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mGH SCHOOL ENGLISH TEACHERS' PERCEPTIONS AND PRACTICE OF CRITICAL THINKING
A Thesis
Submitted to the School ofGnLduate Studies InPartial Fulfilment ofthe Requirements
FortheDegreeof Mastes- of Education FacultyofEducation Memorial University ofNewfoundIand
Lilian Albert Sorial., B.A., REd.
St.John's,Newfoundland January1998
Copyright 1998: Lilian Alben Sorial
ABSTRACT
The purpose oftbis study was to investigatehighschoolEnglishteachen' perception and praaic:eofaiticalt.biokiDg skillsin theirclassroomsindevel.oping thecriticalthinkingabilities of the seniorhighlevelstudentsinEdmonton schools. Theintentwas to discover ifhigb school English teachersrealizethe importance and thegreat significance ofthinkingcritically,and ifthey model.
practiceandimplementitthroughtheirteachingmethods.to developthestudents'criticalthinking sIciIIs.
Thedataconcerningteachers' perc:eptions andbeliefson critical thinking weregathered through interviewsconductedwitheightEnglish teachers for Grades10, 11and12,insix different scboolsinEdmonton,AlbeTta. Theseinterviewswererecorded on audio-cassette.transcnbed,and analyzedtott:aebanunderstanding andacozx:Iusion. Thedatacoacemi.ogteacher-student classroom verbal i:nl:eraction was collectedthrough in<lassobservation of one or twoclassesfor eachteacher either before or aftertheinterviews.
The findings ofthisstudyindicatedthatcriticalthinkingcontinues togrowinpopularity.
Most ofthe high school English teachers realiz.e and believeinthe value ofcriticalthinkingas an academic compeIencythatiscrucialfurthestudents'futuresuccess and progress. Mosthighschool English teachers practice and model these skills totheirstudents, andtryto creatively develop the students'attica!thinkingskiDs.Thereare many opportunitiesinthehighschool English curriculum for educatorstohelp developcriticalthinking skills. Thestudyrevealedthatthe integration of critical thinkingskillsthroughthe creativeandeffective use of various teaching methodsispossible and essential. A significantfindingwasthat high school English teachers canbehighly influentialin establishing a classroom environment that fosters critical thinking development.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Iwishtoexpress&pJnciationaDdthanks to my supervisor,Dr.ClarDoyle,fOl'"his guidance.
advice andgenerousavailability oftimebeforeandwhilethis project wasinprogress.. and for his
~andhisbelie:finmyabilities.Itbasbeena pleasureandan honour to work and learn withhim.IalsothankDr.Rossanna Titeand.Or.Walter Oksbevsky fortheiradvice during the planningstage oftbe study.
Iwishto acknowledge the principals whoprovided access to their schools. I especiaUy acknowledge the eightbjgbschool Englishteaeben whogenerouslyvolunteered to participateinthis study, and whowere mostgeoerousin allowingmetoattendtheirclasses and observe them and their swdentsinaction. A special thanks toaU thestudeou,andthe Edmonton Public School Board for participatinginthestudy.
To my husband.Mark,for his support, loveandencouragement, and to my two precious claugbtcn. CbristiDeandCarolyn.for their love and supponthattillmy life.Inhonour of myfather.
whoselife remains aconst&tlsource ofinspinltion.andto my Mom for her encouragement and love., Iextend my appreciation and acknowledgetheirlifelong support of mypersonaland professional development.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS CllAPTER 1: INTRODUcnON
RATIONALE BACKGROUND PURPOSE SIGNIF1CANCE LIMITATIONS.
ORGANIZATION.
NONPARTICIPANTS . CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .
.1 J J 4 .4 .5 .6 .6
CRITICAL TInNKING 8
Definition . 8
Developmental Criteria . 12
Acquisition. 15
Questioning 19
Brainstorming. 21
DiscussionandInteractive Presentations . 22
ROLE MODELS OF CRfTICAL THINKING . 24
APPLYING CRITICAL THINKING TO THE ENGLISH CURRICULUM 25
CONCLUSION 28
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 30
DEFINI1l0N 30
DESIGN. 31
Interviews 32
Participant Observation 32
Other Methods Used 34
POPUlATION SAMPLE
OATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURES RESEARCH QUESTIONS . SUMMARY
iii
J5 J5 36 36 38
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS .
ANALYSIS OF[N-QASSOBSERVATIONS.
Questions andAlternatives Investigation.
Wait Tune BnWLstorminglPredictions . Comparing/Contrasting .
Informed Discussionsin a Risk-Free Environment FeedbackandMotivation .
CoopenriveLearning GaphieO<gani=s .
CONCLUSIONS: IN-CLASS OBSERVATIONS TEACHERS' INTERVIEWS
Data . Analysis .
ConclusionsofDataAnalysis SUMMARY
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS/lMPLlCAnONS . DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS RECOMMENDAnONS
Application Further Study SUMMARY REFERENCES . APPENDICES
APPENDIX A Letter to School BoardsandConsent Form . APPENDIX B Letter to PrincipalsandConsent Form . APPENDIX C Letter to Teachers and Consent Form . APPENDIX 0 Letter to Parents and Consent Form APPENDIX E Teachers'InterviewSchedule .
iv
39 39 39 42 42 ..43 .44 45 46 47 48 49 50 50 50 65 65 66 66 66
6"
68 69 70 72 .79 80 82 84 86 88
CHAPTER 1: UfnRODUCTION
Asa resc:archcr.Ibaveagreatimerestincritical thinking.andthroughmy studies at Memorial Univemty Ibecamemore awareandconscious ofits significantly important roleineducation and postmodemsociety.Ifstudc:rttsare ourfuture.,they need tounderstandand question the given while notacceptingeverythingonits facevalue. Studenlsneedto acquire theskillsand learn~ techniques ofthinkingcritically,to filter the messagestheyreceive, and to have the power and the voice bywhichtheycanmakeadiffereoce.
AsBerlak andBerlak(1987) note:
Empowerment implies contributing to theshapingof society, ratherthanbeingsubjected to thepowerof others.Itgoesbeyondcriticalthoughtandincludes areadinessto actwith otbers to bring about thesocialconditionsthatonehaschosen through a process of coUaborative,criticalinquiry. Actionrequires courage,butitalsorequires a possession of knowledgeandskillsnecessaryto change the situationina classroom, school or any other area ofbwnan activity.(pol70)
Criticalthinkingprovidesstudentswithanoppornmityto takechancesand toexperimentnew approaches so as todetenninewbar. works and what does not work: fer them.Critical thinkingis a skilltha1canbeIll.1rtLlrcdtohelpstudents achieveathigher levels and find educationmeaningful.so developingtheircriticalthinkinginvolves teaching them how to examine and analyze almost everything around theminthe society.Criticalthinking is a fonn ofinquirywhichleads to ase1f- correctingpractice.,whichinvolvescbanging attitudes.beba.viou.rs., cenain beliefs or ideas and gaining the wisdom to develop oneself.
Criticalthinking is askillthatrequiresteaching andpracticingon how toexamine.,analyze., generalizeand developintdlcetuallinks among various subjects. and to come to logical conclusions.
Effective teachers need toberole models of criticalthinking,andinbecoming critical thinkers
tbemsdves,they needto dedicatetimeandeffortto developthenecessaryskillsiftheyare to have apositive impact on students.
Wttb effective tcacben' guidance, studentscanreflecton variousCWTeD1:topics or issues in arisk-freeenvironmentandlink themtothesocietyinwhich they live.Highschool English teachers can encourage students to decide freely on what to believe and what not to believe, what action to take., andwba1action toDOl:mke. Throughthedevelopment of criticalthinking,stUdents can assess andreform whatisalready present.
The researcherstrongly believesthatcritical thinkingcansignificantlyandpositivelyaffect studentsbyhelpingthemto become creativethinkers,to identify problems, to formulate hypotheses and to develop possible solutionsandalternatives.Educatorscanenable students to makelogical plans for investigationandtoreachlogicalconclusions byusing various methods of teaching through which students anain higher levels ofthinking.
This research was drivenbythe curiosity to understandandknow more about teachers' perception of criticalthinkinginterms of its importance and significanceineducation. Thereisa need tofindoutwhethereducators have enough knowledge about criticalthinking,and whether they bdieveinitand modelittotheirstudents.Onthe practical side oflhis issue thereisa need to know if teachers implement critical thinking in their subjects as a way to encourage the development of students' into aitical thinkers. Thefactthat teachers hardly have enough time10teach the content oftheir subjects may hindertheirability to take students tothishigher level ofthinking.
