundamental q u e s t i o n s on t h e formation and development of t h e cryo- l i t h i c zone by u s i n g c l i m a t o l o g i c a l concepts. The p r o p e r t i e s of f r o z e n ,

f r e e z i n g and thawing s o i l s a r e n o t mainly determined by t h e i r temperature, but a l s o by t h e composition and s t r u c t u r e of s o i l s and t h e q u a n t i t y and d i s t r i b u - t i o n of t h e i r conscquent c o n t c n t , which determines t h e q u a l i t y of s o i l s and p r a c t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s .

Engineering geocryology d i d take i n t o t a c i t account the composition of f r e e z i n g and thawing s o i l s and p e r e n n i a l l y frozen s u b s o i l s , s i n c e i t would have been completely Impossible t o solve any p r a c t i c a l problems without i t . Thus p r a c t i c e p e r s i s t e n t l y brought c o r r e c t i o n s i n t o the s c i e n t i f i c study of t h e c r y o l i t h i c zone.

A more thorough study of s o i l s has shown t h a t t h e i r composition and the processes which occur i n them during f r e e z i n g and thawing a r e f a r more com- p l i c a t e d than i t was previously assumed. The concepts of h e a t exchange

associated with physical-chemical processes and with the migration of moisture

in t h e s o i l a l s o became more complicated. The physical-mechanical p r o p e r t i e s of s o i l s i n t u r n l a r g e l y depend on these f a c t o r s .

P r a c t i c a l development of the n a t i o n a l economy urgently demanded from geocryology t h a t a t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s be given t o p r a c t i c a l s o l u t i o n s of

t e c h n i c a l problems. The lagging of theory behind p r a c t i c e was increasing, and t h e gap was becoming more and more p e r c e p t i b l e .

This s i t u a t i o n was caused f i r s t of a l l by t h e l a c k of a c l e a r i d e a about t h e very s u b j e c t matter of geocryology. U n t i l r e c e n t l y i t was considered t h a t t h i s science was dealing with " f r o s t " (rnerzlota)*, a very nebulous and con- fused concept. " ~ e r z l o t a " was though of a s a "Russian sphinxn, a n a t i o n a l enigma. There i s s t i l l no s i n g l e d e f i n i t i o n of the term "merzlota" ( f r o s t ) . Various i n v e s t i g a t o r s endow i t with f o u r d i f f e r e n t mewings: frozen ground

i t s e l f , frozen s t a t e of the ground, t h e phenomenon of ground f r e e z i n g and, f i n a l l y , the process.

This confusion in b a s i c concepts lead t o t h e inadmissible licence i n t h e views on t h e basic concepts of cryology and on the type and scope of research needed. In h i s work

bout

tpermafrost' and f o r m of i c e and snow l a s t i n g through the summer in t h e Amur region" (1910) B.B. Polynov mentioned t h a t a t the X I 1 Conference on Natural History and Medicine It was suggested t h a t t h e term "merzlota" should even be applied t o a i r with temperatures below o°C.

This was a l s o t h e reason why some i n v e s t i g a t o r s d i d not expressly consider the c r y o l i t h i c zone t h e i r s u b j e c t of study but preferred t o i n v e s t i g a t e s e p a r a t e components of t h e physical-geographical cover " i n r e l a t i o n t o f r o s t " ; they only studied t h e s u b j e c t matter of t h e i r own s p e c i a l f i e l d s " i n respect t o f r o s t " , instead of studying the c r y o l i t h i c mass by various methods and from s e v e r a l p o i n t s of view.

The u n s u i t a b i l i t y of t h e o r e t i c a l concepts and s c i e n t i f i c terminology r e s u l t e d in an a r t i f i c i a l b a r r i e r t o t h e understanding of t h e dynamic u n i t y of

*

T r a n s l a t o r ' s note:

i n t e r d e p e n d e n t and i n t e r a c t i n g n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s , confusing t h e s t u d y of cx-yogenic p ~ o c c s s e s

.

