The data base for discussion on the interrelations between the integration of women in development, their situation and population factors in Africa

UNITED NATIONS

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL

13 May 1974

Original: J2TGJJSH

HXXHJOMIC CXDMMISSIOK 50R AFRICA

Regional Seminar on the Integration of Vomen in Development with Special

Referenee to Popiflation Factors

Addis Ababa 3-7 June 3-974

THE DATA BASE FOR DISCUSSION ON THE INTERRELATIONS BETWEEN THE INTEGRATION OF DOMM IN DEVETOPMBTT, THEIR SITUATION AND POPULATION FACTORS

IN AFRICA

** *-"* *■

TABLE OP CONTESTS

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER I :

TH* BOTTTATION OF WOMEN IN SUBSISTENCE AND EARLY MODERNIZING AREAS

Paragraphs

1-6

7-24

CHAPTER II:

AREAS OF DEVELOPMENT;

INTEGRATION OF WOMEN

X. Employment

2, Education and Training

3. Participation in Administration ar.d Public Life

4- Access to Health and Maternity Knowledge and Services

5. Food Supply and Nutrition

6, Reducing Work Loads/increasing

Productivity

25 - 98 29

47

46 59 60 - 62

63 71

7"

79 80 - 98

17

32

41

42 50

54

CHAPTER III

INTER-RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN POPULATION GROWTH RATES, DEVELOPMENT, AND WOMEN'S SITUATION

1. Population Growth Rates and their Consequences

2. Integration of Women in Develop*

ment in Relation to Population Factors

99

101

IOC

- 122

-105

- 122

60

60

71

TABLE OF CQNTSNTS (CQHT.)

Paragraphs CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF ACTION EXPLICATIONS:

WOMEIPS SITUATION, TH3IR

Iff DSVEEiOPK^NT, AND PO3PT3LATION FACTORS

■ A* The Policy and Planning Level

B, Rural Women

123 137 139

- 148 -138 - 148

80 84 85

p:

- ii -

B/CN.14/SV/37

Table

1

2

3

4

5 6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

IKDSX TO TABLES

Title

Division of rural labour in Kivu Province, Zaire

Actual time devoted to farm work, by age group per working day

A Zombian women's day during the planting

season . .

Participation in marketing according to sex

Infant mortality rates in African countries Percentage of ever-married women between 15 and 19 years of age

Number of children born alive per 1000

women i960 - 67

Expectation of life at birth by geographic region of the world, both

sexes combined

Percentages of women in the economically active population by industry

Comparative wages in agriculture and manufacturing

Distribution of public capital expenditure on social services in selected African countries

Health personnel per 10,000 population Government position on population growth

and family planning activities in 33

countries in Africa

Percentages and numbers of rural populations served with water

Crude birth and death rates by region, and Africa sub-region, and annual rates of natural increase

Urban and rural population estimates and projections

4

5

6

7

11

13

14

16

19

26

26

44, 47

49

57

61

62,

45

63

- iii -

■>v'

INDEX TO TABLES (CONT.)

.'a Die

17 18

19

20

Title

Pood production index 1961-1965-100

Pood production index per eaput

- 1961 to 1965 « 100

Dependency ratio (per 100) by

major areas 1965 - 1985(medium variant)

Mean values of selected social economicf and health criteria for three groups of countries, classified "by estimated percentage of married women of re

productive age using contraception in 1970

Page 65,66-

67,68

70

M

Wf^W»v?i3P5^w^ \ "•

\ Z'Zi&TFF'

TSV8X TO GRAPHS

Letter

A.

B.

C.

0.

H.

J.

Title

K,

% of women who are economically active by sub-

region and oountriea

% of women among all persons engaged in agriculture, forestry, hunting, and fishing by sub-region and

001 atries

i of women among all persons engaged in commerce by

sub-iegion and country

£ of women among workers in manufacturing by sub-

regions and countries

Changes in percentages of women among workers in

manufacturing

t of women among professional, technical and

related workers. 1960-69 by sub-regions and countries f of women among administrative, executive and

managerial positions

# of girls among primary school students

<$ of girls in secondary schools

% of girls enrolled in 3rd level education

€ of girls ln-^>&alicnal education at the second

level '

i of girls in teacher training at the second level /of girls in teacher training at the third level.