RATIONALE
A great deal of workhasbeendone to developtheoreticallyclear definitions ofcritical thinking;OOweva-.whileinterestingconceptualizations baveresultedfrom the different endeavoun, the Iiten.turereflectsconsiderable debate surrounding themeaning,significance and the various poSSIble ways ofdeveloping and modeling critical thinking.Onthe practical side there is ascarcity of research tobel.pus understandandknow what highschoolEnglishteachers perceivecritical thinkingtobeor mean to them,andwhether or not they practiceitin theirclassrooms using various leaching techniques.
Ifwearetounderstandhowcriticalthinkingskills areactuallydevelopedinthe classrooms.
there is agreatneed to focus on the process more than on the product. and what tools or methods areusedtobelpstudentsacquiretheseneededskills.
BACKGROUND
Overthe pastsix decades, researchers,. philosophers and educators have been thinking about thinking.specifically about criticalthinkingimplementation and development (e.g., Aylesworth&
Reagan.1969; Beyer, 1995; Brookfield., 1991; Dewey, 1933;Drake.,1976; Ennis&: Norris. 1989;
Glaser, 1985; McPeck. 1981;Meyen,1986; Sternberg, 1996).
Since the early 19305.critical thinkinghasbeena dominant topic of debateineducation.
Duringthepas[few decades. criticalthinking has beenaccorded considerable attention, around the problem afllow to improve critical thinking abilityinstudents. Recent studies at the University of Alberta.showthattherewerefewstUdiesrelated totheproblem of improving students' aitical thinkingabilities. One study by Hunkins (1966)examinedtheetrectof analysis and evaluation
questions ona1ticaIthinkingdevelopmentandachievementinGrade6.Eugene(1972),examined the teaching ofcriticalthinkingsIcills bySoaaticmdhod.,onlyinselected units ofiIIlroduction. It wasthescarcity ofresearchonaitical thinkiDgthatgave risetothis researchproject.
PURPOSE
Themain purpose ofthis studywastoexploreandundc:rstandhighschoolEnglishteachers' perceptions andpncticeof critical thinking. hisimportantaswdItofindoutwhether teachers model criticalthinking anduse effectivemethodsof instruction to help developtheseskillsintheir students.
Thisstudy was undertakeninthe bope of gaining some Icnowledge regarding classroom proceduresinteaching, developing andimprovingcriticalthinkingin seniorhighstudents. The purpose oftheresearchwas tobeJpeducators undentandandbe aware of the significant value of practisingandteachingcriticalthinkingsIrills.The researchwasalsointendedto serve as a source of motivation for educators to assesstheirteachingmethodsina critical way to effectivelyand positiw:lycontrhttetothe advancement of knowledge.Thestudy can serveasa teacher'5guide to help stude:rubcc?omecriticalthinkers,sotheycan piercethroughargwnerttsandarrive atscbol&rty oooc:Iusioos.The studyshoWdserve toinspin:teachers to alwayssearchforandimplement creative ways to developtheir students' critical thinkingskills.
SIGNIFICAllI£E
This study serves as the basis for establishing a realistic understanding of what high school EDgIi5hteacbers reallythinkandbelieve about the meaning and value ofcriticalthinking.Thestudy also prov;des
in.sisbt
intothe actual deve:lopment oftheseskillsinthe classroom settingwhereteacbenandstudentsiDtuae:t1JSingvarioasmethodsofteKbiDg ad~to8Cbicve better educationand~youngpcopieforthe21-oemnry.
This study provides aframework for otherteachenwhohave aniateress:iDdeveloping students'critical tbinkingsk:iII.s.andinprovidingthemwith. modelthatwouldhelp themincofpome and implementcritical thinkingdevelopmentintheir subject maner. This study should helphigh school Englishteachersrealizethatwithless consumption oftime, and withfew changesand modificatioasin their teachingmdhods.theywill beproviding educationthIliscriticalinnature.
This studywasimt:DdedtobdphighscboolEnglishteaebenaDdstudems understand the Uqxxtanceofwatingtogdberto practiceanddevelop criticalthinkingslcills,as a wayfor students tofimct:ioodfeaivdyinthesociety as suocessfuI.,empowered, indepeodem.and responsibledecision mak"".
LIMITAnONS
GiventhesrnaIIsamplesize,replication of this study wouldbenecessary to determineifthe genenlization applies to theentirepopulation ofhighschoolEngfishteachen.
Thefactthatthe~waspresemin-tbeclassroomswhereteachinsandlearning took place may have affected oralteredthe teachingstytes.Teacbers may havefeltjudged oc evaluated and thus perception may have affected their performance.
Studentsmayhave beendistncl:ed.inhibited toaskoranswer questions.,or felt uncomfortable discussingcIiffi:rmtideas,. due to thefactthat the researcherwaspresentintheir classrooms forobservat:ioD..
b Since qualitarive and critical research providethetheoretical framework for tfris study. the analysis of datamaybelimited bypersonal judgments of the researcher.
ORGANlZATION
Chapter2presentSa review afthe relevantliterature.the meaning and definitions ofcriticaI thinking.thecharacte(isti<:oeededforthedevelopmentofcriticalthinking,and how the students can acquire those clw"acteristics. Chapter 2 also presents information on how critical thinking canbe applied totae£nglishauriaJlwnChapter 3 describes the methodology, including the design of the study.theresearch questions to beaddressed.,andtheinstrumentsusedforthedata collection.
Chapter 3alsopresel¢Sthe students' and te:acheB' observation notes., thetranscribedinterviews. and the dataanalysisprocedures.Chapter 4 presents an extensive analysis of thedatacollected. Chapter 5 includesa summary.oftbeswdy..8:l.ioterpretarionofthefindings,and recommendations for future research.
NONPARTICIPANTS
Asan indication ofissues surroundingtheresearch topic.,therewere quite a few teachers who declined toparticipat~inthe study. Thosewhodeclined expressedtheirinterestinthe topic and its value tothem., butexplainedthattheysimply did not have the time10participate. The key barrier was that they bad considerablebackloginmarking. Few educators indicatedthatthey were working more than tenbowla day because oflesson preparation and in-term progress rqJOrtstheyhadto prepare.Other~ex:pIainedthattheywere under so much pressurethatthey could not devote the time or effort to participateinthe study, andtheysuggested that the researcher should include
thesevaUd&ctorsintberesearch.. ODebi.gb schoolEnglishteacher indicated: "Teachers don't have time. How cantheydevelopthestudents'criticalthinking abilities?"
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
This cbIpterpraa1tstIroughthe Iitenttft~thevariousdefinitions of criticalthink:iDg.
thecbaracteristicsneededforthedevdopmem.ofcriticaJ.tbinking,. andbowstudt:mscanac:quiJe those characteristics. Thechapteralsopresentsinformation on educ:ar.orsmodelingofcritical thinkingandinformation onbowcriticalthinkingcanbeappliedtothe English cwricu1um.
Thetask ofreviewingtheliteraturewasapproICbedwithan objective ofproviding definitions and informationand ofprovidingan opportunityto analyzesome areas ofcriticalthinkingwhich couldserve as aguide forthestUdy.
CRmCAL THINKING DerlDitiOD
Modem conceptions ofcriticalthinking goes back to 1933,whenphilosophers. researcher's and educatorstriedto definein meaning.BaronandSternberg (1986) definecrit:icaJthinkingas MreasooablereflectivethinkingthatisfocussedondecidingwhattobelieveorDOttobelieve.whaJ:
action to take orDOttake-(p.10). Criticalthinkingisconsidcndtobe.hi~level ofthinking which embodiestheabilityto questionthegivenaDdnot takeeverythingforgranted;itseeksto address thesocial.<:uItw'aIandinstitutionalbeingof education as a way ofestablishinga better society.
Nonis andEnnis(1989) defineaiticalthinlci.ng as reasonable thinking.andthey explain that itisgoodthinkingthatmiesappropriatelyupontheuse of good reasons and emphasize the idea that people who formbeliefsorwhoact without good reasons are acting arbitrarilyandunreasonable.
Theseauthonnotethatgood
thinkirI8
isnotarbitrary, however,becausegood thinkingdoes not leadto just any cooclusions.butingeneralto thebest.conclusions."Thebestconclusions are those supportedby the bestreasons., so criticalthinkingmustrelyupon.8oOO reasons in reaching conclusions" (p. 3).