A s we know, c o n c e p t s s p r i n g up and develop on t h e b a s i s o f comparison and j u x t a p o s i t i o n , from s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s between v a r i o u s c o n c r e t e

i t e m s p e r c e i v e d i n t h e p r o c e s s of r e c u r r i n g e x p e r i e n c e . A s a r e s u l t , a b s t r a c t - i n g from p a r t i c u l a r i t e m s o f knowledge, man g r a d u a l l y s i n g l e s o u t t h e most

common and most i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s from t h e e s s e n t i a l p r o p e r t i e s o f o b j e c t s and o c c u r r e n c e s o f t h e n l a t e r i a l world and r e c o r d s them in h i s b r a i n a s d e f i n i t e c o n c e p t s .

V.I.

Lenin remarked in t h i s r e s p e c t : "

. .

.

human e x p e r i -

ence, r e p e a t i n g i t s e l f b i l l i o n s o f t i m e s , i s recorded i n t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f man i n l o g i c a l forms

. .

.

'I*.

The h i s t o r i c a l development was such t h a t t h e e x p r e s s i o n " m e r z l o t a " ( f r o s t ) came i n t o usage n o t a s a w e l l - c o n s i d e r e d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n r e s u l t i n g from a b s t r a c t t h i n k i n g In due c o u r s e of c o g n i t i o n , b u t a s a s u r v i v a l of s i m p l e n o t i o n s t h a t t h e f i r s t s e t t l e r s a c q u i r e d a b o u t f r o z e n ground w h i l e e x c a v a t i n g and mining d u r i n g t h e f i r s t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e c r y o l i t h i c zone. T h i s concept was a c c e p t e d by i n v e s t i g a t o r s w i t h o u t d i s c u s s i o n o r p r o p e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n b u t was n e v e r t h e -

l e s s I n t r o d u c e d i n t o s c i e n c e a l m o s t a s b i n d i n g . The term p e r m a f r o s t ("vechnaya m e r z l o t a " ) was adopted by

M.I.

Sumgin from l o c a l v e r n a c u l a r and o c c u p a t i o n a l

jargon and soon found i t s way even i n t o t h e o f f i c i a l name o f a n academic

i n s t i t u t i o n . It is known t h a t many i n v e s t i g a t o r s a c c e p t e d t h e terms "merzlota" ( f r o s t ) and "vechnaya m e r z l o t a " ( p e r m a f r o s t ) w i t h r e s e r v a t i o n s , w h i l e o t h e r s d i d n o t use them a t a l l d e s p i t e t h e widespi-ead a c c e p t a n c e .

It i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o s e e t h a t t h e concept "nierzlota" ( f r o s t ) does n o t s a t i s f y t h e l o g i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t o f r e f l e c t i n g ; e s s e n t i a l g e n e r a l p r o p e r t i e s of t h e o b j e c t and Is t h e r e f o r e u n s c i e n t i f i c . It became t h e s u b j e c t o f numerous d i s c u s s i o n s which gave i t d i f f e r e n t meanings and r e s u l t e d i n c o n t r a d i c t o r y u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r , problems, methods and t h e d i r e c t i o n of g e o c r y o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h . T h i s h a s had a most d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t i n p r a c t i c e . It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t more t h a n 20 y e a r s a f t e r t h e T h i r d Conference on t h e Study o f P e r m a f r o s t ( 1 9 3 3 ) , which acknovrledged t h e n e c e s s i t y of u p d a t i n g s c i e n t i f i c terminology i n t h e s t u d y o f f r o z e n zones i n t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t , no d e c i s i v e s t e p s have y e t been t a k e n t o implemznt t h e d e c i s i o n .

A p r a c t i c a l a d ~ n i s s i o n most i m p o r t a n t i n t h e development of contemporary geocryology h a s meanwhile been made: we a r e s t u d y i n g n o t merely " f r o s t " ( " m e r z l o t a " ) and t h e f r o z e n s t a t e of t h e e a r t h ' s c u r f a c e , b u t a l s o t h e pro- c e a s e s c a u s i n g t h e f r e e z i n g and t h e thawing of d e f i n i t e m a t e r i a l systems, 1 . e .

t h e continuing changes i n the s t a t e of t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t , t h e m o b i l i t y i n t h e s e systems.