'

33

34 35

38 39

- v -

"?

page 1

INTRODUCTION

V

!• The major obstacles to African development cannot be overcome without

the full participation of women. Most of the goals of the Second Development Decade, as set forth by the General Assembly of the United Nations-' are re lated to women's roles, for example:

~" nutrition cannot be improved without the women, who produce and process most of Africa's food

population and eduoation problems cannot be solved without

2.

the women who bear, nurture, and give initial eduoation to children

- increase of productive employment oannot significantly be achieved

without expanding the employment of women, who form half of the

labour force

- high production cannot be reached without involving the large numbers of farmers and distributors of goods who are women

- more equitable distribution of income and wealth is not possible

without the involvement of women, who are often responsible for

the welfare of children and relatives, either by custom, or due to

male migration, or to separation.

In short, achieving the objectives of the Second Development Decade depends upon taking into consideration the contribution and needs of both women and men and the involvement of both in the formulation of policies and the execution of projeots. Both men and women should share in the work and in the rewards of development, sinoe "the ultimate objective of development is to bring abo-ufc sustained improvement in che wellbeing of the individual

and bestow benefits on all"*-'

2/

3* To examine the interrelationships between the integration of African women in development, their situation, and population factors, this paper Pres ents and analyses data with respeot~to the present situation of women -^parti- oularly rural women, their tasks and responsibilities in social and eoonomio lifoj the extent of women's integration in development, "both in the

modernizing rural areas and in the modern sectors of their societies* and the

l/ International Development Strategy* Action Programme of the General Assembly for the Second United Nations Development Decade,

ST/bcA/139, NY, 1970 (General Assembly Hes. 2626 (XXV) .)♦■

2/

A ■»-,

page 2

relationships between women's participation, population factors, and

national development.

4, An attempt is also made to measure the extent of women's participation in the traditional sectors, and their integration in the modern seotors of

their societies, through a series of "unite of participation". BV>r

measurement of employment, family tasks, participation in public life, and education, the unit of participation is the portion of the work or involvement of women in the activity, as a fraotion of the total participation.of both men and women. The total is expressed as 1.00. For example, if 00% of the hours of labour in carrying water are women's work, the women's «nit of par ticipation is expressed as 0.80, For measurement of women's access to

services and technology, it is only possible to suggest units of participation for some aspects, as data are not available for more accurate treatment,

5, The xmits of participation whioh appear in this paper are often rough estimates and are based on numerous case studies, information .from oountiy correspondents, and so forth. The object is to establish the importance of quantifiable data so that further effort may be put into its collection, at the district, national, subregional and Africa-wide levels*

6. In the last chapter (ChayterlT) of this paper, some conclusions are reached, and the implications of these for policies and programmes of

Governments, national organizations, regional and international agencies are examined* The hypothesis of the paper is as follows!

Aa the integration of women in the development process increases, the pace of development becomes more rapid? consequently the possibilities for family and child wellbeing are greater, and ohild spacing or family planning becomes

desirable*

TTf

page 3 CHAPTER I. THE SITUATION OP WOMEN. 23T SUBSISTENCE

AND EARLY MODERNIZING AREAS

7. The division of labour in traditional agricultural areas dictates

definite roles for women, who are generally the producers of food. They rise

"before dawn to fetch the water, cook, then walk to the fields for planting, weeding, or harvesting. In the peak agricultural seasons, they often spend ten hours in agricultural labour, returning home in the evening with a load of wood gathered en route. Then there is the pounding of grains or roots, and

all the while the infants and children need care. Husbands, ohildren and elders need food. Beer must be brewed for festive occasions. On market days, goods or excess foods must be carried on foot to and from the market —

often many miles away. It has been estimated that 60-80^ of agricultural

labour in Africa is women's work.-'

8, In North Africa as well as other parts of the continent, women have

important roles in economic life. They sow, clear away weeds, prepare and carry fuel, and spend much time in animal husbandry.—'2/

9# Tables 1 and 2 compare male and female labour in rural areas of Zaire and Sierre Leone. Table 3 shows women's work only. All three tables confirm the active role of women in the rural development effort.