Brooldield (1991) defines critical tbinkin.8 as a productive and a positive activity, where criticalthinkers are~engagedwithlifeandseethemselvesas creatingandre-creating aspects oftheirpersonal,workplace, and political lives.They~preciatecreativity, and exude a sensethat life isfull ofpossibilities. Brookfield aJso addsthat"identifying and challenging assumptions is central to critical thinking"(po 7).
McPeck (1981) sheds another light on critical thinking by explainingthatthe most notable characteristicofcritical tOoughtisthatitinvolves a certainscepticismor suspension of assent towards a given statement through an established nonn or mode of doin;g things. This scepticismmi,ght ultimately giveway to acceptance,butitdoes not take truth for granted. Critical thinking considers alternative hypotheses and possibilities which might resultinthe detection of afaUacy,but it mi,ght equally well prompt&decision not to apply a perfectly weU established rule, principle or procedure in a given instance. McPeck notes. however, that "critical thinking involves seein.s when a eenain common procedure is fruitlessby entertaining aJternatives toit"(p. 6).
McPeck (1990)notesthat"Critical thinlcingwrnsout tobe verysimilarto what we normally mean by general scholasticability,orinle//igence"(p. 23). Critical thinking includes amaw/edge componem,thai:is,knowledge-based skills whosegeneralrange of applicability is limited by the form ofthougln orkindof'knowIedgebeingcanedupon.Thesecond component, which wemightregard as thespecifica1Iycritic:aJcomponent. consists of"theabilityto reflect upon, to question effectively,
10 andtosuspendjudgemcm orbdid'aboutthe required knowledge composingtheproblem athand"
(p23)
~Critical.thinkingaims togobeyond theswface~(Doyle, 1995)asItopens newspaces.,new diredions andexploresnewpoS&bilities~itaimsto assessandmann what is already there. Critical thinkingisaprocessthrough whichtheindividualmayaddress various issues such as equality, race, class,and gender; issuesinrelati.on toculture.democracy.power; or other diverse problems. This fonn of thinking mayalsoincludethe morality of abortion, minority rights, themultidimensions of pollution,tWdeardisarmllmc:nt.thefeasibilityandequalityofvarious taXation schemes.andtelevision hypeandpropagandaso as to assessthemandchangewhatever needs tobechanged.Itis the ability to ask questions and to investigare, debaJ.e, analyzeandreseacch a specific topic or issue. McPeck (1990)alsonotes'1...eamingtothinkcritically is in large measure learning to know when to question something, and what sorts ofquestionstoask..Not just any questions will do" (pp. 82-84).
Baron and Sternberg (1986) suggest that ·Critical thinking is creativethinking,formulating hypothesis,. alternative ways of viewing a problem. questions. possible solutions and plans for investigatingsometbing~(p. 10).Providing solutions or suggestions mayor may not eliminate the problem, butguideddiscussions may be astepinthe right direction. Critical thinkingisthe most complexmethodof problem solving. Ruggiero (1988)hasa similarpointof view in that "Creative thinkingandcriticalthinkingworkinbannony,creativethinking producing ideas and critical thinking evaluatingandrefiningthem.Bothactivitiesare necessary tosolve problems and make decisions"
(p.105).
1J Dewey (1933)analyzedcriticalthinkingorreflective thinkingand outlined this age-old proccdun::in a sc:riesofsteps: "(a)raIize andidentifYtheproblem,.(b)establishfacts, (e) formulate hypothoses.(d) lesthypothoses.UK!<el evaluate<esuJu"(p.107).
Criticalthinkingisalso definedasfocussed
thinkioB
andaspwposefulthinkin.8foritdoes not occur accideRtdy orwithoutreason McPeck (1990) argues that criticalthinkingrefers to a certain combinationofwhatwemightthinkofas awillingness,or dispositionandattitude. togetherwiththe appropriate knowledge andskills,to engageinanactivityor problemwithreflective skepticism.McPeck:furtber notestbat "criticalthinkingconsists aCtbekindofbealthy skepticismthatwemight nonnall,y associatewiththediscipline of philosophy'"(p. 43).
Aylesworthand Reagan(1969)explainthatanalyticandsynthetic reasonin,g are two faces of criticalthin.king anddependingupon whattypesofproblemsmustbesolved, learners as citizens have needforbothabilities.Theseauthors explain that anaJ..ytic
thinlcin£
or deductive reasoning isthat type of problem solving that leads from the general tothe particular, and is more appropriately used in ma:thematicsandlanguagearts.Synthetic thinking, or inductive reasoning. on the other hand is from the panicular totht:general, likeinareas of scienceandsocial 5lUdies. MMost of man'scritical thinking activities are combinations of analyticaland synthetic thinkingM(pp. II, 12).Whilethereasemany variarions and complexitiesinthe meanings attached tocriticalthinking that have to be understood,it is a term that has been widely used to describe a set of inteUectuai operationswhichinoJude creativethinking,reasonable reflectivethinking,straight, clear and good thinking. purposefulthinking,analytic and synthetic reasoning, as weU as focussed thinking.
12 Deveiopmea.taI Criteria
Certaincharacteristics areneededforthedevelopment,. practiceandsuccess ofcritical thinking,such astheabilitytorespectothers'viewpointsandto consider, thoughtfullyand perceptively,theproblemsthaJ:.a::u:newithintb£mngc of one's experience. Havinga proper attitude can not be emphasized enough. John Dewey the weU·known, early 2e>d' century philosopher and edUC3lOremphasizedthatattitudes and knowledge.8otogetherina good thinker. and lhatweneed to work to weave them intounity(Dewey,193J~Glaser, 1985).
Zecluneister and Jonson (1992) notethat:
Critical
tlrinkins
isaskillthatisteachableinmuchthe same waythatother skills areteachable namely, throughdrills.,exercises or problem solvinginanarea.A much clearerunderstanding of the propertypesof problems and exercises needs tobereached not only by teachers but alsobytheeducationalcommunity as a whole. No doubt students' understanding of what is expected ofthem.wiDalsoaffectthe success of such endeavours.Criticalthinking shouldbe taught:as anintegralpanof other subjects.~"Criticalthinkingis a skillthatcan be acquired andpenecIed.(p. 20)Norris and Ennis (1989)explainthat,inorder tocartyout thecriticalthinkingprocess effectively. oneneedsbothabilities and dispositions.Theabilities include those required to interact effectively with other people, to judge the soundness of information and inferences drawn from information, to produce credible information and inferences. and tomaintainclarity. Since critical thinking takes placewithina problem-solvin.B: context, and oftenin thecontext of interactinB with other people, thecriticalthinkerneeds to be able tofunctioneffectivelywithinthese contexts. To do this, the person needs to employ certainsuat~esand tactics for keeping the problem-solving process ontask.for communicating coherentlywithother people. and for dealing intelligibly with communicationreceivedfromothers.Norrisand Ennisemphasizethatattitudes acerequiredfor the person tobeintherightframe ofmindfor thinking critically as it"isan activity that requires
IJ sustainedeffon.
an4.
tltereforecertaincommitments. Oneoflhemostimportant of these is a conunitment to open-mindedness" (p. 8).McPeck (1981)lIJP't.eSwithtbatpointofviewand explainsthat"studentswiththe intellectual curiosity toseek~ento various questions or problems must also developthedisposition to use those skills.Adispositiontothinkcriticallyis indispensable, tobeobjective and not tobeinfluenced by emotinaal or subjective factors, to beflexable.,and open-minded" (p.19).
On a more practical instructional level,boththeattitude of the teacherandthe learnin.s atmospherein thec1il$Sare likely to haverealand imponam effect onthe success of nurturing such autonomousthinIcing.As McPeck (1990) explains:"The attitude oftbe teacher and the inteUectual atmosphere of thecllSShave toinstillconfidenceinthe students that rational disagreement wiU not be penalizedinany way. buthi$hlyrewarded'"(p.52). Traininginparticular critical
thinJciI:1s
skills is not sufficient to produce a critical thinker. intelligence. dedication. induction., value judging.courage, and inteUectuai honesty areaUsi,gnificantlyimportant characteristics needed for the developlDf:Dt ofcriticalthinking.
Knowledgeoftbe methods oflogicalinquiIyandreasoning, and the skills for transfeninB and applying thosemethDdsto various issuesinlife by consistently renawing a line ofreasoningare extremely valuableinthe development of criticalthinkin.,g. Beyer (1995) explains thatcritical thinking is hard work which requireshabits of mind-suspending judgment, questioning unsubstantiatedassertions.andthecredibility of sourcesthatrun counter to ournatura.linclinations.
