Education staff training programme training manual on: non- formal education for integrated rural development

EDUCATION TRAINING MANUAL No. 2 ECA/PAMM/HRP/86/WP.l

UNITED NATIONS

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EDUCATION STAFF TRAINING PROGRAMME TRAINING MANUAL ON--

NON-FORMAL EDUCATION FOR INTEGRATED

RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Addis Ababa, March 1986

EDUCATION TRAINING MANUAL No. 2 ECA/PAMM/HRP/86/WP.l

UNITED NATIONS

EDUCATION STAFF TRAINING PROGRAMME TRAINING MANUAL ON:

NON-FORMAL EDUCATION FOR INTEGRATED RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Addis Ababa, March 1986

ECA/PAMM/HRP/86/WP.1

CONTENTS ■ ■

I- Course Manual No. 1 . ■■.,■[-_

(a) Nature, scope, purpose and'basic concepts

of non-formal, education

(b) Adult Education as a variant of ron-formal

education

(c) Non-formal education and development

II. Course Manual No. 2 ■ --;!'

(a) The adult learner

(b) Planning and administration of adult education programmes and activities III. Course Manual No. 3

(a) Designing educational and training programme (b) Training curriculum development: Outline of

concopts and application

(c) Training course/programme planning and

development ■

(d) Programme content and strategy

IV. Course Manual No. 4

(a) Preparing instructional objectives (b) Writing instructional objectives

(c) Categories and analysis of educational

objectives

(d) Instructional technioues

V. Course Manual No. 5

Learning theory, the trainer and motivating the Learner (a) Seme important factors in learning

(b) Learning theory and the instructor (c) Some aspects of learning

(d) The psychology of adult learning

(e) Hints and suggestions for adult learning

ECA/PAMM/HRP/86/WP.1

VI. Course Manual No. 6

Part I:

(a) Teaching and the problem of method (b) Teaching behaviours and styles (c) Methods and technioues (General)

(d) Methods and techniques for teaching skills

Part II

Training methodologies: Concepts and application

VII. Course Manual No. 7

Course and Lesson Planning (a) Basics of planning (b) Planning the course (c) Laying the course

(d) Planning the unit (e) Planning the lesson

(f) Sample lesson plan

VIII. Course Manual No. 8

Evaluation of Non-formal/Adult Education

(a) Uses of evaluation

(b) Nhat do we assess

(c) Forms of assessment '

(d) Constraints in effective programme evaluation

ECA/6AMM/HRP/86/WP 1

Course Manual Nbo 1

Focus on;

- NatureF scope, purpose and basic concepts of

non-formal education

- Mult Education as a variant of Nbn-Fbrmal

Education

- rfon-R>rmal Education and African Development

A. Naturef jjconer ?urr*>se and, £?sic Concepts of "lon-?annai Tvciucatlon

1, Introduction

The education sector is continuously re.irrj attached for pailiirr to "respond, to the chaUerrris of the African■crises 3nc'] to create rore educational opportunities for the majority of the rxjnulation-o ■ TJ->e sector is beinrr accused of bein? too reaid,- inflexiM-:

and conservative to respond to ch^nr^e and irinovatior-. T-hat is needed therefore is a conipleF^tary/su^lercentary system of education T£dch is more forward lookiTT,

innovative and flexible to respond to societal needs, rA?cb a syster. my }^e none other than non-formal education witi? its variants of adult education? correspondence

education;: adult literacy, continuinr? education, errtra-iiora] studies°, extension services? distance and. lifelorsr? education. Unfortunately, all these variants are often ora&nized in isolation or- cor??etc a/*r inst each other and are generally not seen in relation to general or non-iormal education itself „

To put tviese v?uri?nt£ of non-rorpal orHacntion. into proner per&iective? it is necessary to essamino the various "^robler^ to T-^iich formal erlucation has-'been unable to respond; and for v.ttich these varinnts a-Toear to constitute a response, 'i'hese problems stem from i!Tadeni^ciesf discrepancie;^ anu disjearities r?xisincr frai the following issues: s

(1) Africa's fast vorvlation rate of rrowth accornpanicd by the general (demand, for

educational oj^prtunities. The population increase has not been matched by an

attendant increase in the provision of educational facilities and the related

academe staff. At the sare tirne, vfiere 'there has been a bu^e increase in prirary sdiool enrollment, this h^s not l^een matched vdth a corresrondijrT increase in

seconclary..anc| higher education y-ronrammes. ^isrvr nrinanr rind secondary school learners have been ::pushed*-outf of the educational systerae at the terminal points

of each of the taro levels, Tany African states have been unable to provide

educational facilities for the fast increasing populationo

(2) There exists: a najor disprxity in tl^e provision of educational facilities (bDth quantitatively and qualitatively) betv^een rural and urban areas. 1^.e latter having more and Jjetter facilities e This has .led to serious rural-urban drift for rural youths sed:lnr better ouality anf" increased educational opportunities in urban areas. In return those vtic Ivwe attained their education in ur!>on areas- even if they cause fror:i rural areas, have not been keen to ^o hack to rural areas to vjorfc even if this neans renaining jobless in urban areas e Xhis rural-urban drift for education has continued to produce unbilanced development beta-jeen rural and urban areas and deprived roral arecis of its vrantod human resources.,

(3) The increase in ];np\;ledoe and anprcpriate tedmolory against a badcoround of

(a) the lack of an effective systar for disserdnating knovxLecl'Te to rural users who can deal, with it rjid apply it effectively--before it is made obsolete. At present, liost origination centres of knowledge f skills and technology arc in urbamor seed- urban areas and there is no easy contact vdth rural users, ITais geographical senaration inhxoits any meaningful ^ialocrup bet\;?een the knowledcie and skills orininators in urban areas and the liners ir. rural areas. As a result--there is little diffusion arc], adciptation/adortic-n by the rural r^eoplc of the -Itnotjledge and its application to problems in rural areas. Indeec?. so r^jdh useful knowledge

Pane

in public health, nutrition, income ocnerrtion environment =ffid envelopment in aeneral is made to waste for 1-ddk of coirmanication :^tx*een origination centres and rural

users.

(4) There is <x hir?h rate of illiteracy anonc the population coupled with the low levels of skills available for soico-ecancrrdc development. Illiteracy has proved to he a serious lrredli:tent to rural development in the region; and in this regard, . formal education fr*s failed to be the ko/ to the modernization and ruralization

process as was hoped at the tixve o^ Ir/;Tepenc!ence in. manv African countries.

<5) Tnere is the failure of foiral education to recocjnize and deliberately

structure and provide for individual differences in the level of and the course of cognitivef affective and psychomotor skills (development. In addition, formal education tends to provide uniform learning experience to'1 both rural and urban learners through its adherence to a uniform curriculum for the country. This has often led to hiqh dron-outs, hl^h failure in rural areas sric1 lias ill-enulpped school leavers returning to rur-1 ara?o. Little account h^s been token of those with unique abilities or disabilities - e.g. the rifted and talented and slow learners have not 'seen fully catered. for= Mo nrovision has been rade of ther. to

operate at their own pace and capability. : .