F. Engles wrote: I 1

...

i t i s only i n motion t h a t t h e p r o p e r t i e s of bodies become apparent; t h e r e i s nothing t o be s a i d about a body which i s immobile. Consequently, t h e n a t u r e of mobile bodies d e r i v e s from t h e forms of motionw+.

A widening of t h e scope of p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e t e r r i t o r y of t h e c r y o l i t h i c zone has brought i n c r e a s i n g demands f o r i t s study. The o r d e r of t h e day h a s brought problems r e q u i r i n g knowledge of c l o s e r c o r r e l a t i o n s i n t h e process of h e a t exchange between t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t and t h e atmosphere, and n e c e s s i t a t i n g an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of r e g i o n a l p e c u l i a r i t i e s i n t h e c r y o l i t h i c zone and t h e i r causes. A more r e l i a b l e b a s i s f o r t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e manifold engineering problems involved in t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of b u i l d i n g s with high

s t a b i l i t y requirements had t o be found. The e x i s t i n g t h e o r e t i c a l concepts could no longer s a t i s f y t h e engineers, s i n c e t h e s e corlcepts f e l l s h o r t of j n d u s t r i a l needs.

Ae a r e s u l t of t h e a n a l y s i s and g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of f a c t u a l d a t a accumulated

in t h e course of r e s e a r c h , t h e r e was a change i n t h e p o i n t of view r e g a r d i n g t h e causes of t h e formation of t h e c r y o l i t h i c zone. A new concept was formed, according t o which t h e zone of frozen ground develops on a d e f i n i t e geothermal

l e v e l d u r i n g t h e heat-exchange processes w i t h i n t h e system of t h e s u b s t r a t a

-

t o p s o i l

-

atmosphere. The processes of h e a t exchange i n d e f i n i t e geological, hydrogeological and physical-geographical c o n d i t i o n s produce t h e r e g i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e p e r e n n i a l c r y o l i t h i c zone. This determines the method of procedure f o r geocryological surveying and mapping.

F a c t u a l d a t a acquired in t h e process of d e t a i l e d and lengthy r e s e a r c h work in n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s made it p o s s i b l e t o a s c e r t a i n t h e f a u l t s of previous concepts and t o c l a r i f y t h e a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n s under which ground water forms, c i r c u l a t e s and manifests i t s e l f in c e r t a i n a p e c i f i c regions of t h e c r y o l l t h l c zone, and a l s o t h e formation and g e o l o g i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of ground i c e ; t h e outcome was subsequently v e r i f i e d i n e n g i n e e r i n g p r a c t i c e .

These new concepts, which were much c l o s e r t o p r a c t i c a l requirements, a r e p r e r e q u i s i t e s f o r b e t t e r formulated s o l u t i o n s , which t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e processes of thermal and mechanical c o r r e l a t i o n of frozen, thawing and f r e e z i n g s o i l s , of ground water and i c e , and t h e i n f l u e n c e of i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s . However, we s t i l l know l i t t l e about t h e p h y s i c a l and chemical processes o c c u r r i n g in t h e ground a s a r e s u l t of f r e e z i n g and thawing o r about

t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of water and t h e s o l u t i o n s t h a t it c o n t a i n s .

During t h e l a s t few years, an expedient t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s was developed f o r e n g i n e e r i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s a p p l i c a b l e t o s p e c i f i c l o c a l g e o c r y o l o g i c a l con- d i t i o n s . I n e n g i n e e r i n g geocryology t h e r e s e a r c h e r s have been a b l e t o d e f i n e t h e t h e o r e t i c a l problems and formulate t h e b a s i c t h e o r e t i c a l p o i n t s . The p r e s e n t period (1952

-

1955) r e p r e s e n t s t h e t h i r d phase of t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d y

( g e n e r a l i z a t i o n ) with e f f o r t s b e i n g made t o develop a comprehensive t h e o r y i n t h e f i e l d of geocryology.