1/ The Changing and Contemporary Hole of Women in African Development, UNECA, 1974

2/ Hoda Badxan. Arab Women in National Development. TJNICEF, 1972

,?»"

Table 1

Division of rural labour in Kivu Province, Zaire

2 ,«? ir"

Women

Hen (in the rural areas

all the time)

Unit of Production

1.00

0,30

Work

ploughing, sowing, upkeep of

plantation, transport of pro duce, carrying water, prepara

tion and transport of firewood,

marketing, beerraaking.

Care of banana trees, clearing land when necessary and help

with the cultivation of new

fields; certain other jobs.

Children aged 5-9*

Children ag

Boys

Girls

ed 10 - 14 ■

Boys

CVi rls

0.00

0,05

0,15

0.55

No contribution.

Help with weeding and carrying

water*

Looking after cattle; help

with weeding.

Help mother with all agri-

oultural work.

Old people over 55*

Hen

Women

0.05

0,20

Very little work; some jobs

in banana groves.

Help With light work in the

fields.

page 5

. ..".'■ Table 2

Actual time devoted to farm wprk, by age group per working day

Age group 10-14 Age group 15-59 Age group 60 ____________ and above

Male workers 65 per cent of 90 per cent 75 per oent

the time

Female workers 45 per oent of 50 per oent 65 per cent

the time

<• ■ ■

Source: JuK. JfcLtra, Integrated Development of the Agricultural Sectors, Sierra Leone (Resource Management and Farm Planning, Report to the Government of Sierra Leone, PAD, Rome 1971)•

10, In those areas of Africa where women are not by tradition so heavily engaged in agriculture, they are often involved in trade - either in markets, along the roads, or in their houses. In some countries of West Africa, more than 80% of the petty traders are women. They work full-time at marketing, in addition to oare of the children and maintenance of the home. In many of these societies it is customary for worsen to provide in large part for the support of themselves and their children even when their husbands axe employed.

Data on trading in Afrioan countries axe given in Table 4j which shows that

trade is an important activity of women, even outside West Africa,

TABLE 3 - TABLEAU 3

A Zambian Woman's day during the planting season/

Pne^journee de1# fyane gambienne pendant la saison dee oultttres

Time spent «* Hours/

Paree en heures

Waking up in the morning at 05*00 hours/

Reveil le matin a Q5.00 heares N

i- >■,■,.

Walking to the field with baby on her back(V-2 km)/

Temps mis pour aller aux champs, le babe" sur le dos(V2 km) 0,50 f

Ploughing, planting, hoeing until about 15#00 fire 1

(eats snack in fiald)/ *

Be*cher, planter, manier la houe jusqu'a environ 15«00 h

(mangeant sur le pouce aux chanps) 9.50

Collecting firewood and carrying it home/

Ramasser du bois et le transporter a la maison 1,00 Pounding or grinding grain or legumes/

Broyer et moudre le grain et les legumes 1.50

Fetching water (1 to 2 km or more each way)/

Puiser de 1'eau (1 a 2 km a lfaller autant au retour) O«75 Lighting fire and cooking meal for family/

Alluraer le feu et pre"parer le repas pour la famille 1«00 Dishing out food - eating/

Servir les aliments et manger 1.00

Washing children, herself, clothes/

Toilette dee enfants, de soi-meme, habits O.75

Qoind to bed at about 21*00 hours/ '

Aller au lit vere t.1«00 heures • ^^^

Total 16,00 ?

Swnmary/g6sum4 : Hours of work/keures de travail 15 h Hours of rest/eating/beures de

repos/repas 1 h Hours of sleep/Heures de sommeil 8 h

Total 24 h .