(6) Formal education has not proved to ^c the key to to .ernisation and develormsnt

process as was once hoped, It is not uncornon to hear in son? countries that

education is nakinrr a negative contribution to their development. Educational

systems appear ill-equipped to solving national problems and producing answers to national crises. and for preparing the youth for a life in a rural setting „

Primary schoolsf for instance, prepare purdls for entry to secondary schools

viiere only a few do enter 0 The ": left-overs" have neither the knov/ledge and skills

nor the right attitudes needed for functioning efficiently in a rural environment c

(7) At present ir.tearated rural rtevelorpont is irore said than accomplished because its accomplishment does not only renuire the identification of all the

prooramme contents t but also the prxtici^ation of rural copnunities vatli the

knowledge skills and attitudinal disposition of the content rxeas of integrated rural develcpnent proarairmeso To this should be added the fact that origination

centres of J^novledge and information are ;:ar from rural areas so that rural users

do not get such information in good time to ensure effective use. Further, there is lack of structural linkage betvxsen rural and urban centres of information, and vfoere sv.ch lineage exists, it is ofton effective. Ihere is also the existence of unbalanced r-uality in terms of staff and facilities between rural and urban

areas.

fIhe forecTOiiKr shortcomings of schooling/education have iec" to the search for

comr.:lementsP sunplerr-ents and alternatives to formal education and to the birth of

non-formal education. The concept of nan-Jformal education is --^rt of a uidesoread

search for alternatives to formal education uhich-is itself bound up \;ith the

chanrring conceptions of develonrent. In this regard therefore/ it is important to

relate the concent of non-formal education to the concept o^ development i.e0 hew

have efforts to Dlan and in^ler.ient non-^onral education- nrorrr?imreE acquired focus

frorn the consideration of that develo^ner.t means, ris an alternative to formal

schooling, how effective has NFE been used anci an instrun^nt for the pursuit of

Pacre 3

recoqriized educational goals especially those associated with national development.

Further t it imst be pointed out that these shortcoming have dictate the need for an alternative to service and cater for increased quest for accessibility to

educational opportunities'? "the need for a balanced duality delivery system viiich would provide a second chance educational ^ronrame,- and. the dissemination of infbrratien- at the ri^t time to those v*jo need it.

^*he point to be emphasized here is that non-formal education together with its variants" of; cdalt education; corresponcGnce/rastance education? literacy nrograirares?

contiiaiirv* and lifelong education; extra rural studies? extension/ccxinunity services and productive education should supolerr^t/corplcrasnt. the formal education system ' in an-Bering to educational and. training needs of rural ocmnunities? and equip.?inq them vith the necessary knowledre, s>:Uls and attitudes for 3 jneaninrrful livina in

a rurc.X areas.

1X0 i= ggts .and Dslineation of ^^n-Pornal Education

l. mjor problem of concern is the unclear nature of the nomenclature of Non- FornaJ Itfucation with so many terms beinr* useri to discribe the concept of Hon-Forrol Education and its practice. These variants include.';

(a) Mon-Fonml Kducation itself (b) Adult education

(c) Coirrespondence education (d) Distance Education

(e) P.3alt Literacy (f) Iittera<iry Proqratriaes

(g) ContihUing Education . ..-■..

(h) Lifclqng Education v. ;

(i) Farther Education (j) Frtcnsion Sen-'ices

(k) Urtxa-IIural Sadies, eteo

0- tv-se variants of non-fonnal education^ v.foich one is to Joe regarded as being ;33pst non-fcrnal?. Bie probleir: cannot S;iirply be solved by a distinction

loetwee}-! formal and non-formal education thuss

, j:'<J ?2gILal g-ducation is the hierarchically strcturocl, full-tire chronoloqicall- graded system running from primary school throucfe the university, includinq a

varietyof fulltime tehil d

varietvof full-time technical and professional training, ^rid generally controlled by a contial ministry of education o

<1:-).- Hon-Forml Education is any organized c?ducational activity outside the

establish;^ formal system, whetlier operating separately or as an ii^ortant feature for some broader activity, that is intended to serve identifiable learning clienteles

and thtiir objectives B

BCa/FAM'I/HRP/86AS*. 1

Page 4

jnfonaal Education refers to the life-long process of acquiring

incidental attitudes, values, skills and knowledge from daily experience and the influence and resources of one's environment. Through informal education, a chiLu masters the fundamentals of his irotber tongue and acquires a substantial vocabulary before he goes to school. Indeed nost of the occupational skills and social role functions m traditional societies are learned through informal education.

distinctions have teen given for analytical pur1x>ses: i.e. to examine and analyse organized educational activities that fall outside the traditional jurisdiction of schools.. However, they do not constitute an endorsement of the

separation of tiiese inotfes of learning,

Xn the planning and management of educational programmes, the most important thine is iX>w the intended objective of the programne can be achieved roost efficiently irrespective of the nieans (formal or non-formal) of achieving such an aim,

>)ur concern, however, is on r,on-fonaal education which should not just be though of as adult or out-of-schcol education confined to literacy or university extra mural studies, but it should include programmes in farmer training, arts and crafts, and all educative services to rural adult and youth producers, school age drop-outs,- left-outs of tte' formal system, illiterates and adults wishiner to

nave second fiance education „

Uhatsver variant of non-forme 1 education we chxise, it will fall into one of the t\JD categories, vizs (aj those progranmes providing education to youths and adults cutsid-3 the fcnral system w'nich do not lead to any value added paper

qualifications i.e. credits or certificates, but provides the client ..with functional knowledge and skills for product.ive wrk? (b) education provided to youths and adults outside the formal system loading to credits, certificates or qualifications, -his being deliberately provided as an alternative for than and a form of second chance, education intended to have the same results/effects in both credits/

certiticates and the attendant j ■"•^rations as formal education.

111 • ^tigP^ Education Policies nnd Aims of Education

In proposing guidelines' for irproving the delivery capability of non-formal education- account must be taken of the overall national education policies and the general aims of education including non-formal education,

'..hat is the government's policy on the development of education in the country* lite govenmentfs national education policies may include, anong other

things: • ■. ' 3

(i) the attainment of universcJ. basic education for the iaajority of the pDpuletion to ensure that each and everyone develops the necessary competencies for personal growth and self, fulfilment either through fbrraal or no-formal

education?