Thus, geocryology, l i k e any o t h e r s c i e n c e , follows t h e r e g u l a r course of development: from t h e i n i t i a l o b s e r v a t i o n d a t a t o t h e f i r s t g e n e r a l i z a t i o n t h a t i n t u r n i s enriched by new f a c t s gathered i n t h e p r o c e s s of economic and i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s . Growing i n scope, p r a c t i c e makes new and g r e a t e r demands on geocryology, and t h e s e demands can no l o n g e r be met on t h e same old p l a i n of s c i e n t i f i c knowledge. The scope and importance of t h e economic development of land u n d e r l a i n by t h e p e r e n n i a l c r y o l i t h i c zone have c r e a t e d a n e c e s s i t y f o r responsible d e c i s i o n s based on r e l e v a n t t h e o r i e s . I n t h i s

manner a dynamic i n t e r r e l a t i o n between geocryology and i n d u s t r i a l p r a c t i c e i s

developing.

T h i s r e g u l a r p r o c e s s i n t h e development of s c i e n c e i s under t h e c o n s t a n t I n f l u e n c e of p r a c t i c e and i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o b e a r i n mind a t a l l times t h a t t h e r e s u l t s of r e s e a r c h must subsequently be used i n p r a c t i c e . From t h i s i t f o l l o w s t h a t s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h programmes must be planned with a view t o p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n . S c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h t h a t has no promise of subsequent p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n should n o t be c a r r i e d on. However, i n making such

d e c i s i o n s one should always be aware of t h e importance of a c o r r e c t e v a l u a t i o n of t h e p r a c t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e o r e t i c a l r e s e a r c h . Excessive preoccupa- t i o n w i t h p r o j e c t s d i s s o c i a t e d from t h e requirements of p r a c t i c e can be harm- f u l t o t h e i n t e r e s t s of i n d u s t r y ; i t can r e s u l t In a r i f t between t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e and end i n s h o l a s t i c i s m . On t h e o t h e r hand, a n e g l e c t of t h e o r y and an exaggerated s l a n t towards immediate p r a c t i c a l requirements r e s u l t s i n e m p i r i c a l p r i m i t i v i s m and narrow-minded hack work. Thus a b s t r a c t schemes u n v e r i f i e d by p r a c t i c e and unguided p r a c t i c a l dabbling w i l l r e t a r d p r o g r e s s and lead t o s t a g n a t i o n o r degeneration of t h e s c i e n c e .

A s a n example of p u r e l y t h e o r e t i c a l schemes one could mention t h e s t i l l e x t a n t view t h a t temperature i s t h e s o l e b a s i s f o r t h e d e f i n i t i o n of f r o z e n ground; o r , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e tendency t o make no d i s t i n c t i o n between ground i c e and ground water. A preoccupation with s u r e mechanics of f r o z e n ground, a s a n i s o t r o p i c r e s i l i e n t body, g i v e s a biased c h a r a c t e r t o t h e s t u d y of

physical-mechanical p r o c e s s e s t a k i n g p l a c e d u r i n g t h e thawing and f r e e z i n g of t h e ground. Experimental r e s e a r c h of p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s which occur i n frozen, f r e e z i n g o r thawing ground i s n o t y e t p r o p e r l y r e l a t e d t o a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n s

found i n p r a c t i c e ; t h e research methods used a r e s t i l l i n s u f f i c i e n t l y t a k i n g i n t o account t h e complicated c h a r a c t e r and t h e multiform composition and

s t r u c t u r e of frozen ground. Unfortunately, t h e r e a r e s t i l l too many t h e o r e t i - c a l armchair c a l c u l a t i o n s , whose authors do not take the care t o v e r i f y t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s i n n a t u r a l circumstances. It

i s

q u i t e c l e a r t h a t without a p r a c t i c a l v e r i f i c a t i o n of such c a l c u l a t i o n s , research work w i l l amount t o nothing more than mental e x e r c i s e o r a f u t i l e pastime. Here i t would be most appropriate t o remember Francis Bacon's words, which N . I . Iobachevskii liked t o quote: "cease labouring in vain, t r y i n g t o f i n d knowledge d i r e c t l y i n t h e mind. 00 t o nature, which contains t h e whole t r u t h and your questions w i l l be answered. 'I*

On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e r e a r e instances when people were c a r r i e d away by exploratory work and p r a c t i c a l planning without t h e r e q u i s i t e s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r e t i c a l generalization, without basing t e c h n i c a l s o l u t i o n s on p e r t i n e n t t h e o r e t i c a l deductions. A l l t h i s amounts t o a disregard f o r t h e d i a l e c t i c u n i t y of theory and p r a c t i c e , r e t a r d i n g the development of both. It i s incum- bent on research workers t o ensure t h a t in geocryology t h i s u n i t y w i l l be achieved.