«Applyingcritiad thinking oftenrequiresreadingbetween the lines, tracing the logic of an argument, findingunstatedasaunpticns and unstatedcriteria, and determining the quality offactual claims"(p.
26).
I. McPeck (1981)indicatesthat44aiticaJthinkingrequires the judicious use of scepticism.
temperedbyCIq)Cric:nce.such thatitisproductiveofa more satisfactory solution to, orinsightinto.
the problem&I:haIxf"(R. 7). Norrisand Ennis(1989)sbaTea.similarviewinthat-Criticalthinlcers mustbe re6cctiYeinthattheyccamiDethereaonabieDessoftheirOWDandothers'thought.Thinking does notbecomereasonablethinkiDgbyaccidc:m..Critical tbinlu:rsIDJSIconsciouslyseek and use good reasons- (p.3).McPeck(1990) concludesthattheaiticalthinker, therefore., knowswhatand whenitmightbereuonable to questionso~however,thisrequirescomprehensive understanding aCtbe kind ofinfomwionthatit is gathered or generated."Criticalthinking ability, therefore., varies directlywiththe amount aCknowledgerequiredbythe problem'" (p. 28),
AsEnnis (1993)notes.,inreasonablyandreflectively goingabout decidingwhat10believe or do. a person cbaracteristicayDeedsto domostofthefollowingthingsand do them imordepeod""'"
I. Judgetheaech"bilityof sources.
2. IdentifYcooclusions. reasons.and assumptions.
3. Judgethe qualityof anargument,locludingtheaa:qrtability ofitsreasons,assumptions,and evidence.
4. Develop and defend a position on an issue.
S. Ask appropriate clarifying questions.
6. Plan experimentsand judge experimental designs.
7. Defineterms in a way appropriate to context.
8. Be open-minded.
9. Try tobewel.I informed.
15 10. Drawconclusionswhen warranted,butwithcaution.
This interdependentlistof abilities and dispositions can provide some specifity for guidinB criticalthinking testing.
McPeck (1990) argues that people whothink.criticallythinkfor themselves and they doDOt simplybelieveevuytb:iogwhichtheyhearorread McPeck (1990)arguesthat"critical thinkers have both the disposition (or propensity) andtherelevant knowledgeand skillsto enpgeinan activity wittl reflective skepticism;thatis, not only aretheyprone to questionthings.buttheyhavethe relevantknowledgeandunderstanding tohelp"themdo so productively" (p.21).
Giroux(1994)eq>1ainsthat critical thinking refersprimarilyto teaching students how to analyzeanddevelop readingand writing ass!gnmcnts fromthe perspective of fonnal, logical patterns of consistency.Inthiscase,the student is taught to examine the logical development of a theme.
advance organizers. a systematic argument,.the validity of evidence.andhow to determine whether a conclusionflowsfrom thedataunder study. Whileallthelatter learning skills are important, their limitations as a whole lie in what is excluded, anditiswithrespect to what is missing thatthe ideology of such an approach is revealed: First, there isthe relationship between theory and facts;
second. knowledge cannotbe separated from buman interests, nonns., and values (Walters. 1994).
Acquisition
Criticalthinkingbas longbeenone of the stated aims orteachers and education, however, relatively little evidencehasbeen obtained as to whether or not this aimiseverrealized.and how to realizeitThereisnoeasyanswer tothisquestion, soweneed time. effon and cooperation from the different parties involved. We agree on ultimate goals and purposes and weallwant to produce:
16 autonomous thinkerswho are not takeninby faulty arguments, weak evidence, or "trendy" opinion, and who can face life's problems aspeopJe capable ofmakin,g their own rational decisions about whatever should confront them. Aylesworth and Reagan (1969) argue, however, that:
The skiU most ofte,n overlookedby teachers of the academic subjects is that of critical thinking: that is, the mental skill of solving problemsinthe manner of the practitioner.
Critical thinking is the lifework of the academicians, and learners are rarely given the opportunity to behaveinthis manner.Inspite of protestations to the contrary, the schools tend to teachwhat lQthink rather thanhawto think.Ifan attempt to teach how to think is made, it is often at an ill-defined or even unconscious level. When students are taught how tothink properly, they are also able to learn what to think, since limits are automatically set to the kinds of evidence that are acceptable and the methods of thinking procedure that are allowed. The leam.er who lacks explicit knowledge of the structure of academic work, furthermore, having an increased amount of leisure time, will have an opportunity to wreak social havoc because of his lack of analytical and synthetic skill.(p.4)
According to the literature, there are creative and innovative ways of improving this kind of education and,hence, developing critical thinkers; but, there are no shortcuts to it. McPeck (1990) contendsthatl'ifwe improve the quality of understanding through the disciplines, we will then get a concomitant improvement in critical thinking capacity"(p.21)
Meyers (1988) indicates that·
Teachersinalldisciplines playa crucial role in the development of students' critical thinking abilities. Just as students will not become proficient writers merely by taking a year of compositionbutmustbe requiredto practice good writing in all their classes, so students will develop goodcritical thinking skills only by being challenged to practice critical and analytical thinking in the context ofall the different subjects they study. (p.5)
Educatorssho~dedicate more time,beflexible as much as they can to guide students and develop their critical thinking skills. Students should know and experience the importance of dialogue, listening Il{ld understanding which will lead to a lifelong learning and willbethe tools for a successful democratic society
17 Baron and Sternberg (1986) explainthat:
Increasing people's problem solving skills maywellincreasetheirearning power. Getting people tobemoreobservantmay enrich their livesaesthetically.. Learning to analyze arguments andewluaJ:ethemcritically should make one less suscept10le to manipulationand brainwashing as should awareness ofthevarious logical approaches that canbeused to influence behaviour and mould beliefs. (p.33)
McPeck (1990) explains that most teachers acealreadyfairly knowledgeableintheir disciplines,atleastinsecondary schoolsandbeyond,sotherereally is no need for an entirelynew specialty, or alien expertise.inorder to improvecriticalthinking skillsintheirclasses.Itrequires morc of a shiftinemphasis, orredesi8J1inEtheirmaterial andtests toreflectthis emphasis on independent thinking. McPeck notesthat..,"Ifteachers possessed this fresh and somewhat different paspoctiveonthdrdiscipline,. they could better seewhatkindofquestions and material wouldJ!j.ve rise to thislci.ndof understanding"(p.)3).
Accordingtotheliterature.educators canmake itpossible for studcms to practice appropriate behaviours andskillsinthe classrooms; for example, one wile is thinkingcriticallyasks questions.
speculates aboutanswers.,plansandevaluates evidence and judges. Teachers should, therefore.
provide situations~studentsaremotivBtedto ask questions, to speculateaboutanswers, to plan waysofgettingevideoce.andto evaluate them.(pother words., to provide meaningfullearnin.g that willberetainedbystudents foralong time and help them become criticalthinkers.
Asexp!ainedbyMcPeck. (1990),the firstthing teachers must do is toBetaclearerfixon the structureoftheirdiscipline,andto usethatas the core oftheir curriculum.Inaddition to being clear aboutwhat one istryingto teach, thereremainsthe question ofhowone should teach the structure ofadiscipline. McPeckadds thatthedidacticmethodof teaching and the receptivemethodof learninghavesimply been carriedover-to secondaryschool from grade school. Secondary schoolis
18 theplacetoshiftgears.aplaceto nuttuI'e discussion, argument,andthefreeexchange of ideas within asub;ecl'"Thedisciplinesshouldremainthefocusof study, discussionandargument should be the major means ofteacbiug and
1earrUna:'
(p. 50). Meyers (1988)agreeswith theseideasbysaying that"in addition to teaching explicit skills andanalyticalframeworks, teacheB must nunure attitudinal aspectsofaitical tbinking·stUdems' innate sources ofinteresu.wonder.and inquisitiveness"(p.117).
Giroux explains tblItstudc:nts need toIeam bowtobe abletomove outside oftheirown frame of reference sothattheycan questionthe lcgitimaqofa
Wven
filet.concept.or issue. They also have to learn how to perceivethevery essence ofwhatthey areexaminingbyplacingit critically within a system of relationships that giveitmeaning.Inother words students must be taught tothink dialecticallyratherthanin anisolatedandcompartmentalized fashion. (Walters.1994)Giroux alsoargues that socialrelationsinthe classroomthatglorify the teacher as the expert and thedispe:nscrafknowledgeend upcripplingstudent imaginationandcreativity; in addition. such approaches teach students more about the legitimacy of passivitythanabout theneedto examine critically the lives they lead (Walters, 1994). The teacher's role inthatcase should becomethatof a guide or resowoe person, rather than an authoritarian director and knowledge clispenser.