(ii) equip tl- majority of the population with necessary occupational,

technical $?,& marag-rial skills and. Imowledge for effective participation in

national devalDpiient;

ECA/PM'VHRP/86 A<P o 1 Page 5

(iii) to pay greater attention to an education that generates scientific

thinking, problem solving, technical skills and attitudes and linking productive

activities and learning;, end the practical application, of .knowledge and Skills to

incorne generating activities;

(iv) to encourage programmes and activities that foster cultural values arid right attitudes to work in rural and urban areas and for self developments

(v) provide for educational opportunities to all shades of society through formal and non-formal education programmes in literacy,, numeracy, basic knowledge and skills in agriculture, healthy comnunity work/ business, social services, government enterpreneurship etc.

(vi) to promote co-operation, collaboration and coordination of educational activities and programmes between the public and private sectors and maong the various sectors of the economy,,

In pursuance of these national education policies, a country generally ensures that nationals do attain the following objectives: :

(a) ability to speak, read write and communicate effectively in a national language or the official languages of the country; ,:

(b) ability to make basic mathematical calculations or computations?

(c) ability to comprehend basic scientific concepts and to solve life problems;

(d) an understanding and appreciation of national cultures, traditions, history and civil/social responsibilities, and of the physical and social environment;

(e) development of occupational and vocational skills and knowledge for

earning a livelihood? ; -

(f) ability to manage a household, raise a family and take, part in community

life; understand health and nutrition problems and to live in harmony within a

community.

The development of non-formal education will naturally be affected by the overall national education policies and the overall education alms-. Thus some of the aims of non-formal education one would like to see pursued would oet

(i) Non-formal education should reflect the needs of its clients i.e. by

providing training in literacy, numeracy and skills which will enhance self fulfilment and self development

<ii) Non-formal education should provide instruction and materials related to income generation and an increase in production to all thase who are employed,

(salaried or self employed) and should iirprove tte technical, vocational and managerial performance of those in government or industry. : ; '■'■■■'■

(iii) A linkage established between formal and non-formal education to ensure that the two systems complement and supplement each other in the development of knowledge, skills and attitudes for a meaningful life. ' .

(iv) Hie need to establish a co-ordinating machinery for the effective development of non-forroal education amongst the various providers of non-formal education (government, private or voluntary agencies) o

(v) Non-formal education progratflties should encourage and promote the development

of national, cultural and societal activities to reinforce and enrich socio-economic

life.

ECA/PA&I/HRP/86 /WP. 1 Page 6

Clientele o£ -NFE anf their Learning Heeds.

Given the foregoing policies, aims and objectives, for whan should non-formal education be? And £or: the majority of rural dv/ellers what should constitute a minimum package of, learning needs o

Mbn-formal education should cater for the following?

1. Youth and adults'in econanically depressed areas

2. Illiterates - youths and adults

3O Youths and adults from a country's pockets of poverty

4. Drop-outs from the formal system who left school for one reason or anotiier 5O Left-routs /overs who cannot be accommodated by the fonaul system for lack

of educational opportunties . \ >

6. People at work who want to have a second chance education to learn while working and working wiiile learning .

7. Specific groups of youths and adults from, jooth rural and urban areas ■ ■ ; such ass

(a) traditional craftsmen/artisansc including vendors,, entrepreneurs, cobblars, builders? carpenters, brichlayers etc.

(b) traditional healers, medicine-rneri aidwives, magicians etc.

... (c) clubs and special interest groups,-e.g..ycfUthAwnen clubs, local co-operatives etc.

(d) peasant farmers, small businessmen, hawkers,_ illiterate workers

o. All thpse who need education for one reason:or -another such as retirees,

prisoners, detaineesf rehabilitated? handicapped and deliquents.

The problens ^these people face are various and many. However, it is jjnportant

to: ■■■■■.:■ ■ -.■--■. - ■ :, .

(i) identify the needs of the concerned areas, and thus cane up with an

(XJGupa^onal classification, occupational discrepancies, categorized groups of

people with eamon needs and possible content o£ a progranme to itveet the needs

identified; ;,

(ii) identify existing resources, including available local leadership; common medium of ccriinunication (language) and local agencies which would be willing to help in non-formal education programmes;

(iii) riptivate and convince the clients, of. non-forfcial education to internalize the worthiness of the, envisaged programmes of. non-formal education.,

Uhen identification has been done, a decision has to be made as to what should constitute a miniimiii package of what everyone should know when a programme is completed. In other words what are the essential skills, knowledge ■ and attitudes which be possessed by every individual in a society for effective and satisfying

adulthood? This niiniraun pacl^ge cannot be the sane for every country nor even iri

one country can it be the saie for.all rural areas. It has to differ fran one area to another; or fran country to country. People along the lake will have different needs frcrn those of the mountains or forests* Be it as .may, every person, in society ought to have:

Page 7

1. Functional literacy and numeracy sufficient to write a letter, read a magazine or national paper and mate simple mathematical calculations when shopping or getting the right change?

2. Functional knowledge and skills for raising a family and operating a household - including such aspects as health, childcare, nutrition,

recreation,, storage of crops and food preservationo In rural areas a good portion of this aspect can be achieved through informal education or

community education.

3. Positive attitudes towards work, ccnsnunity services and participation,

society, national services, societal ethics and codes of conduct. When-this aspect is missing, schooling/education is accused of having failed to

educate the young properly.

4. Functional knowledge, and skills for earning a living. In rural areas, such

knowledge and skills must be in the fields of agriculture, arts and crafts, small holding, poultry, farming, building and construction etc. Most schools are ill-equipped for a productive life in a rural setting for lack of this essential learning need* .

5. A general scientific outlook and an elementary understanding of how things work e.g. how to keep cattle and grow crops, having clean water, and how to protect the environment.

6. Functional knowledge and skills for participation in national community and -.-,.- local activities such as road building, construction of village well/

borehole, school block and teachers houses.

Neither formal nor non-fonaal education can on its own meet these learning needs for every individual in society- They need to complement each other. It

is this oorajSlenientarity that strategies for the effective development of non-formal

education are being proposed;

V. The Meed for Improving the Effectiveness of Non-formal Education

The question we need to ask is why we need to improve the effectiveness of non-formal education in preparing both the youth and adults for productive life.

The answer to this question is that;

(a) the pressure on educational resources and the ever-increasing, unsatisfied ' demand for education have made it imperative to seek new educational

r approaches to development r iton-formal education has a low per capita or instructional unit costs compared to forraal education. At the same time, non-formal education has a short gestation period for an educational prograrnne but with effective results at low costs.

(b) a second point of emphasis is that formal education is not tailored to the socio-economic needs as well as self fulfilment and aspirations of

individuals. The content of formal schools, organization, methodology,

age-structure and practices cannot realistically help equip rural

societies with the right attitudes, knowledge and skills required for

employment, household management, family responsibilities and community

work0

Non-formal education therefore tends to have an advantage over formal education

in terms of costs and in being tailor-made to the needs of rural societies. It is

for this reason that proposals are being made for its development.