1

Souree : Report on 5 Workshops in Home Sconomics and Other Family-Oriflntad *

Fields, UNBCA 1973 \

% '

page 7

Table 4

Participation in marketing according to sex

Area Male

(Per cent)

Female

(Per cent) Copper'belt (Zambia)

(late 1950!s) ⁵⁹

Rhodesia

(late 1950's)

Majority in larger markets

Majority in smaller markete

N. Somalia

(late 1950's)

Women dominate the open markets

Hausa (Nigeria) (late 1950!s)

Men dominate the public markets

Women trade from their homes

Dakar (Senegal)

(1959)

40 60

Brazzaville (Congo)

(1963) ³⁴

Higeria (1963) Ghana (i960) Dahomey (1967)

30

16

11

70

84

89

Souroess Bohannan. and Dalton, eds. Markets in Africa (Horthweet em Uni versity Press, 1962)5 David Lucas, "Women in the Nigerian'Labour K>rce" (African Population Conference, Acora, December 1971j

tf&ECA M71-2985,) "Participation of Women in Industry and Commeroe-

in African Towns South of the Sahara", (E.C.B.14.UHS 14j UUECA).

page 8 _

11. Self-help projects are another area in which women's labour predominates.

Construction of roade>nursery schools, primary .schools and village centres is

often more than 50$ women's work. In {Cenya, for example, the Government has estimated that, women provide 80$ of the self-help labour; in Lesotho, they

build 90$ of the roads, under Food-for-Work, and other programmes. This does *

not mean that the men do not do anything; it does, however indioate the . nature and extent of women's participation in these development efforts,

12* Women have numerous assigned roles for the social as well as the economic ? development of their societies. A critical ono, wliioh raises and even creates

their status, is to bear children. A large family remains the norm in most of t the Region for reasons often enumerated, including extra hands to work on the

farm, social security for the parents in their old age, insurance that the ! family will be carried on through future generations, proof of a man's viriliigr,

and in anticipation of premature death of children before maturity. When many '

pregnancies are necessary to have a few living adult children, a woman will be

pregnant during most of her ohild-bearing years. But pregnancies, child-

bearing, lactation and child-rearing do not debar nor deter her from her work in the fields or in the markets? both her economic and her social roles are

pressed upon her, and she accepts them without question.

13# In subsistence societies, of course, the basic problem is poverty with its

implications of lack of access to the means of making life's tasks easier and more rewarding- But even in these societies roles have changed and are changing still yet women*s major traditional responsibilities persist.

14* In summary, whether they are in the subsistence, or in the petty monetary, • ;

sectors of the economy, women's roles dictate that they are fully engaged in • productive activities - producing and processing food, distributing goods, ? :

raising children, and caring for men and elders, !

15. Estimates of women's participation in the essential activities of sub

sistence and early modernizing areas of their societies are not always readily \ available - but it is possible to obtain them, once their importance is

reoognized.—. To obtain a1"unit of participation" for women's labour in rural j

areas, one snakes, the best possible estimate, based, on available data and ex- f

perienoe, of the percentage of the labour associated with a particular task, |

l/ See Tables 1, 2 and 3; also Report on 5 Workshops in Home Economics and

Family-Oriented Fields, EGA, 1973

j « " page 9

t

• which may be attributed to women. For example, * in Bukoba, Tanzania, it is estimated that men work 1-800 hours per year in agriculture and women work

% 2,600 hours.i/ This totals 4,400 hours, of which 60J& is women's work. Women's

,V "unit of participation" is thus 0.60*

i 16* Using this method, an attempt is made below to estimate roughly the units

f of participation by women in the traditional rural and early modernizing

economy in Africa as a whole, in order to provide a model:

' * Responsibility Unit of Participation-/ 2/

t A, Production/Supply/Distribution

I * 1. Btood Production °'7°

; 2. Domestic Pood Storage °* 50

* 3. Pood Processing ^«°0

4. Animal Husbandry °*50

5. Marketing °»60

I 6. Brewing °«9°

I 7. Water Supply °*90

I 8. Fuel Supply °«8°

I B. HousehoId/Community

i 1, Household:

. (a) Bearing, rearing, initial

» eduoation of children I*00

I (b) Cooking for husband, children,

! elders ^elders

^{king , ,}

^X-00

(o) Cleaning, washinc, etc. I-00

(d) Housebuilding 0.3O

(e) House Repair °-5°

2. Community:

Self-help projects °*70

1/ Country Report on Tanzania for Libreville Conference, Gabon, 1971

2/ Data base from: The Changing and Contemporary Role of Women in African Development, UNECA, 1974} Country Reports on Vocational

and Technical Training for Girls and Women, UITECA, 1972^4$

studies, mission reports, discussions. As noted in the text, Units of Participation should be determined first for areas within countries, then on the national level,

then for Africa

■sf

:-. c? : page 10

17* Women and children together, numerically form nearly three-quarters of the

target population when one accepts that "the ultimate objective of development is to bring about sustained improvement in the well-being of the individual and

bestow benefits on all".-' What are the effects of women's traditional,

difficult way of life, on the well-being of individual women and children?

18, Over-work and constant child-bearing, linked with low status, low

priority in the right to good food, and the lack of access to knowledge and resources which accompany poverty, result in early aging, poor health and ; ,

weakness in women, high infant mortality (see Table 5) and sub-optimum

development in ohildren*

l/ International Development Strategy. Op.cit.

■»£

- *■ ':•

. ...-V.i.V;,.;.. ,..;

TABLE 5 Infant'mortality rates

- TABLEAU JJ

in African.countriea ■ . . , . (Deaths under t,year per .1000) / ■■-.■.";.■. . . ■..::■-. •. Tauide1; mortality infantile

. ■■■■■; ,' ■' (S^cfes aansA .1 ■. an North Afrioa/Afrio^ie da llord

Jdaroc Algeria Tuaisie Egypt ■ Sudan.

- 149 86

no 120

West Afj*ica/Afrique de 1' Ouest

«SAtirixa&XB

Se*ne*gal .. .;-[

Fa',He VoTta Dahomey Niger-:, -;

Guinea r ...

Sierra Leone Liberia Ghana Togo

187 .

■■- ■ -,, .93. , . ,

123182

110 . . 200 216 146

137 156 127

dans les■. pays Afrieains - . pour 1000) -.. ■■■ ■

Central Africa/Afri<jue fo Cameroon (aestern)/

Cameroun (oe*^

Tohad ' . ■ .

R6p»csntrafrioaine . Gabon

2afre

■" . . .

entrale

13T'..-;

:. -: 160 .190 ' 229

1(4 ,

^ict Africa^fric(n§ de I'Est '.

Rwanda. . : Burundi - .

Zpiibia

Ifelawi"

ffiadagaspar*

.Mauritius . ...

"5ensar4a (Zanz,)

Xenya

137 150 259 ice 65 189. ;

160

132 Oth**r Africa/Autres pays d'Afrioue

I*sotho

181

Source ; ECA Population Programme Centre, Ha? 1974/

CEA, Centre des Programmes de ?opalatacnv Jfai 1974

1 < „ ■ .£<* X

Page.12

19* La mortality infantile et la mortality des enfants en b&s fige ont des conse quences extrememen* nefastes sur les ressources des families et du pays, entraSaaat perte precisuses de ressourcee humainesqain'ont pas pu atteindre 1'Sge productiff

et des depenses elevees, du point de vue materiel et affeotif, resultant des frais d1alimentation, des soins m&lioaux, des frais dfh8pitaux, du temps passe par les parents a amener les enfants a l'hSpital et des funerailles.

20. II est desormais reconnuj/ que les grandes families et les grossesses rappro-

ch6es surtout parmi les femmes de plus de 35 ans, augmentent les risques de morta- lite" intra—ute*rine et de mortalite infantile, de fausses conches, de malformations a la naissance ainsi que la frequence de nombreuses maladies chea les meres, notara- ment des oas d'aneroie graven des maladies puerperales et des complications gyneco- logiques* II est prouve que les grossesses rapproch^es, les grossesses precoces ou

tardives (avant l'Sge de 18 ou apres l'age de 35 aas) et de plus de quatre ou

oinq naissances concourent a roetire en danger la sante de la mere. Lorsque oes

divers facteurs surviennent ei mSme temps et sont associes a la pauvrete, h l'anal—

phabdtisrae, au manque d'hygiene, a la malnutrition et a l'absence de services de sante, les risques qu*encourent les femmes et les enfants sont multiples. Cette

situation est frequente en Afrique#

Le Tableau 6 indique le nombre de jeunes filles qui se marient entre 15 et 19 ans* II ressort du Tableau 7 que de nombreux enfants naissent de femmes figees de 15 a 19 ans et de plus de 35 aas, l'Sge dangereux.