Meyers (1988) agreeswiththat point and addsthateducators can have a positive impact in thatparticular matterand canworkon developing the students' critical thinking skills using avariety ofapproaches.Teachingmethodscanbe infusedwithgreatervitality andvariety,permittinggreater students'involvement andopportUnityfor decision makingand critical development. A few of these approaches include presenting various current topics like human relations, equality, social justice, and a better future for discussion and debate in arisk-free classroom environment. as weD as using questioning techniques, probing. and pondering whichwillgo a long way toward fosteringcritical
19 thinking. "Suchenvironmentsambedevdopedpertfy bysaueturing cJassroomtimeto include more discussionandby designing clear,effectivewritten assignments"(p. 117).
Accordingtothe
literature..in
additionto teachers'positiveattitudesthereare afew examples of effective instructional methods educators should use for the development of criticalthinking:problem solving techniques, questioning, brainstonning. interactive presentation,. prediction, and analysis. Following are some of thesemethodsof instructionthat,when used effectively and creatively. canhelpdevelopcriticalthinkingskillsinstudents.
Questioning is an effective teaching methodthathas beenhonoured lhrough the centuries.
TheSocratic methodofteacbingthrough the exchange ofquestions and answers,andits place atthe ceotre of educationbasremaineduncbaUenged. Throughhigh-levelquestioning. a point is transmitted and transformed and consequently. students systematically move to a higher level of thinking whichwillhave a positive effect onthe students' development. mental growth and achievement.
McPeck (1990) confinns this same idea by saying:
Ifyou want criticalthinking,then you mustaskquestionsthat requireit,and assessthem accordingly But teachers mustbeprepared to assessthe qualityof the students' reasoning and articulation everybitas much as they havebeenprepared tomarkthe"right"
~inthepastPedagogicallycomfortable questionswhich have single"right"answers have tobe replacedwithquestions which don't have the single "right" answer.(p. 51) Morgan andSaxton (1991)suggestthatquestioningcanbetaUghtas askillcomponent at any level in the language arts curriculum and as a method ofleaming in whatever subject areas."11le students1eamaboutquestioning by practisingandanalyzingtheirown questions to see how they can
20 elicit more information. see a topic fromdifferentpc-spec:tives.andexplore a variety of attitudes through their responseswhichmayleadtonewquestions" (p.112).
Beyer (1995)basasimilarview,andemphasizestheuse oftheSocraticmethodwhichhas beenwidelydisawedandusedasa methodof inquiryinwhich oneseeksto determinewhat the true natureofthingsis.Beyerencourages theprobingstyleinwhich the teacher expects students to take astand on issues discussed asthe"Socratic questioning probes beneath superficial appearances or perceptions to identifythecentral, basic meaning or quality ofthings"(p. 19).
Basedontheliteraturereviewthere are varioustypesofquestionsthatcanbeused tohelp in thedevelopment ofstudents'criticalthinking skills. There are higher-order questions whichask foranalysis,synthesis or evaluation, the lastthreecategories of Bloom's taxonomy which define thc:seas demanding more complexandthus higherlevels of thinking.AsMorgan and Saxton (1991) explain,.theopen questionsuggeststhat the teacher does not have oneparticularanswerinmindbut isinvitingstudemstoconsider and advancemanypossibilities and answers. The inductive questiun widenstheprocessofinquiry,itis expansive, divergent andithelps students bring their experiences and feelings, as well as knowledge afthe text to their answer. Theheuristic or creative question guidesstUdentsintodiscovery,andtheeducativeorproductivequesti(HIhelps students learn. leading themto newfacts.,new perspectives,andnew ideas. Thereflective questionclearly signals that an immediateanswuisnotreq~that itis acceptable tothinkaloudandthereneedbeno resolution Theevaluative questioninvites students to look at their work in a critical fashion.
(p.64).
As arguedbyMuldoon (1990) "Questioning allows students toberespoRSlble for their own learningbecauseitisthe essence ofbeing both a strong reader and a strong writer and. therefore. a
21
"""'" thinka"(p.36). _ eq>IIinsthatSlU<lcob DC<dtobe
chaIIenood
tothink;" deq>1yon<!imaginaiYeways.Teacbrncandoso throughquestioaiDgstrategies. "Hdpingstudentslind.shape:
andrevisetheir own qucsIjoosIIIdtheneqlioreand evaluateresponses to these questionsisone way ofteachingstudents howtoIeamandthinkincritical andimIginariveways"(p. 39).
- g
BrainstormingislUIeffectiveinstruc:tionalmethodthat helpsstudentstake an activeroleand developtheircriticalt.hinkiog. by lcaming andrememberingwhattheylcamthroughparticipation.
Brainstormingadissues is an opponunity to identify problemsthatarise instudent'slife, and from relevantproblems come possible solutionstothose problems. From problems and possible solutions comes a discussion onweighingtheconsequences of possible solutionsinpersonalterms,insocial terms.,and/orinenvironmema1 terms.Inbrainstorming. students thinkandlearnaboutparticular concepts and get toknowtheproductandtheprocess.Brainstonning can take placein •supportive environmentbylisteningand communicaIing. andit is used inlinkingnewinformationwiththe students' priorknowledgeandexperience(Meyer, 1992). Meyerexplainsthat successful brainslormingrcquRsthm. paniciputtswithhold criticismofideasuntilafterallideas are 8enen1ed.
Inaddition,brainstonni:ngsessionsoftengeneratemanyideas thatbuildonto one another. and""wild"
or unusual ideas shouldbe
enc:ounaed.
Verduin, (1996)confirmsthesignificantrole ofbrainstomUngindevelopingcriticalthinking bysayingthatallideas are goodandwelcome. The quantity ofalltypesof ideas isthegoal of a brainstonning session, associationalthinking(i.c.,addingandcombiningideas) shouldbeencouraged, andrecording ofallideasIOOSttake placeifstudeutsarc to develop investigative, problem solving, andthinkingsIrillsina coopentivesetting.
22 Aswithanalogicalproblem solving.theamount of knowledge onehas about theproblem domainaffectstheSlJCCeSSofbrainstorming, because bettrr domainknowledgeallows one to generate more potential solutionsandcriteria for judgingtheirfeasibility.While brainstorming canbeused individually, group interaction usually leads to more solutions (Schunk. 1996).
DisausioIcadI,,~1'J'es,mttltiofts
Faust (1995)suggestSthat.througbguideddiscussions,studentstalkabouthowand whythey lookata topicfromapaniwIarpenpecrive,givingbirthto logic., andthinkingsystematically_They can developrespect for individual differences. hypothesize. predict endings. relate to personal expc:rieoces. andshare meaningful responses withno fear or restrictions.Throughthese discussions, students can come upwithsolutions to problemsandkey ideasandimprovetheirconceptual understanding.
Ifstudentshaveavoice,aretrainedtoparticipateininfonneddiscussions.,thinkcritically.and are actively engagedinmakingdecisions orinexpressingtheirown views, they can andwillmake a positive differencein society. Glaser (1985) foundthatMCriticalthinking abilityhelps the citizen to fonn intelligent judgments on public issues and thus contribute democratically to the solution of social problemS"(p. 27). "There can be no liberty for a conununity that lacks thecriticalskills to distinguishlies fromtruth"(postman.1985).
McPeck(I990) emphasizes the imponance of discussionsandargument by saying that they enable stUdents to understand the disciplines more deeply.in an epistemologicalsense,and they enablethemto partakeinautonomousdiscourseaboutthesethings.These processes help to provide those cbaracteristicsinstudents which.weallagree. are desirable: those characteristics which many peopleregardas tantamoWtt toaiticaIthinking.McPeck alsoindicatesthat"ifstudents are required
2J todisc:ussandarguefbr,thingI.tbl:ywiD quicIdyIcamtodo it..(p. 50).AsMcPeck (1990) explained, there isalsoa moresubtlcandmoredifficultobstacle tonurturingcritical thinkinginthe classroom, whicb stems from the teacher.;' attitudes or mode of conducting discussions. The attitude of the teacherandtheintellectual.annospbert. ofthe class have toinstillconfidenceinstudents that rational disagreementwillJlOtbepenalizedinany way, but highly rewarded (p.52).