>\J,' : :£ ., .-.

Page 8

B8 Adult Educations A .-iajor Variant of i»-Eonnal Education

I. Nature, Scope and Purpose of felult Education

^ -"ron-fonnal education" is sometimes used to cover all

as

school or designed for specific individuals and orouos" a

^ ***?*.** the ordWy general cStifStfoT " A

' :' ronaal ln nature» even if it is not part of the school

Oi ^^^ atterriin KSkf SL

here is that education for adults is less

2 j

e for adults

°f

Page y

The 1976 UNESCO Itecommendation on Mult Education refers to 'persons regarded as adult by the society to wliich they belong1 ? but it may be helpful to look more closely at the attributes which are accepted by society as those of an adult.

These attributes include physiological maturity, the capacity for marriage and parenthood;, at least the potential for earning a living and contributing to society by the work of hand or brain and the recognized right to exercise whatever civic

duties the political system allows (such as taix-paying or voting). Perhaps the

essence of adulthood lies in the word responsibility; an adult person is expected to take full responsibility for his actions- for any debt he incurs, for any agreement into which he enters (such as marriage or a business partnership) and for the orderly conduct of Ms life within."■the laws of the1 land. A simple practical definition of an adult, which incorporates or implies these points is 2

"A person (man or woman) who has achieved full physical development and expects to haste the right to participate as a responsible honemaker, worker and member of society." 1/

In educational work,, we recognize the special needs of various age-levels in adulthood, and thus we have such concepts as the young adult and the elder, or . senior citizen,. The young adult is a category of person with which educators are very much concerned„ He or she will be someone physiologically mature, who has been thrown pn to his or her own resources for gaining a livelihood - having lost or never had access to educational opportunity beyond that provided by the formal primary.school„ Such people are the 'applicants1 and job-seekers whan we all

know in the large towns and cities«. Although many are not yet adult in law, they

are .forced into social and economic independence. The age-range we are considering is between fifteen and twenty-five.

vfe have so far stated that education is consciously facilitated learning, that it is lifelong and can affect young and old, and that adult education is the

education is the education of persons physiologically mature and socially and economically responsible,, I-fe may now seek to define adult education which is-

"The process by which men and women (alone, in groups, or in institutional settings) seek to improve themselves or their society by increasing their skill, their knowledge or their sensitiveness: any process by which

individuals, groups or institutins try to help men and women improve in

these ways," ±/' '

Mult education is thus conceived of very broadly. Its content may include

education parallel to the school and university system, vocational training and civic 'e4ucaticn.'"'-1i&ucation parallel to the first years of the school system.is sometimes called Mult Basic Education (ABE) and includes literacy and nomeracy

(the skills of reading^ and handling figures). Literacy has been a very important elanent in adult educaitonal prograromes in Africa, and recently there have been attempts to make literacy more irorediately functional (or purposeful) by combining the teaching of reading with the teaching of another skill, in a programme related to a given community in a given environment and to a given economic and social development plan. Very often the particular skill emphasized is geared to earning a living either as an independent farmer or worker, or as a person in paid

employment? this type of functional literacy programme is known as work-oriented functional literacy. Education beyond the literacy stage, for whatever purpose, is often called post-literacy education, and a newly literate person is known as a neo-literate,

1/Bown Ln & S/H/ Olu Tomori, opti cited,

ECA/PAMM/HRP/86/WP.l "v -■•..-.

Page:10

Very many adults who arc already literate want to improve themselves in their jobs and /therefore-^undergo courses of training. Training is more narrowly defined and more specific than education, since it is designed expressly to enable adults to understand their work, perform it more effectively and advance withinit^ but it may be seen as

a part of adult education, since it is concerned with changes in skills? knowledge And

ideas9 and relies,on the same principles.

Education related less to earning an individual living than to being an effective member of society may be termed civic education. It can be related to the betterment of one's village (associated then with community development); tc the functioning of a socio-economic agency (such as a trade union or a co-operative)s or to the political system (learning how to vote or understanding a new constitution).

Whatever the content of adult education, certain approaches may be applied.

Probably the most fruitful approach for Africa is that often known as conscientization.

The word was invented by the celebrated Brazilian adult educationist, Paulo Freire, to describe the process by which learning can particularly help the underprivileged. What

it implies has been eloquently described by Tanzanian ilwalimu Julius Nyerere:

'Man makes himself,- It is his ability to act deliberately, for a self-

determined purpose, which distinguishes him from the other- animals. The expansion of his own consciousness, and therefore of his power over himself, Ids environments, and

his society, must therefore ultimately be what we mean by development.

So development is for Man, by Man, and of Man. The- same is true of education.

Its. purpose is the liberation of Man from the restraints and limitation of ignorance and dependency. Education has tc increase men's physical and mental freedom- t to increase their control over themselves, their own lives, and the environment in which they live. The ideas imparted by education, rr released in the mind through education, should therefore be liberating ideas, the skills acquired by education should be liberat ing skills, nothing else can properly be called education. Teachingwhich induces a slave' nientality or a sense of impotence is not education at all - it is an attack on the minds of men1 1/.

.The stress in many African countries on liberation may remind us that liberation of the human being is the true goal of liberal education (liberating education), a^

term often misused tc apply to a particular academic subject-range or to non-vocational education. The division between vocational and non-vocational has always been artifi cial, since one person's vocation may be another person's recreation, and it has been out-dated by such concepts as functional literacy and conscientization9 which are based

on a view of the human being in a social and community context.

A similar conept is expressed in the phrase used in French-speaking West Africa, rural animation;, the enlivening, arousing to greater consciousness, or;stirring-up of tfie rural population. An important aspect of the,animation approach is that the agents of change, or animators, are usually persons from the village community and -not pro

fessional educators of any sort._ i. , , .,.. ;

1/ Julius K. Nyerere - Address to the'lnternational Conference on

~ Adult Education and Developments Wr^es-Salaatn, 1976.

ECA/PAMM/HRP/86/WP.l Page. 11

Very oftea we meet the word extension. Extension means literally stretching cut and is often used to mean the stretching out of an organization by interchanging intel ligence with persons it wishes to influence. If the organization has non-educational goals, then its extension may be less educational than propagandist. Much extension work is, however, a part of the adult educational process;we think most often of agri

cultural extension. Another expression used for the freaching-out' programmes of an institutions peculiear to Commonwealth countries, is extra-mural°7this means*, beyond the

walls', and it is used for adult educational programmes outside the institution's normal

geographical programmes or outside the range of its staple activities. Extra-mural departments are generally found attached tc universities or colleges or other full-time educational institutions, and so also are departments or centres of continuing education.

This phrase usually implies that the learners dealt with1 already have had some contact with the school system, and are building on to knowledge, skills or ideas already acquired.