\j Etude sur la condition de la femme et la planification de la famille, Rapport

de Rapporteur special additif, paragraphes 42-45t E/CN.6/575» deoembre 1974*

Organisation mondiale de la sante, Serie des rapports techniques, K°442

rLes aspects sanitaires de la planification familiale", Geneve, 19?0

TABLE 6 - TABLEAU 6 ^{J 3}

Percentage of everrmarrxed women between 15 and 19 years of age/

Poarcentage des femmea non-celibataires eft**1? 15 et 19 ans

Date %

NORTH AFRICA/

AFRK2UE DU NORD

Morooc o/lferoo 19^0 54* 1 Alge"ria/Algerie 1966 46-5

Tuniaia/Punisie 1966 18«9

Libya/txbye 1964 73.5

Egypt/Bgypt« 1960 32.7

Sudan/3oudan 1964-65 20»1

WEST AFRICA/

AFRI93E DE L!OOEST

iflauritania/ifeuritanie 1962 65*9

Senegal 196CW51 62,8

Jfali 1960-61 79-1

Dahomey . 1961 66.7

Niger 1960 81.7

Guinea/Guinee 1955 46.4

Liberia 1962 56*5

Sate

CENTRAL AFRICA/

AFRIQUE CENTRAJJI

Cameroon/Cameroun

Chad/Tohad •963-64

Central Africa/

Afrique centrafrxoaine 1959/60

Gabon 1960-61

Congo 1960-61

Zaire 1955/57

EAST AFRICA/

AFRIQUE DE L!EST

Burundi 1965

Zambia/Zambie 1969

Madagascar 1966

Mauritius/lfaurice 1962

Uganda 1969

Kenya 1969

Soraaliay&omalie 1963 OTHER AFRICA/

AUTRES PAYS D'AFRIQUE

Lesotho 1966

*

48*0

57*5 62^7 58.4 46.4

12.2 40.8

38.5 29.4 49.5 35«6 13.5

22.3

Spiiroe * Population Programme Centre, ECAT 1974/

Centra dc programme de la population, CEA, 1974

14 ■

EABLg 7 - TABLEAU 7

Number of cfr'ilcjren born slive per 10OP women, 196CM97O/

Nombre d'enfaiyfcs ne"s vivants pour .1000 femmeat 1960-1976

AGE CBP WOMEN

Count ry^ays*

Kenya Togo

Swaziland^

Dahomey*/

XJgandar-'

United Rep*of Tanzania/

Tanzania Tanganyika

Urban/frrbain

Rural Zanzibar

Tchad*/

Liberia2'

e/

Urbany^Jrbain

Rural

Congo^

Central African Rep*

Zambia

Oabo**/

Year/

Pays

1961 1969

1959-60 1966

5961

196 0-61

1959

1967

1967 1963-64

1970

196 0-61 1959-60 J969

1960-61

15-19 355

330

409

317 478 489 569

508

498 509

790 ,433

527

518 530

435 231^/

123

462

20-24 1892

1790

1659 1851

I678

1516

1537 1917

2218

1943 1681 1974 1767 2069

1543 1382 666 1190

25-29

3706 3126

2925 3013

3241 2836

2719

3100

2363

3146

3387

2724 2922 2777

2977

2572

2387 1451

1761

3O-34

5262 4482

4167 4136 4455.