The pedagogical problem,then.isODeofconveyingtheideathatreason andargumentare the only acceptabIeaJrTmcyinthepursuitof truth,.andthat.eventhe teacher's views mustbesubjected to this mDunaI. McPeck (1990)suggeststhatcriticalexamination of ideas canbeowtured by teachersina varietyofways;, one ofthemoreeffectiveistoeDgagestudentsinhonest argumentsthat requiretakingthe other person'5reasons seriously. andtreatingeachother as equals. Thus.inthe arena of argumem even the teacher's traditional authority must give way to reasons. "This is preciseJy thekindofthinkinganddiscussion that the schools should be trying to foster" (p. 52).
Thekey tosuccessfuUydevelopingcriticalthinkinginstudents is consistency and practice of the above mentioned strategies. Sternberg and Spear-Swerling (1996) notethatstudentsneedI combination of various approaches likethedidactic, fact-based questioning. and thinkingbased questioning (a dialogicalapproach) whichbestdeveloptheirability tothinkeffectively and critically, Effectiveteachingforcriticalthinkingrequires understandingandproviding of these various methods and principles. Sternberg and Spear·Swerling explain thatinteaching students to develop their analytical abilities, educators should provide opportunities for them to compare and contrast, to analyze, evaluate,andexplain. They also add that"inhelping students develop their creativeand practicalabilibesthey should be provided with opportunities to create. imagine, suppose, aswc1Ias opportunities to apply and implement" (p. 142).
24
ROLE MODELS OF CRITICAL THINKING
Brookfield (1995) notesthatmodelingcriticalthinkingis animportarnfactorinhelping students developcriticalthinking skills: "Observing role models to help us imagine, define, and practicethekindsofbehaviourswe wouldliketoexhibitinour own livesisone ofthe most common meansbywhichwelearn (p. 85).Everytimeinstructorsask.a questioninclass.,.theyare presenting thatquestion as amodelfortheirstudents to bel.pthemask better questions themselves. Acentral aim ofmodel.i.ng.criticalthinkingfor others is to promptthemto applyhabits ofcriticalanalysis to their own lives. Itisextremelyimportantfor the students to see the process ofcriticalanalysis modelled by someooe theydeemcred101eliketheirinstructor.
Muldoon (1990)hassimilar views onthatparticular issue and indicates:"It isimportant to notethathelpingstuden1sshapemorecritical questionsisa distinctive form of modeling behaviour thatisnot tobeconfusedwithaskingstudents to parrot behaviour. Students learn to develop better questions fromtheteacher's examples" (p. 4).
Berlak and Berlak (1987) suggestlhatifteachers, hope to encourage critical thoughtin others.,they musteogagoin it tbc:msdves,.and tbrougbour.theirteaching careersthey mustparticipate in anongoing.coUaborative process of reevaluation o(andliberationfrom.theirtaken-for·granted views (p.170). Teacbersmustinvite and welcome publiccritical scrutiny oftheir ideasandactions.
as well as acknowledgelhatthey may change how theythinkand teach as aresultof engaging in critical conversationwiththeirpeers. Theseauthorsadd thateducators must stressthatthe ideologicalandmethodological outcomes of a critical conversation are always open. "Radically
25 oriented teacber educaol'10J.ISlserve aslivingexamples of the veryIrind.of critically oriented pedagogic practicesthattheyseekto havetheirstudentsadopt" (p.113).
BrooI<fidd (1995) ...thIl:
One of the hardestdisciplinesforte:acheBto learnwhenmodelingcriticalreflectionisthe disciplioe of open-miDdedoess.Thisconditionholds thataUthoseinvolvedinacritically rc6cctivc episodeaa15tbeopentoretbinkiogtheir own commitmentsandtheaccuracy ofthe assumptioosonwhichtbote c:ommitmf:nts~founded.Teachen whoare genuinely open to thepossbilityoftheirown erron areviewt:dby many studentsandcolleagues asstrong ratherthanweak. Suchteacbersare visibly evohoiq; u leamen.,alwaysina process of formation (p. 257).
Simplystaled byBrookfield (1995)"Criticalteacbcn mustbeseen tobecriticalleamen too"
(p.257). The mostimportantkeyin developing the $1Udenu'criticalthinking s.Iri.Ilsis beinga role mood. SternbergandSpear-Swerling (1996) explainthateducators need toberole models for how tothink, and to lead students toremember themas activelydoingwhat they teach(p.14).
APPLYING CRITICAL THINKING TO THE ENGLISH CURRICULUM
ThereisagreaJ:needtoteachai:ticaI.thinkingskillssothatstudentscan operm:einan increasingly complexworld.andthereis •serious need for implementing and teaching critical thinki.og skillsintheauriculumesp::c:iaIly in English.Critical aDd.reflectivethinking sbouIdbeakey function of theEngIisbcurriculum by applying criticalthinkingskills to the curriculum sothat studentswill beguidedinmakingtherightchoices.,solving problems. and taking initiatives. The dernocntic. postmodem societyinwhich we live needs entrepreneurs. organizers.andleaders who think critically, who have a voiceandare able tochangeand reform.
As McPeck (1990)argues:
HoweverautonomoU.sandcriticalthinking hasnotbeen clearlywoven into the fabric of our cuniculwn;bc:uoe,. itisnotsurprising thatweareseeinglittle evjdence ofit ...There is more
26 thanample
room.
bawever.forautooomousand critical thinkinginscience, history, literature, andthesocial studies.(p.51)Criticalthinkingcanbeappliedto varioussubjectsin the curriculum bysimplyguiding the students to identify the problems, tothink creatively about alternatives and their advantages and disadvantages., to come upwithdifferent innovative solutions, and to see howwellthese solutions work. Creative problem resolution requires a sound knowledgebase,.whichmeans understanding the informationand the main ideas to seewhatreasons, evidenceand examples are provided. and being able to evaluatethefindings.Students should practiceand be encouraged tolinkdifferent subjectswithinthecurria1Ium.relate them to their1ives,thinkactively and gobeyondthe information given.Studentsneedtohavea planandworktoward a goal. to formtheirown concepts and apply them to life. Throughthe[ens of critical thinkers. education is an initiation into the process of inquiry,tbeR:fore.educators should crear:e a risk-free thoughtful learning environment that supports discussion, questioning,andprobing forcriticalthinkingdevelopment (Madore, 1991). Educators canhelpstudents thinkaboutwhaJ:theyIeaminallsubjects andmake connections and transfer these thoughts and abilities as general skills tothe society,ratherthanto dealwitheach subject as a particular fonn ofknowledge.
According to the
litennu:re.
English can play an important partincognitive development and inthinkingaitically,asitprovides various ways of extending experience vicariouslybyreleasing the imagination. and/or confronting moral issues. English stimulates thinking and provides a needed complementtothemodes oftboughtdemanded by theexactsciences.AsindicatedbyMeyers (1988);
Notwol.iterawreprofessorswillhavethesame definitions ofcriticalthinking orteach critical thinking skillsinexactlythesame manner.For example one literatUre teacher might teach
27 studentstoanalyzeanovelbyfoawingonsuch
tbirl8s
as cbaracter,plotdevelopment., symbolism,.anduses of~bor.Studentscouldusethesegmcnlconcep1Stodevdopa .,..,.,..,... fu<oritiaIIy onaIyringotheroovds . ..Another insuuct",·.class,theleoclUng ofcriticllttmkiDgmigbtfocusonthe waytbaDes inallO'Yel relate to an iDdividual. au1hor's lifeand times,.thewaysanauthor'5writi:Dgdiffenfromthai:ofearlier or later novdisu,and therole ofhistorica1forcesin shapingan author's ddinitioa of plot and character. (p.7) Muldoon (1990) indicates:"ThinIcingcannotbeimposed. Students themselves need to discova' wbottheythittkODd!><tie,.,ODdthew.ro.ay
comes bybcin8 "'808'"
with othcn"(p.39).Theauthoralsorxplainsthatteaching
Eu8J.isb
isa process ofinquirywhichenablesstudenlsto take a speculative.and re8ective stancethatare oecessary for them toshapetheirinterpretationsand criticallyevaluatetheirown responses aswellas those of others.Criticalthinkingisexactlywhat is neededintoday' classroom for motivatingthe students to take panin~making.sociAljustice.toleraoce..andeliminationandprevention ofviol~ce.
Students canaetua1lycome upwithsolutionsand apply them totheirownlivesandsociety&5the smaD pictureand theaiocothebisgerpiaureoflife,theworld.BaronandSternberg (1.985)indicate:
-GoodthinIDngisa prerequisite forgoodc:itizensbip.it isa means tomanyendsbutitisalso anend initsdf"(p.33).