A useful phrase describes the institutionlization of the concept cf lifelong

education itself. This is recurrent education, the organization of the whole educational

system so that learners may recur (or come back) tc it at will throughout life. This

type of arrangement is beginning to be used in industrialized countries, where there are laws about paid educational leave and similar matters.

In describing what adult education is about, we have introduced most of the basic

terms commonly used by adult educators in their work. Other expressions, relating to special aspects of the wdrk, will come up in later chapters and will be explained as they appear for the first time.

II, Traditional Structures of Adult Education T

As adult education or socialization is part and parcel of the total sociala political

and economic framework of any society, there are always traditional arrangements made

for the education of adults to prepare their, for the different roles they are expected to play in sbciety. Vrom the traditional point of view one can make the following genera lizations about adult education in Africa:

(i) the concept of adult education even if one thinks of it as "learning new skills and new ideas to be able to adjust to one's environment"

is not new to Africa, because arrangements for lifelong learning have always existed and are still practised in many African countries through traditional education.

(ii) Generally, learning basic skills and moves is not organized in traditional African societies and is therefore informal;and takes place within the family, lineage and other social groups;

(iii) More specific skills such as those of craftsmen and medicinemen, and also special knowledge pertaining to important traditional offices such as that of a chief, are learned in an organized manner or in a non-formal way of continuing study alongside the business of earning a livelihood.

(iv) It is important'for the adult educator to know the existing structure or arrangements in his area of operation since the traditional culture is still a living entity and the majority of Africans can best be reached

with adult education progrananes that follow traditional channels/structures

of communication.

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C, Consideration of Factors for Designing

Effective non-formal Education :

A number of factors ought to be taken into account when designing an effective non-formal education programme. Amongst these factors are,

(a) Motivations This may arise from the. sociological point of view when individuals come to a learning situation to conform to societal norms or requirements. Or this may be done from a psychological angle out of curiosity, anxiety,, ambition or anticipation, of rewards. Whatever the reason, it is important to identify the type of motivation which has brought the clientele together and use it to attain your educational goals. 1o ensure that learning is effective, the client's motivation must be nurtured, enhanced and emphasized and utilized for educational development.

(b) Rewards and benefits

Some of the clients of non-formal education do such programmes as a second chance

in education to continue from where they stopped in.the.formal system. Others

do it for prestige recognitions status, income, powers cr simply for self-fulfils&nt To ensure that NFE/effective it is important to know What benefits or rewards are expected from an NFE programme. Most cleints will follow the programme tc its conclusion if they are fully aware of the benefits they will have upon completion.

In facts learning is greatly enchancedif the rewards of the NFE programme can be easily demonstrated.

(c) Expectations: What do learners hope to get from instructorss teachers, other learners or from the programme content. Are learners, expecting a more practical or theoretical approach to the learning situation. Is the learning experience immediately applicable to situations, problems and activities wi.thin their

immediate environment. For instance adults attending a health and nutrition dags may wish tc try what they have learnt when they get home. It is important when designing an NFS programme to marry the expectations cf the programme designers ; and those of the learners;for if this is net done, properly-, the programme may fail. Further, the expectations of the learners must be reinforced and nurtured by instructors/teachers conscious of their responsibilities and determined to fulfil the learners expectations.

(d) Abilities: Another factor of impor .ance is to know the level of ability of the target group. How much can they comprehend of the programme content;their reading abilities;their mechanics, rental and maniputative skills. If the programme falls far below their abilities, they will think cf it as a waste of tine, and if it is to advanced, they will leave to avoid embarrassment. It is important therefore that the learning experience beir.s offered matches the ability of the learners.

This analysis can be shown diagramati;cally as in Diagram I.

The foregoing only highlight, but partially, the difficulty of developing non-

formal education programmes, because non-formal education is not just about teaching

adults to -reads write, or improve their educational achievements^ but for equipping

ECA/PAMM/HRP/86/WP.l■

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them with knowledge and skills to some real life problems of both rural and urban communities. Thus some basic factors ought to be analysed in the planning of non- formal education for rural development. Ten of these factors are given in Diagram

II.

Diagram I: Consideration of Factors for Designing Effective Non-formal Education

Factors Focus Sociological Psychological

I. Motivation 1. What brings the target population to ttie learning experience

A. (i) Conformity (ii) Sociatal noras (iii) Enforcement and

(iv) Requirement

(a) Curiosity (b) Anxiety (c) Ambition

(d) Anticipation of rewards

II. Rewards 2.What will the target B. (i) Prestige population, get from (ii) Recognition the learning experience,..., _

& r (in) Status

(iv) Income (v) Power

2. (a) Self-fulfilment (b) Gratification

(c) Self employment

(d) Satisfaction

III. Expectations (Pedagogical

topical values)

3. What does the target population believe or hope will be their experience

(i) Teacher and Learner roles (ii) Content

(iii) Utility

3. (a) Abstract or

concrete

(b) practical rather that theoretical

4. What is the target D. (i) Role acceptance A. (a) Memtal Ability crrouD able to do arm (ii*) Ro1f_ reroffni'tinn (hi flnpnifive sfvl.

IV. Abilities

group able to do and capable of learning to do? (i.e. what are the constraints of learning)

(ii) Role recognition (b) Cognitive style (c) Affective involve

ment . \

(d) Psychomotbr abilities.

Page14 ,tJP„I

DiagramII:;BasicFactorsforConsiderationinPlanningNon-FormalEducation

oSpecifylearningobjectives;*operationalskills-knowledge-behaviouralobjectives-specificgoals 3=Specifyinstructionaltasks:-instructionalexperience-instructionalprocedures-instructionalalternatives 5oSpecifyperformancelevels-accuracy-rateofperformance-quality-levelofskills-levelof■.competence 6.Preparationofinstruct-:tionalmaterials-linguisticdemands-conceptuallevel-degreeofabstraction-cognitivedifferences 0.Designevaluativeproceduress-designtests-evaluationmeasures-collectionofdata

^ Feedback ^

tI1III

ECA/?AMI-I/HnF/86/:;?, I Page 15

Non-formal Education and Development.

Since the independence of many African countries, education in general was seen as an instrument for economic development;and adult education (a major variant of non- formal education) was considered as a stepchild of national educational planning, and an insignificant element in overall national planning. Over the last two decades, national educational planning has been infrequently integrated in overall natinnal planning, and that education in general, and adult education in particular have contri buted towards economic development by making use of people's knowledge and skills

acquired through adult education.

Generally, non-formal education has suffered from the main stream of education

expansion, national planning and development thinking. In a way this suffering has been caused by non-formal and adult educators who have contributed to the isolation by stressing artifactual importations of western systems of education (e.g. secondary and

tertiary levels extra-mural offerings] and from incomplete fragments misunderstood as

self-contained wholes(eg. formal literacy programmes without follow-up courses or

links to social and production setting.