3852 3824

4050 2866

4271 4117

3519 3817 3689 3858 3293 3196 2375

2130

35-39 6174

5320

4715

4850 5036

1-515 4567

4657 3155 4731 4418

4123

4226 4288 4210

3832 3437 3055

2471

40-44 6479 5678 5159 5469 5638 4953 5019

4878 4954 3155

4460 4324

4590 4563 4595 4123 3834

3261 2501

45-49

6620 5936

5817 5745 5734 5414

5166

5063 . 3224 5127 4424 4728

4580 4520

4591 4315 4056 3168

2737

^J Countries within regions are arranged from high to low according to the Jiumber of children born alive per 1000 women ages 45-49^ / Payo a lrinterieur des regions, .

classes par orare de grandeur selon le nombre d*enfants nbs vivants de 1000 femmes agees de 45 a 49 ans»

a/ African population only/Population africaine seulement

c/ Non-African population only/population non africaine seulement d/ Estimate/Estimation

e/ Probably underestimated/Probablement soue-estime

f/ Ages 14-19/ De 14 a 19

Source ; Demographic Yearbook, 1971 table 21 j 1g69> table 9j 1965 table 9 (UN publications, Sales Nos.E.72,XIII.1f E^OJCIII.1, E.66.XIII.1)/

Annuaire demographique, 197J.I tableau 215 j^g, tableau 9; 1965, tableau 9

(Publications de l'CHU, N° de venta E#72,XIII-1, E.70.XIII.1, B.66.XIII.1).

page 15

21., With large families, the younger children are often born with low weights

and less defences against disease, reducing their chances of survival. Because of the drain on maternal nutrition, ohild development - both of body and brain - may be impaired. Moreover, frequent child-bearing shortens the breast-feeding period, exposing infants to greater risks of malnutrition and gastro-intestinal infection.

22* When tiiere are large numbers of children in the family, poox1 mothers must

work harder to give each ohild a start in life. When they work many hours daily and- are constantly pregnant they have neither the time nor the strength to care for and educate each toddler in his early formative years. Resources have to be stretohed, and it is usually the women who sacrifice for the other members* ■ Bones are crowded and there is little aon«y for clothes, education and for food beyond what can be grown. There are few jobs for adolescents, especially for girls. There is often not enough land for children reaching adulthood to farm.

23. Thus the traditional situation of women in Africa has impeded development in three waysi

(1) B&r retarding the production and distribution of food and other

necessities, since the energy input of women has only minimal productive returns?

(2) by the physical, and .mental effects on the population because

women live at drudgery level; and

(3) by a resultant waste of human beings, and of the resources spent

on them, by families and by countries, due to low expectation of life at birth. ("Table 8)

24« The following Chapter considers the extent to which modernization has ameliorated women1 s situation, in particular that of rural women.

TABLE 0 - TABLEAU 6

Expectation of life at birth by geographic Region of the World, both sexes ci Tendances de l'eeperance de vie a la naissance salon les regions ge"ografthiquqg du monde, les deux sexes ensemble.

World/Monde Afriee/Afrique

Horth America/Amerique du Nord Latin America/Amerique latine Bast Asia/ftsie de l'Est

Balance of Asia/

Europe

Ociania/Oceanie

Soviet Union

1965-1970 Years of Age/

Axuiees

53.1 43.3 70.5

60.2 52.2

48.8 70.9 64.8 70.3

1970-1975 Tears of Age/

Annies d'Sge 55.5 45-9 70.8 62.5

55.2

51.8 71.7

66.2 70.9

Source : Population council, Population and Family?lpg^

A fact-book, Fifth Edition September 1973 (Derived from UN 1972,

. UN Demographic Yearbook 1971 and UN Population Division 1970,

Working Paper N°37 (Miroeo) )/

Conseil de la population, Programme de planification de la population et de la familie : A fact-book, 5eme edition,

septembre 1973 (Tire de UN 1972 Annualre demographique des

Nations Unies 1971 et Division de la population des Nations Unies

197Op journal de travail N°37f (mimeo) )•

17 ' . .^

CHAPTER II AREAS OP DETELOPMBTPi INTEGRATION OF;WOMEN

25, To be integrated into the development effort means to have, by legal right as well as to have access to, available means for self-improvement and the improvement of the society. Among the means available to persons in the Africa Region ares (l) opportunities for wage employment, or the generation of incomes through self or family employment* * (2) education - both formal and non-formal, and inoluding access to extension services -5 (3) participa-