McPeck (1990)~tha1theDeS:effeaofdisc:iptinaryIcnowlcdgeistoincreasea student's capacity tothinJcandbebelievesthatLiberaleducation liberales the mind. McPeck notes:
Thueis00other plausible candida1e for ourcwriculwnbesides a broad hberaJ. education.
No other o.uriculum can provide quitethesame breadth ofunderstandinginto thehuman condition andtheproblemswhich peramiaIIyfiIceit. The disciplineswhichmake up aliberal education (e.g., thoseinthe arts,.thesciences,andhumanities) are not separate from, nor aliento, theeverydayproblcnsrequiriDg aiticaIthought.butrather they arethefundamental constituc:otsofsuchproblems ...Itisthejob ofeducators toconvey thispowerand PUlJ'Ose of thedisciplinesbecausethey arethebasic ingredients of rationalityitself.Good I.iberaJ education enables ODe tounderstandandappreciateboththestrength andweaknesses, and thepowerandlimitations. ofthevarious fonns oftbougbtwhichmakeup ourthinking.(p.
40)
28 HenryGirouxexplains that knowledge demands const8Dtsearching,. inVCDtion,.andre- invention, andthatagreat deal of time shouldbespent on teaching students aboutthenotion of frameof referenceand itsuse as a theoreticalIconccptUal interpretive tool. He indicatesthatby looking at similar information throughdifferent frames of reference. students can begin totreat knowledge as problematic., and thus. as an object ofinquiry (Walters. 1994)
CONCLUSION
TheIitemure on criticalthinking isextensiveand indicates awidespreadrenewedinterestin criticalthinkingimplemem:arionanddevelopment. Research indicates that the concept ofcritical thinkinggoesbackto Socratesanditisstillcontinuing to growinpopularity."Anewawarenessis takinghold: criticalthinkingis anacademiccompcttncy as crucial to achild' s futw'e as literacyand numcracy"(Adams.,andHamm.1996). Implementing and teachingcriticalthinking isnola quick.
~it isa long-termprocesswhichneedstime.de<fu:ation andeffortfrombothteachers and students butthe endresultisfar more satisfactory and successful future.
TheresearchsuggeststhatcritU:al.thinking canbetaught~however. those who would teach for its development must understandwhatitmeans. the characteristics that areneededforits development. and they must practically modelandimplement itinthe curriculum. Educatorsmust makeitposslblefor studentsto practice those behaviours and skillsintheir classrooms by providing situationswhere theyaremotivatedto think. critically, and where they can acquire meaningfullearning which willberetained for a longperiodoftime.
2.
TheIitennure~also revealedthe occessityofcritical thinkingdevelopmentinstudents, and thatthereis a primaryimportancein theattainmentofcritical thinkingskillsandto teacb it as a part of thecurriculum.
30 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
Methodologyistheinterfacebetween method, theory,andepistemology;it isthepoint at which thethree elementsof research cometogetherinawaythatallows lhe researcher to investigate some specific educational moment.Methodrcfen to the various waysthatempirical data canbecollected. Theoryrefers to thesetof propositionsthatoffers the researcher a coherent vision of education. Epistemologyis concernedwiththe presuppositions aboutthe nature of knowledgethatwillinformthe research. AUthreeelements shouldall be used to completethe study (Doyle,1995).
This chapter outlines the typeandthedesignoflhe study, the populationandsample.and the instrumentsandprQCCduresusedforboththe coUection andanalysisof the data. The chapter concludeswiththe statement aflhe questions.
DEFINITION
Thisstudyuses an educationalcriticalethnographydesignwhichhas beenespecially imponan! in research on educationandschooling by using an interpretive approach. andcritical theory.LeCompteandPreissle (1993) notc that -Educational ethnographers examine the process of teaching andlearning,the intended and the unintended consequences of observed. interaction panerns, and the relationships among such educational actors as parents. teachers. and learners andthesociocultural contexts within whichnurturing.teaching. and learning occur" (p. 28).
This study is inductiveinthatitusessmall unitsof data to develop larger categories, patterns, themes, interpretations and findings: Itisgenerative and constructive, beginning with collection ofdatathrough interviewswiththe selected teachers, empirical observations of the
31 studentsinthe classrooms.,andan examination of the~curriculuminthe progrvn of studies. Theoutcomes of thisstudy,as an educational ethnography,willhopefully contnbute to improvc:mentineducationalandschoolpractice.
DESIGN
AsLe Compte,andPreissle (1993)expl.ain;"Themostcommon categories of data collectionusedbyethnographic andqualitative researchers are observation.interviewing, researcher designed instruments. and content analysis of humanartifactsP(p. 158). Triangulation withseveral sources ofdatabc1ps researchc:rs: pinpointthea.ccuracyof conclusions,. and prevents the investigator from accepting tooreadilythe validity ofinitialimpressions. LeCompte., and Preissle (l993) also indicaJ:e: "EthnographersliSemanykindsofdatacollection techniques. so thatdatacollectedinone way can be used to cross-checktheaccuracy ofdatagatheredanother way"(p. 48).
Thedesignof thisstudywasconductedinsixdifferenthighschoolsinEdmonton, Alberta.
to obtain a wider perspective of the research. issue. The datawere collected through interviews which areusedinqualitative research toobtainrespondents' perspectives and perceptions, as well astofindoutwbaJ:isinand on someone else's mind (Merriam. 1988;Witt.1991). The interviews inthis study were conductedwitheightseniorhighEnglish teachers for Grades 10, II, and 12.
As aqualifiededucator.andatrained interviewer, the researcher conductedallinterviews with theselectedsample ofhighschoolEnglishteachers,. using Witt's (1991) approach of flexibility,and open-ended questions to allow the interviewees tobemore natural, responsive, and to obtaintheirunique perspectives. The interviews were semi·structured to provide aset of
32 questionsthatwere
dcsianed
tog.ctagoodunderstaDdiDgofbighschoolEnglish teachers' perceptionandpractice ofcritical thinkingintheir classes. Asthe study progressed, questions wereaddedfor clarification.Interviews
For conveniencepwposes.individualinterviews of forty to seventy minutes duration, wereheldateachteacheT's school. Theinterviews were recorded using an audiocassetteand conductedinneac identicalsettingsduringthemonths of November andDecember1996in Edmonton,Alberta. The researcher obtainedtheapproval from the board of Educationin Edmonton and contactedtheschools assignedbytheboardto idC'IItifY respondents and carry out the research.
The researcherinterviewed the selectedhighschool English teachers. to find outtheir perception ofcritical thinkinginthe school andsociety. The interviewerfocused on whether teach.ersimplerneotcritical thinkingin their teaching to help develop their students'critical thinkingabilities,andhowthey achieve thisgoal.After, the audiotapes weretranscribed,and the researcher observation of respondentsinpractice took place.
Parti<:ipaat Obstrvatioa
Anothersignificantmethodusedwas Participant Observationintheselected teachers' classrooms, to note the discussions, question generatingskills and responses. Using the observation methodhelpedthe researcher toobtain an accurate picture of what is going oninthe settings, reflecting as many and as diverse viewpointsandmeanings as possible (Witt.. 1991) Other skills thatenabled students to become critical thinkers, were observed such as
JJ interpretation,clusific:ation.lookingfor assumptions,OrgarUutiOflofdala.makingdecisionsand application ofliK:ts tonewsituarioas..
Beforegoingintotheclassroom,theresean:berukedthe tClCber'swhen: theywould like her to locatebeneIfin theirclassroomsaDdbow theywouldinuoduce her totheirstudentsas a panicipant observer. Theaimwasfortheresearcher to have a rwunl classroom environment50 the researcher could bave an active roleandbdp theteacheror thestudc:ots.Thisprocessalso served tonothave students wonderaboutthe researdIers' presence orbe distractedbyit. The researcherlOOk.notes of thesw.dems'responSes, discussionsandquestions. asweDas teachers' methods of teachingandbowtheyguidedtheirstudentsandhelped them to devcloptheircritical thinkingskills.
WIththeteachers'approval,.therescaccberwassometimesable tofolloweach observation withaninterview.Thalway the researchergainedabetteruodem.aDding of what really goes on in cla.s.sroominterms of the development of criticalthinkingskills. andwasable to use some examples ofstude:ots'responsesor teacher's' questionsinthe interviews.Sometimes.however.
thisprocesswasnot possible due10teac.llen'tightschedules, sointerviewswereconducted before in-class observation.