Only recently has there been an overt recognition that non-formal education is a developmental process and therefore a political one which must interact with

other elements in social, political and economic change. This recognition brings

into focus the relationship between education and development and man as the centre

of it all. As a great African adult educator once put it:

"Development has a purpose;that purpose is liberation of man. We talk a good deal about development - about expanding the number of goods and services and the

capacity to produce them. But the goods are needed to serve men;services are required to make the lives of men more easeful as well as more fruitful. Political, social and

economic organization is needed to enlarge the freedom and dignity of men. Always we come back to MAN - the "Liberated Man", as the purpose of activity9 the purpose of

development 1/.

In placing man at the centre, emphasis is being made on the basic human needs

definition of development i.e. that development is concerned with satisfying basic human needs of individuals in society, icccrding to Herbold Green, improvement of life for

a man, requires the satisfaction of five main types of need:

1. Personal consumer goods - food9 clothing, housing

2. General access to such physical and social services as good water-supply, communicationss preventive and curative medicine,

and education.

3. rhysical9 human and technological infra-structure and capacity necessary to produce those goods and services.

4. Productive employment cf individuals, families and communal units yielding high enough output and fairly distributed rewards so that they earn incomes sufficient to enable them to benefit from the supply of goods and services.

5. Mass particiaption in decision-taking, including revision of plans, general strategy formulationa control of leadership, and also in the carrying out of decisions 2/

1/ Julius Nyerere's address to the Conference of Adult Education

and Development in Dar-es-Salaam.

2/ R. H. Green ~ Adult Education, tasic human needs and integrated

development planning, convergence vol. 9 No. 4 (1976) pp.45-60.

ECA/PAMM/KRP/86/WP. 1 Page 16

From the point of view of non-formal education, the last three items are the challenging ones because they touch upon the central theme of adult education - how tc help adults learn how to produce and use the goods and services and hence satisfy their needs. A second aspect is to train them for productive employment, and how to educate them to take part in decision making. In other words, how do we educate people to

ensure that they control their own economic and social destiny and that they share in tht wealth which they produce.

It is being argued here that ncii-formal educatinn can rise to these basic needs challenges and in so doing contribute to the social; economic and political development and hence enhance national development. However, non-formal education has often been separated from the formal education planning and has not been taken into sufficient

account by the social and economic planners. ;,

In addition, non-formal education itself has had so many variations and let .alone it has been the responsibility of so many government ministriess voluntary agencies and other bodies. Yet given the fact that non-formal education is part of a widespread search for alternatives in education, it might acquire greater significance from a

consideration of the current analysis of what "'development11 means. It must be emphasized that there are fundamental changes in the definition ,of the concept of ''development1"

itself which incorporates such notions and ideas as,Thuman:beings, employment, environment social equity, participation, privileges3 basic needs satisfaction^ growth, process etc.

It is therefore important to give a definition of development suitable for our purpose.

ECA/PAMM/HRP/86/WP.1 Page 17

Definitional Framework—7

The word developtxent, though difficult to define, has taken on various meanings and conotations depending on whether it is viewed as a state of affairs or as a process,, Given the correlation between change; and time unuer the laws of nature, it is more useful to define development in the dynamic sense.

Consensus in emerging that development can no longer be perceived as harmonious but has to be understood as a sequence of conflicts in different forms and at

different levels/*

Development therefore could be defined as an unfolding process or act of advancing components of an object or of a nation through successive stages

within a conflicting environment. In the case of a nation, tte process, which is usually referred to as national development, must take place siiitultaneously within t^B political,, economic and social fabrics of the society. In other words, the process must incrementally bring to an advance stage tlie political, economic and social structures, within the context of the people's needs and values.

The effective meaning of the process can only be derived if it is self- sustaining and allows the people of that nation to free themselves from the envelope of poverty, ignorance and disease. This requires (i) designing and pursuing measures that would efficiently generate and distribute to the people needed goods and services; (ii) maximizing the utilization of the anation's human and other resources; and (iii) instituting legislation and institutional framework for ensuring active and full participation of the people in the process.

By analogy, rural development could be defined as a develcprent process aimed specifically at advancing the welfare of a "target group" located within geographic clusters that are characterized rural as defined either in terms of the volume and nature of economic activities; or the nature of socio-political infrastructure and institution or population density. Apart fron the purposes of conducting population censuses, the rural clusters are usually defined as areas with non-existing or negligable social services, political awareness and involvement and economic interaction.

Therefore, fcy definition, "rural development" is more than the process of advancing through successive stages", but one which stould be viewed as a process of human development in which man is both ths subject and the object and in which ths "rural population" features in the machineries for (i) decision making, (ii) economic growth, and (iii) national income distribution, Accordingly, the process should deal effectively with the national 'taacrc-perspectives" and the constituent "micro-grass-roots" contradictions. In tte African context, these contradictions are fundamental and could, at times, call for the creation of new social, political and economic orders.

1/ Toga Wdnfcosh - A Definitional i^rawework of Development and Rural

Development, u&ca, Human Resoruces Development Section, A3dis Ababa, 1986.

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It is tierefore to be argued that non-fonial education assumes clarity: and usefulness to the extent that it is infonred by an understanding of the fact that it is instrurental to development as defined here „ Non-formal education is being considered in relation'to uevelojSttent because- it is more responsive, taiior*-rr.ade and relevant- to the needs of ooiimunlties in rural areas. It focuses

on teaching ptnple to iii^rove their basic'; level^;of subsistence and their . . general conditions of learning; Learnersacquireknowledge and skills for their iiadediate use thereby, avoiding the lohtj gestation.period which often exists . between formal education and productivei 0r^>ioymento .!."., ,,^" : ^

':■:.)<-/ -..- :<.,. 'JJ L. ')• :''C

■ i '.&:'<■*

Course Manual No. 2

ECA/PAMM/HRP/S6/WP.1

Focus on:

The Adult Learner

Planning and Administration of Adult Education

Programmes and Activities

eca/pawVhrp/86/vp.i

i. the adult leaner

A, Introduction

Effective teaching must start from the consideration of the needs and interests of the learner. Thus the success of any adult nropramme will very much depend on the degree to -which the learners are made central to the learning

process.

It is therefore important for an adult educator to ensure that he is conversant vith the psychology of adult learning and establish from it the conditions which will enable the adult learner to benefit from an educative experience. In the analysis which follows, attention is focused on the inter

relation of social and individual educational needs; on the characteristics of

adult learners and on the conditions that promote adult learning. There are also practical hints on effective motivation, teaching and learning.

B, Adult Learning Needs: The Social Context As a start, three questions may be asked:

(i) What is adult education ? (ii) Who is an adult ?

(iii) Who is an adult educator ?