L i t e r a t u r e

Kuznetsov, B.G. Iomonosov, Iobachevskii, Mendeleev. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 1945.

Polynov, B.B. On permafrost and i c e and snow formations which l a s t over t h e summer in t h e Amur Oblast. Zemlevedenie, Volume

3,

1910.

Sumgin, M. I. Permafrost in t h e USSR. Vladivostok, 1927.

*

Quoted a f t e r

B.G.

Kuznetsov: "Lomonosov, Iobachevskii, ~ e n d e l e e v " , 1945. P-159-

PRINCIPLES OF DIVIDING TIIE PERMAFROST ZONE P.F. Shvetsov

The geocryological zoning of the territory situated in the north and

northeast of the USSR is an Important practical problem and a most complicated scientific research task. So far only a few geocryologists have tried to solve this problem by some method or other.

Considerably greater success has been attained in mapping the boundaries of latitudinal strips of the permafrost zone, which are relatively homogeneous in temperature and space discontinuity.

The establishment of latitudinal strips and altitudinal belts of the permafrost zone by such outward characteristics as temperature, thickness, the degree and character of space discontinuity, which, undoubtedly, reflect the physical-geographical as well as geological conditions of their formation, was at one time useful in solving industrial and agricultural problems and provided satisfactory answers to some of the elementary questions raised by builders, water-supply workers and miners in the north and the east of the USSR. However, today this is no longer sufficient to ensure successful development of geocryological research and solve industrial problems.

Scientific geocryological zoning, 1.e. the establishment and rational cartographic rendition of patterns in the development and distribution of the various sectors of the frozen ground different in all of their basic charac-

teristics, can only be possible if there is a system of classifying, be it

a

rough one, the varieties of frozen soil masses.

Soil scientists, geobotanists, physical geographers and geologists have been governing themselves for a long time by the proposition that the deline- ation process consists of two phases:

(1) Classification of soils, vegetation associations, geologicalstruc- ture and physical-geographical features, on the basis of which the division of the territory should be made.

(2) Drawing of boundaries on maps over such places where the soil, vege- tation, geological and physical-geographical characteristics are transitional. (Armand, 1952).

The type and class of frozen soil masses must be established as a result of calculation, analysis and generalization of both noticeably different and similar (within each taxonomic unit) qualitative and quantitative characteris- tics of the condition, structure, composition and space discontinuity of the frozen subsoil.

So far geocryologists have not given a clear answer to the question that appears to be the most elementary, 1.e. what, exactly, they should classify and zone. Soil scientists are classifying and zoning the soils, geomorpholo- gists the configuration of the earth's surface, geobotanists the vegetation cover. Permafrost scientists have been zoning "permafrost" or "regions of permafrost", mainly on the basis of two characteristics: the temperature and thickness of the frozen mass.

Thus, for instance, M.I. Sumgin considered that: "it is essential to classify permafrost on the basis of the numerous available descriptive data.

However, so far

I

have not found it possible to produce a classification of

permafrost as a whole, and have only classified it according to its separate elements .I1 (~umgin, 1927, p

.

2)

.

In doing this, M.I. Sumgin (ibid. p.

5)

differentiated the following

11 _{elements" in the so-called permafrost} ;

(1) the substance subdect to freezing (1.e. that which is frozen); (2) the duration of the frozen condition;

(3)

the geographical areal distribution;

(4)

the depth of frost penetration into the earth's crust.

M.I.

Sumgin was forced to classify the "permafrost phenomenon" according to these "elements" because of the lack of clarity in the definition of "perma- frost" and the multiplicity of meanings of the component "-frost1', which was

discussed earlier. (~eister and Shvetsov, 1955; Shvetsov, 1955).