The researcherobserved13 classesfortheeightteachenparticipatinginthe study.
Classes were up to 80miau1esinieDgthandthercsearcbcr usually sat somewhere inthebackof the room at a student's desk out of the flow of classroom traffic. In-class observation timewas devoted totakingnotes as rapidly as poSSIble to record the teacher-student verbal interactions, questions,
statemc:ms.
and geoeraIinstruction, aswell ISto notestudents'andteachers' discussions for later analysis. The researcher used this approach to detennine whether or not34 teachers practiee andmodel criticalthinking. guidetheirstudents tothink:critically, and encouragethemto makelinks betweenthecu.rrentevertsinthe constantly clwlgingsocietyand what they learninthe subject matter.
OtherMetbods Used
The researcher reviewedtheliterature on criticalthinlci.ng;itsmeaningandvalue to students asweI.Ias the characteristicsneededfor the development of these skillsandhow they can beimplemented inthe Englishcurriculum.
Triangulating withseveralsources of data,and usingvariouskindsof data collection techniques,enabled theresearcher to correct anypersonalbiases andto reach accurate conclusions.
Asindicated byLeCompte and Preissle (1993):
Literaturereviewis critical to a study becauseit isthe place where investigators explain to the reader the theoretical underpinnings of the study. Itmakes explicit the impact of theory in every stage afthe study, from formulation of theinitialproblem and selection of thepopulation through data coUection and analysis to interpretation. (p. IS I) References areusedas empirical and theoretical evidence.50being knowledgeable and familiar with the phenomena under study from the literature review helped the researcher tobe well prepared forwhatto look for during the observation and to ask key questionsinthe interviews to gain a better understanding.
The researcherhadanactiverole inthestudy. communicated well with the subjects.
establisbed agoodrapport.,aswellas searched for and provided interpretations and descriptions to achieve understanding.
3S POPULATION
I.Dthissndy theresearcher'sselection andsample are natun1ty bouoded: Highschool EnglishteacbeninEdmontoo.Alberta. The wordselection refers to ageoeralprocessandthe relevantpopulationunderinvestigationinthisstudy.high5CboolEnglishtea~.Theresearcher"
selecteda sample ofei.ght seniorhighEnglishteacbefs.as a subset ofthispopulation.
SAMPLE
The sample for this study comprisedeighthighschoolEnglishteachersfromdifferent schoolsinEdmonton. The selection ofthisconvenic:Dce sample wasbasedon ease of accessand availability. The researcher chosehighschoolEnglishteachers becauseifstudents are taught.
trained and guidedindevelopingtheircriticalthinkingskillsinODesubject like English,theywill beable totransferandusetheseskills inallothersubjects.
Letters of consentwereSCD1toandsigDc:d by theboardof education, schoolprincipals andteachersinvolvedtoobtain their permission to condua the interviews. Forstudents under"the age of16,letters of consent weresigoc:dbytheirparents giving permission to observethese
<tud"", during~
A sample copy aCme letterthatwassenttotheschool boardrequestingparticipation of teachersandstudcutsandthe consent form are attaebcdinAppendixA.Sample copy aCthe letter requesting the participation of schools (thePrincipals),and lhe consent form are includedin AppendixB. Sample copy oftbe letterpcesented to teachersparticipating inthe study.andthe consent form areincludedinAppendix C. Sample copy ofthc letter sent to the students' parents
36 who were undertheage of 16,and theconsent form are includedinAppendix 0 The teachers' InterviewScheduleis includedinAppendixE.
DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURES
Asimportantasfamiliaritywith thetopic of mystudyand the research methods. isthe ability to analyze anddrawcon<:lusions. "Qualitativedata analysis istheprocess of bringing order,structure.,andmeaning tothemass coUecteddata"~rtt,1991), Thecategoriesusedto analyze the interviewsandobservations are for the purpose of eliciting meaning fromdata collected, to lay a foundation for my specificinquiryandto achieve greaterunderstandingtofillin gaps aCknowledge.Asindicated by Le Compte and PreissJe (1993) "the outcomes of educational ethnography contnbute to improvementineducational and school practicein severa.Iways" (p.
28).
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The research questions defined how the purpose or goals werecarriedout. They delineatedthespecific problems addressed in the study. The interview questions were designed to encourage teachers toexpresstheirthoughts., concerns regarding their perception and practice of criticaltbinkingintheir classes.
TowhatextentdohighschoolEnglishteachers' practiceandguide students to usecritical
~Bas evidenced bythefollowing criteria?
I. Questioning(Teachers'questions and students' question genen.tion.
2. Brainstorming,andpredictions
3. Informed discussionsina risk-free environmentwithtolerancetodifferent opinions
37 4. The useofvarious resourcesandmedia
S. Makingconnections or links among varioussubjectsin the curriculum and inlife 6. Knowledge transaction and transformationinthe classroom
7. The use of cooperative learning 8. The use ofconcept mapping.
9. Problem solving techniques
10. Otherlearning activitiesthatenhancecriticalthinkiDgdevelopment.
To explorewhether theoryandpractice shouldbeintmeJated in order to see ameaningfuJ change and progressinschoolandinsociety.
1. To what extent dohighschool educators understand and become involvedinthe development of the students'criticaltlWaking?Howare they implementing theories ofcritical thinking into thecurricuIum?
2. Towhat extent dohighschoolEnglishteachers modifY or change educational objectives tobe relevant to students' lives, and to gohandin band withour postmodern society?
3. Towhat extent do educators create arisk-freeenvironment for students' discussions, or debates.and providenecessaryinstructional resources..and materials needed for the developmcm afthe students' critical thinking?
4. What:kind of expectations dohighschool teachers set for their students andwhaJ.methods are used for communicating those expectations and motivating the students to reach them?
5 Towhat extent are educators concerned with transactionandtIansformation of lmowledge, thantransmission?
38 6. Towhatextentisthere collaborationandcooperation.betweenstudentsandedUcalOrs,as evidencedbytheClrtenttowhichstudents have a choice, are involvedinsettingtheirown objectives,.and areactiveparticipantsin allsubjects?
7. To whatextentarehighschool teachers. researchersand implementors of theoretical strategies., testing bowYIdlpanicularstrategies.or techniques workthroughself-assessmentin theirown classrooms?
8. Towhat extentdo educators helpandprovide studentswithopportunities to experimentnew approac:bc:s, tofindeducation meaningful?
9. To what extent do educators understandthesignificance ofcriticalthinkinganduseit intheir actual teaching?Lookingat theory and practice. for example. how arethemodels of teaching implementedandtranslated from theory to practice to develop theskill ofcriticalthinking skills?
Ia.Are there special courses developed toteach criticalthinking?Doeducators explore the possibility of developing oneinthe future, to help studems practice and appreciate the valueand the use of critical thinking abilitiesinschool andin.society?
SUMMARY
This chapter outlined the methodology for the study. The chapter explained how the samplewasselectedfor this study, andbowthedatawas coUectedby interviewing teachers and observing stUdents'-teachers' interactions dwingseveraJ.lessons togain understanding. An analysis aCthedatafonowsinChaplet' 4.
39 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
Thischapter presents the analysis ofdala.
ANALYSIS OF IN-eLASS OBSERVAnONS
Tne characteristicsDoted.from the analysis ofirK:lassobservations andinterviewshave beencategorized accordiog tothecriteria mentionedinchapter 3?theliteratw'e review oncritical thinking,and the suggested effective instructional methods usedfOTits development.
QUestiGlIIaad Alternatives
The data analysis reveled that in almostalIclassesobserved.theresearcher noted that students were asked questions fromtheupperthreelevels of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives: (analysis,synthesis,. andevaluation questions). These bigh-Ievel questions. according to the l.iJ:eraturereview.arc often offeredindefiningcriticalthinlcing(Ennis.1993). Students were expected. to use inductive reasoning and create a whole from separate elementsby expressing original and creative ideasin theirresponses tothequestions. The teachers' flow of questionshe:lpedstudents tothink,respond., problem-solve.andtransfer and use the infonnation.
Tcachers also encouraged students to applywhatthey already have learned to other situations.
Therewasevidence that the stUdents were guided by teachersin theiranswers to support their arguments and opinions through organization ofdatainto logical patterns of understanding.
and to present evidence. Students, as noticed, were taught to consider the values implicitin their thinking by looking at evidenceand.establishingcriteria. Teachers also encomaged. sruden1S to make judgmentswhichgavethema sense of control over theirlearning. Students usedtheir