(i) Adult Education

The definition being put forward is not very scientific but is a pragmatic

one. In simple terms, "adult education is the education of adults in any form and

by any means outside the regular, accredited education provided by the formal school, college and university system. Alternatively it can be defined as

"all transfer of knowledge and process of grasping knowledge and experience by

adults". ■ ,

Given these definitions, three modes of adult education may "be distinguished

viz: ; -

(a) education for adults outside the formal system not leading -to

qualifications;

(b) education by adults outside the formal system not learning to quali fication, deliberately provided alternatives for adults, usually as a form ci

sec6nd chance education intended to have the same results, as formal education;

and

(c) the deliberate provision for adults within the formal system.

. ECA/PAMM/HRP/86/WP.l

Page 2

Normally, adult education unless specifically qualified includes just the first two^of these modes of education. In many African countries where illiteracy is very high adult education is very often equated with literacy work.' But

it is very important not to treat the two as .the same although as a result of policy^decisions, most effort for adult education may ,-o. for the eradication ' of illiteracy. The equating of literacy and adult education should not be encouraged as this tends to hide some of the most important aspects of adult education. More important is the fact that literacy can either be "pure" for learning to read and write, or functional literacy related to productive skills

or in the context of integration' rural development strategy. A distinction should therefore be made between literacy and adult education, in its various forms.

(ii) Who is an adult ' . . . ; '

The definition of an adult defends on the use and meaning for each societv and can^only be used internationally or comparatively in this way. It is

lripracticable to impose one precise meaning,, for instance in terms of age, on all different societies. However, -an--adult- may-be-<fesdribed'as^"a-resp6nsible home-maker, worker and member of society". In .many African, countries, such an adult is living in and is expected to participate in a developing society.

(iii) A n adult educator

In (i) above, adult education was defined as "all transfer of knowledge and

experience to adult and the process of grasping knowledge and .experience by adults", The adult educator then is "every person who is active in this process"* He is that person who is part of the focus working in a community as an educating force and a source of education for the community. •— ■ ":" "

Non-formal education.programmes of which.adult education is a major variant

are supposed to serve the following needs:

(i) .as an alternative for those.who lack the opportunity to acquire-formal

schooling;

(ii) as an extension of formal schooling for those who need additional training

to get them into productive employment or to become self-eroploved; and (iii) as a means of upgrading the skills of those already employed.

Tf non-formal education is to «\LLfil these needs, a country may wish to pursue the following as national objectives in adult education viz:

_in,

'.(aj to provide functional literacy education for adults who have never had

the advantage of any formal schooling;

(b) provide functional remedial education for those young people who pre

maturely dropped out of the formal school system;

ECA/PAMTVHRP/86 ATP. 1

Page 3

(c) provide further education for different categories of completes of the

formal education system in order to improve", their basic knowledge and skills;

(d) provide in-service, on-the-job, vocational and professional training for different categories of workers and professionals in order to improve t>eir

skills;

(e) give the adult citizen^of the country the necessary asthetic cultural

and civic education for public enhightenment.

A clear statement of the aims of adult education is insufficient unless accompanied by strong pronouncement by the government of the day followed by legal sanction

or legislation. . :.

The need for educating adults to niay a nore meaningful role in their society and national development became more pressing after independence,- and following

the rapid social economic and cultural changes. People needed to know and understand the implications of such changes. Thus the main function of.adult education is to inspire both desire for change and- an-understanding that" change impossible.

■ _ Illiteracy and poor basic education has.tended to hamper nation building in mnny African countries. It is therefore, reasonable to,expect adult educators to^

endeavour constantly to reach the poorest and least educationally privileged' members of society to ensure that they are not left behind in the progress of

society as'whole.

In the world context, very rapid social and technological change demands constant up-dating and renewing of skills and knowledge for all, to enable' new

techniques and new attitudes to be absorbed. This is not lust a matter of improving the individual s position in society, important thought that is; it is a natter of

enabling his whole society to survive.

^ Against this background, the adult educator may view the learners in their various social roles and provide for their needs within those roles and at the various stages of their lives - as young adults, middle-aged adults and elders.

Common social roles of interest to adult educators are those of spouse, parent, home-maker, worker, union or cooperative member, neighbour, friend, church member

citizen, club or association member.

C. Individual learning; needs

The implication of all this is that the learning needs of an individual will

vary according to his social role. An adult newly arrived at working"age vill'tie

obsessed with learning how to make a living; a woman with young children will be

interested m domestic matters and in the children's education; a member of a church

choir will be interested in music.

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Page h

The individual person,' however, has needs as an individual. He/she has a' need for what is sometimes termed self-fulfilment, sometimes self-realization

(or self-actualization). Some adults may. wish to develop skills in their work which' will enable them to excel, or other skills from which they may derive

satisfaction and recognition, such as in a snort or in a domestic practice like sewing or cooking. Some may wish to enhance their social standing, to gain a sense of importance or to cultivate new social relationships, and feel the need for learning how to achieve such ends. Others, who may have lost some educational opportunities in the past, may feel incomplete as persons unless they fill what they see as gaps in their knowledge and education. vet others may want to learn how to make constructive use of their leisure time.

Add to all these the objectives of those who wish to become better-informed citizens, as well as those who simply find a creative stimulus in the act of learning. It will be seen that individuals may be interested in learning for a

very wide variety of reasons, many of which are personal. How can we meet their

needs and harness their interests?

B. Characteristics of the adult learner 1/

There are still people (including some would be learners themselves) who,

while recognising the needs we have mentioned, assume that thev cannot be met because older persons find it difficult to learn. They say: "You can't teach an old dog new tricks". Modern research has disproved this. It has been shown that, given suitable conditions, older persons can go on learning so long as they are not

senile, that they may actually be better than younger persons at grasnin/* the

implications of certain types of information and that persons who have ke^t on learning throughout life perform better than those who have ceased to make any

conscious learning effort. ' . ,

1. Physiological changes

There need be no apprehension about the fact that, with advancing years, the adult goes through a process of physiological change, which may result in his

sight and beaming becoming less acute and in some loss in physical -dexterity. In -addition to what we have just said about adults' continuing capacity tolleara, it

has been observed at- adults also have a capacity for making adjustments to .

compensate for physical defects, e.g. a person who has become long sighted (which

often happens in middle age) will sit at the back of the classroom.

1/ Lalage Bown & S.H. Olu Tomori (ed) - A Handbook of Adult Education for

West Africa. Hutchinson University Library for Africa 1979. vv 31-37.