B.B.

Polynov recorded that at the X I 1 Conference on Natural Science and Medicine one of the speakers, who considered, like M.I. Sumgin later, the

negative temperature to be the only characteristic feature of "permafrost", proposed that air at negative temperatures also be called "permafrost".

(~olynov, 1910)

.

The fact that qualitative characteristics of natural bodies were com- pletely ignored by representatives of all branches of the science led to many undesirable consequences.

Until recently "permafrost maps" included areas resembling one another only in respect to temperature, thickness and discontinuity of frozen soils. Such zoning of "permafrost regions" according to a classification of frozen soils, based only on the quantitative characteristics of the latter, certainly camot satisfy the scientific and practical requirements.

Construction engineers, mining specialists and agronomists are interested in knowing not only whether or not the subsoil of a given region is frozen and what is its temperature, thickness and extent; they want to know also what physical-mechanical and physical-chemical processes will take place in the

temperatures and how much the properties of the soil will be affected when used as base, medium and construction material. In order to be able to give a well-founded answer to these and similar practical questions, it is essen- tial to take into account the elementary (yet basic from the geocryological point of view) qualitative features of soils. Cryogenic physical-chemical and mechanical qualities of clayey, sandy, gravelly, shingly and hard-rock soils differ considerably in character and have a different significance for construction, topsoil formation, vegetation and the development of relief in

ploughed areas.

It has only now become possible to include the geocryological zoning of territories with perennially frozen subsoils in the plan of geocryological work. In 1927 M.I. Sumgin, having divided the entire perennial cryolithic

zone in the USSR "according to geographic distribution1' (1.e. according to

the degree of its discontinuity), justly noted: "~hus, we classify perma-

frost according to its separate elements. The petrographic composition of permafrost soil is completely omitted. If one had to consider that side of the question as well, the classification of permafrost would be even more complicated. But I consider that the time is not yet ripe for such a classi- fication." (sumgin, 1927, p

.

21)

.

However, now the time has come. Such

a

classification will gradually evolve with the accumulation of data, the analy- sis and generalization of information on the composition, structure, thick- ness, the temperature, the character and degree of discontinuity of the permafrost zone. In carrying out this complicated and laborious task, a

great deal of assistance will be derived from the undeservedly forgotten ideas of L.A. Yachevskii, B.B. Folynov, I.Ya. Baranov, and other investigators, pointing to a considerable dependence of the geothermal level of heat exchange

in the lithosphere-soil-atmosphere system on geomorphological and geological conditions, in particular the composition of the subsoil.

In 1889 L.A. Yachevskii wrote that the development and properties, such as the temperature, the degree and character of discontinuity, as well as the thickness of the frozen ground (or frozen subsoil) are determined not only by climatic, but also by geological conditions. As we know, the geological con- ditions of heat exchange between t'le lithosphere and the soil and between the soil and the atmosphere, as well as geomorphological factors, were called by L.A. Yachevskii "local conditions" to differentiate them from the climatic conditions.

Amongst "causes of local character" influencing the conditions of heat exchange between the soil and lithosphere he enumerated:

(1) the lithological composition of soils;

(2) hydrochemical processes in the subsoil, accompanied by generat ion or

(3)

orientation of the soil surface in relation to the points of the compass;

(4)

height of the snow-cover;

(5)

streams and reservoirs of subterranean waters, etc. (~achevskil,

1889).

B.B. Polynov, in summarizing his geocryological observations in the

basins of the rivers Selemdzha and Tyrma in 1908-9, came to the conclusion that the thickness of the seasonally thawing layer "is a direct dependence on the heat conductivity of soils, and the comparatively high temperature of massive crystalline rocks is particularly evident; even in cases when their detritus is covered with a thick continuous cover of Sphagnum moss and other

hydrophils attaining a thickness of as much as

40

cm, no permafrost is

observed here as early as in June

."

(~olynov, 1910, p

.

43)

.