ECA/PAMM/HRP/86/WP.l Page 5

Nevertheless an adult educator must "bear in mind that some of the learners (his students) may have problems of sight or hearing; and he must find ways of

overcoming them. For instance, a slightly deaf person can be helped to make up for an;

part of the programme which he has missed "by a written handout or a summary on the chalkboard. Deliberate attempts must.also be made to minimize the strain on those with, weak evesight by ensuring a well-lighted classroom and good visual aids; printed mat.te"r should be clear and in appropriate type. Such efforts to assist adult

learners to overcome physiological problems should of course be accompanied by advice, if necessary, on how to deal with their personal physical difficulties.

Very often, medical treatment can help, and they should be advised to consult the appropriate specialist,

2• .Sociological changes

As we have seen, an adult f?oes through life in a series of changing social roles, For example, a person in the social role of a father is expected to behave

in certain ways as his children grown ud, and he learns to expect this behaviour

of himself.

It is necessary for an adult educator to make allowance for the social situation

of the learners, A middle-ages person who is a grandfather, a councillor, or the owner of a large house, willnot take kindly to being treated without the deference such a role entitles him to. This should be obvious, but very many pe«ple drop out from literacy classes or agricultural extension projects because persons younger ithan themselves treat them as schoolchildren.

Further, as has been implied earlier, adult education programmes may usefully be designed to help persons perform more effectively in their various roles.

Young adults will respond to programmes which help them to start on a career or to set up in married life,. Persons with families will want to learn about the relationships between parents and children and about problems in their children's education. Middle-aged adults will seek to know how to handle *the difficulties of adolescent children. Elders will want help in overcoming handicaps of did age.

3, Psychological changes , ....

It must be confessed that nany adultsf attitude toward formal learning is

one of- indiffernece. They may have painful memories of school, they may think

that education has no relevance to their lives, they may be afraid that they have lost the .'Capacity, to learn.... The. fir.s.t challenge to...the adult educator, is thus to stir their insterest in learning, to motivate them.

The interest adult learner brings to learning two great assets, which a

sehoolchild does not have. The f-irst is experience. In some cases, adult learners

may have more practical' experience than a young tutor whose knowledge of a subject is gained from a book. Any adult educator must therefore take account of the learners*

background and build on their experience. It is useful to find out as much as possible about the learners early on in an adult education course or programme and

throughout to link teaching with their ovn accumulated knowledge and experience.

ECA/PAMM/HRP/86/WP.1

Page 6

Adults may have to unlearn some prejudices and habits, but will certainly

resist doing so if their point of view and background are ignored. The point is that the tutor must be on the alert to use the learners' mature experience and help them to sift from it vhat is most valuable. At all tines, learning, to be

effective, must be centred on experience, .

A second asset, which many adults have, and which is partially the result of experience, is a developed power of deductive reasoning. They are very often

better placed than the younger generation to'draw inferences and follow a discussion

through to a conclusion. This does not mean that they may not often be illogical

or draw inferences which greater knowledge will show to be false; but their long habit of deduction is something of which an adult educator may make use. Most importantly, adult learning programmes should give every opportunity to learners to exercise their reasoning faculties and to be helped "to see the point" for

themselves; they should not be expected to learn mechanically or by rote.. Learning, to be effective, must be based on the adults' use of reasoning.

Further, as we have already seen, adult learners have their" own preoccupations.

They come to adult education with all the responsibilities of their various social roles, as we have mentioned, and are concerned with specific problems encountered in these roles. They want solutions to dilemmas which may cut across these disciplines.

In short, learning, to be effective, must centre on problems.

In any teaching-learning exercise, there comes a point at which the learners have to rtjly on memory. One disadvantage that older persons do have over younger

ones is that their so-called short term memory" is more easily disturbed. Short-

term memory involves the receiving, retaining and using of information within a very short period of time.

In providing for" adult learning, we have to bear this difficulty in mind and reduce to as little as possible the amount of straight memorizing. It cannot be avoided altogether, particularly in some subjects (e.g. language learning), but it should always be supported with such memory-aids as instructional diagrams,;

charts or posters. In short, learning, to he effective, must not be made dependent on large amounts of memorization.

E, Conditions promoting p,dult learning

In studying the learner, we have already been led to some conclusions about suitable conditions for learning; let us how systematize these conclusions.

1. The learner must be adequately motivated to change his behaviour

He must find interest, enjoyment, relevance and use in what he is learning, and at the, end he must be himself convinced that what he has learned needs action

(as the Americans say he must 'internalize" it). In the first place, the tutor

must stimulate and capture interest; he must then maintain if at such a pitch that the learners will accept the difficulties of a subject as well as its enter

taining side. To do this, he must make .an effort to meet the learners' need for

security, recognition and self-respect, as well as for novel experience; this means working-within their level of achievement- and giving them a sense .of progress.

ECA/PAMM/HRP/86/WP.l Page T

2. The learner must be aware of inadequacy, in.h£a. present knowledge, skill or "behaviour •■■"■-" ■ ■

Adult education is ver:,r often concerned with changing established habits and

learners may become defensive when they are faced with this. Motivation must

be harnessed to "internalization", and learners must be harnessed to "interna lization" s and learners must be guided to see any personal deficiency in combina tion with the means of remedying ito Self-righteous condemnation of beliefs or

attitudes .by counsellors or tutors will only stiffen learners' resistance.

The -prospective adult learner may need guidance in choice of a course of

study; at this t.tage he or she,can be given a sense of the need for change. Later,

when a course or programme has begiin, learners must be given an early chance - to express themselves freely about their own view of their present behaviour and -whether they have any wish to change .it.

■ 3.. The, learner must have a clear picture of what gains in knowledge or skill or what changes in behaviour he will achieve . -

The captive docile pupil of primary school and the competitive, highly moti

vated secondary or university student can be induced to do a great 4e&l °f work

at something whose outcome he may not immediately foresee. But an adult student wants a sense of direction. The tutor needs to plan a programme together with the learners, so that they have a ioint view of its objectives, which should be spelled out as clearly and in as much detail as possible.

H. The learner must have opportunities to put his new knowledge, skill or

behaviour into practice

Because adult students do not ha.ve a great deal of spare time, practical work is often neglected. And yet it is essential in all education, as well

known. Even if practicesessions are short, they should form part of every programme, and of each section of a programme.

5. The learner must, have reinforcement of newly learned behaviour

Any adult following a systematic course of study needs to be kept aware of his own progress. It is usefull to have recapitulation exercice, individual

(but non-competitive) tests and general evaluation at each stage. These relate to the work of the tuisor as well as the learner and should be ueed by him as an indicator of tlie relative adequacy or inadequacy of his goals and methods.

6, The learner needs the support of a sequence of relevant and appropriate

study materials ■ ...*..

The comments we have made about adults! interest in problems and their back ground of experience of life make it plain that materials used in schools and universities are not-appropriate -to the adult learner, • For instance-,--a- school

English reader may use a vocabulary about-sport including such words as "games-

mistress", "hockey", "tennis" for an adult post-literacv group learning English,

we would need words like "football", "boxing", "referee"..