B.B. Polynov established the influence of petrographic conditions on the

course and results of heat exchange between the earth's surface and the atmosphere in the following manner. Having divided the Amur oblast into three different areas "according to the degree of development of summer freezing and in part according to other forms of ice and snow which survive

the summer1', he became convinced that in the southernmost of these areas only

peat bogs were perennially forzen; farther north perennial freezing spread over peat bogs, clays, and clayey and sandy soils, and in the northernmost area, adjacent to the Stanovoi Mountain Range, it was peat moss, clayey soils and sandy gravel deposits.

Thus, as far back as in 1910, on the basis of geocrylogical features,

B.B. Polynov distinguished four major varieties of soils:

(1) massive rock;

(2) coarse detritus (shingles, gravel, sand);

(3) clayey soils and sandy clays;

(4)

phytogenic soils (peat moss).

In the basins of the left-hand tributaries of the Amur River, the geothermic level of heat exchange between the lithosphere, topsoil and the atmosphere, other conditions being equal, is lower, the greater is the dispersion of the soil.

In connection with this, B.B. Polynov came to the conclusion that the

the actual geo-isotherms, reflecting geological and petrographic conditions of the heat exchange in the system lithosphere-topsoil-atmosphere, seldom coincide with the direction of the atmospheric isotherms. Geo-isotherms

form closed contours, and the curves have more complicated outlines than those appearing on "permafrost maps" until recently.

V.K.

Yanovskii, in answer to practical requirements, proposed that investigators should not only compile "permafrost mapsn, but that they should draw up "permafrost

-

soil maps, permafrost

-

geological or perma-

frost

-

soil contours1'. (~anovskii, 1936, p.

60).

He appended samples of

such graphic representations to his reports covering the transportation routes and building sites which he had explored. He knew that the planners of roads, dwellings and other structures could not be satisfied with mere descriptions of permafrost on their construction sites and subgrades (1.e. information about the presence, depth and temperature of permafrost); for these people it was essential to know also the types of soils, both frozen and unfrozen, and what was going to happen during the subsequent process of thawing and freezing of these soils.

The importance of geological characteristic for the demarcation of qualitatively homogeneous areas of the cryolithic zone was stressed in 1938 by I.Ya. Baranov, who considered "the zoning of a permafrost region according to typical features of frozen soils" to be one of the objectives in compiling geocryological survey maps. "Of great interest from the scientific point of view is a combination of a geological map with the plotting of specific mani-

festations of the water

-

permafrost complex; in other words, it would be

practically valuable to combine a permafrost chart with a geological map or with a map of quaternary deposits .I1 (~aranov, 1938, p

.

119)

.

That same year

K.I. Lukashev divided the "permafrost regions into 10 large geological

-

geo-

morphological areas, differing from one another both in their relief and in their geological structure"

.

(~ukashev, 1938, p

.

59-60)

.

In 1950, under pressure of demands made by the planners and builders of roads, mines, hydrotechnical and industrial structures and settlements,

P.F.

Shvetsov,and V.K. Yanovskii were compelled to make a tentative division

of the permafrost zone in the northeast of the

USSR

-

not only according to

its temperature and thickness, but also its composition, structure and the degree of discontinuity of the frozen subsoil. The resulting schematic geo- cryological chart quite naturally showed two different typical formatlons of frozen soils, each with its own specific cryogenic features and hydrogeologi- cal conditions.

In 1952, a schematic "permafrost

-

geological" zoning of the territory

with perennially frozen subsoil was carried out by A.I. Popov. Developing

the zoning principle proposed by K.I. Lukashev (1938), he divided the region into 20 districts.

In our work published in 1955 (~hvetsov, 1955) the opinion was formula-

ted, and to a certain degree substantiated, that the permafrost zone is originated by the heat exchange between the soil and the atmosphere and

outer space and between the lithosphere and the soil, under definite physical- geographical and geological conditions.

The conditions of heat exchange between the earth's surface and the atmosphere and outer space are most diverse and complicated, and their total effect on this geophysical process can only be expressed by an algebraic sum with unknown numerical values of many components. As a rule, changes of the conditions of the heat exchange between the earth's crust and the atmosphere by latitude, longitude and altitude differ in direction and rate, according to influences of various origin.

Particularly sharp and in no way connected with geographical coordinatee are the changes in geological, orographic, hydrographic and hydrogeological conditions of formation of the frozen ground zone. We know the great signifi- cance of local geomorphological features in the changes of thickness and

density of the snow cover, the density of illumination of the earth's crust by the sun, and other important factors in the temperature field of the lithosphere.

The patterns of development and distribution of the permafrost zone that are due to the zonality of climatic conditions stand out against a motley background of drastically changing azonal peculiarities in the structure and composition of the earth's crust and its surface. The zonality of quantita- tive characteristics of the frozen ground zone manifests itself over their azonality and, in turn, the azonality of the temperature and thichess of this geo-zone can be brought out by applying the law of zonality in studying

the physical

-

geographical conditions of its development and distribution.

In comprehensive physical

-

geographical zoning by the method of

"principal characteristic" or "principal feature", it is a very complicated task to find the truly principal characteristic to which all other inter- related characteristics of land configuration are subordinate over the entire area of a given region. In many cases the solution of this problem is sub-

jective and does not correspond to the requirements of up-to-date physical geography. Armchair charts of physical-geographical zoning most often satisfy no one but their authors.

"Physical

-

geographic zoning, as well as physical

-

geographical

mapping, should not start with abstract theoretical questions and speculative maps, but rather with the solution of practical questions. The compilation

of geological maps, soil maps, and others, and the solution of questions dealing with topsoil zoning has been evolving precisely along these lines, 1.e. from the solution of practical questions, to the accumulation of data, to the generalization and theoretical conclusions. The opposite way, 1.e. inventing theoretical schemes and then carrying out experimental work solely

for the purpose of verifying these schemes is an erroneous way." (~idov,

1954, p. 177). It is impossible not to agree with V.P. Lidovls statement.

When solving the problem of localized geocryological zoning, we shall

consider the needs of construction and maintenance of buildings, the search

for and exploitation of subterranean water for water supply, the search for sites for bulldings and settlements, and routes for the construction of

roads. For this purpose the leading characteristics of the permafrost zone -

its lithologic composition, structure and position in the macro- and meso-

relief - will be fully utilized. As we shall see further, in many provinces

and districts it is possible to distinguish and delimit homogeneous sectors of the frozen ground zone on the basis of one of the characteristic features alone, either the geomorphological or the lithographic. For the geocryologi-

cal zoning we make full use of I.S. Shchukinls suggestion that it is expedient

to consider the geomorphological characteristic in the mountains and the

lithographic on the plains. (~hchukin, 1947).

It is hardly necessary to prove that it is the duty of the geocryologlsts to regionalize the frozen ground zone proper instead of dividing the so-called

"permafrost area1' into physical

-

geographical regions. The latter is for

specialists in physical geography, and

a

task of primary importance to them.

Geocryologists have their own problems to solve, a specific subJect matter to

deal with: a specific substance, with its own space limits, characteristic

properties and forms of motion

-

the geocryozone (A.T. Akimovfs term), or

seasonally freezing soil and the permafrost. It is this permafrost and the overlying seasonally thawing topsoils that is for us to divide into zones.

At present, many more data are available on the temperature, composition, structure, depth, and the degree and character of discontinuity of the perma- frost zone in the majority of the provinces and districts in the north and northeast of the USSR than there are data on the climatic conditions for its development. For instance, in the coastal strip of the Yana-Indigirka low- land there exists only one meteorological station (at the mouth of the central channel in the delta of Indigirka River), while there are at least 10 bore- holes. These boreholes have revealed the permafrost at the mouth of the main channel of the Yana River, near Cape Svyatoi Nos, in the lower sector of the

channel Russko-Ustlinslcaya Protoka, and in other places along the coast. The

peculiar characteristics of the climatic conditions of heat exchange between

the soil and the atmosphere can be perceived much more clearly from the data on the temperature and depth available for many points and whole sectors of the permafrost zone, than the temperature and depth of this zone can be from the climatic conditions. The interrelation of climatic characteristics and the depth and the temperature of the permafrost zone has been proven by