* tion in administration and public life; (4) access to health and maternity service** (5) food supply and nutrition, and (6) reduction in workloads and

* means for increasing productivity. The first four areas are those identified by the TIN Commission on the Status of Women as target areas for women1 s

integration into development during the Second Development Decade.-' 1/

26. While full information is not available, it appears that Governmental laws and policies generally do not hinder women's integration in the areas noted above. Nevertheless few countries have positive policies towards encouraging the full involvement of women. Only one country, Egypt, has established a

National Commission on Women and,Development, although this action was re

commended to all Governments at the Rabat Regional Conference on Education,

; 2/

* Vocational Training and Work Opportunities for Girls and Women, 1971-*'

• 27. In some countries, terms of civil service, income tax structures, marriage laws, and other laws and policies of Governments are believed to deter women's t full integration. Since available information is scanty at this writing, it

is not possible even to estimate the extent of this influence.

28. Some data, varying from reliable to very tentative estimates, ar'e available on national practioes in the six areas mentioned as indicators and means of

women's integration in development, as follows:

1.

29, Bfiployed. persons, as defined by the International .Labour -Organisation; . are persons who have wage jobs, or are own-aocount employers and worfeers, / or.unpaid family workers/ "Women occupied solely in domestic duties", axe hot considered as employed and therefore are not included-in labour

foroe-data.^ Using the ILO definition, it is clear beyond doubt that

1/ Programme of Concerted International Action to Promote the Advancement of Women and Their Integration in Development, General Assembly Resolution 2716 (xxv).

2/ A half-dozen other countries are known to be considering similar action.

3/ Tearbook of Labour Statistics, ILC, Geneva, 1972.

"--r

page 16 /

women in the traditional and early modernizing areas are fully employed;

very few of them are confined to domestic duties. They often work ex- oessively long hours, on the farms or in the markets* even though the returns on their labours are not commensurate with their efforts.

30. It is necessary, first of all, to determine whether this employment of women is fully recognized by Governments, and, secondly, to examine the ertent of employment of women in the modern sectors,

31. The Active Labour Force

The question of determining who are members of the active labour force is important to an understanding of women's integration into development* . If women*s work is not considered as employment, women are likely to be overlooked, and excluded from projects and programmes of planners, who

base their planning on these statistics,

32. As shown in Graph A, "Percentages of Women in the Economically Active.

Population, by Sub-Regions",^* numerous countries still do not consider

rery many women as economically active. The median percentage of women

considered economically active (in 24 countries with available data) is ,

28$; for men, it is 49$. These statistics do not reflect the realities |

of women's work which were described in Part I of this paper. , j

33. Percentages of women employed in the various sectors are shown in ; Table 9- It oan be seen that, in most sectors of' economic activity, f women are not well aocounted for. These facts are more vivid in the ^ graphs (B,C,D), which depict the percentages of women among woxkers in #

agriculture, commerce, and manufacturing respectively* -,. f

l/ Countries are grouped by Sub-Regions of Africa, in respect to th*

varied roles of women, and for the apparent differences in calculatxng women's economic activity. For example, in most of the North African

countries, women are seldom identified as economically active, and

in most of the East African countries it appears that only wa^e

employees are accounted for in the breakdowns by branch of activity.

*Algerie.

fiotswanai/

O/g/

Dfchomeyj/

GabongpGfcanaJ/

Kecya2/

LiberiaLibya

tfcdagascari/

Ifelawi

lfeiritius_i/

Nigeria 1/ RipndaJ/

$terraLeone

fcisie

Cgandaj/

1966

1971 1967 1967

1970

1963

1966

1969 1971

1962

1964 1964

1968197019601960

1965 1969

1963

1967

19661069

1969

TABLE9-TABLEAU9EercentagesofWomenintheEconomicallyActivePopulationbyIndustry/FourcentagedefemmesdanslapopulationactiveparIndustrie

A1.820.8

•.*18.1

1.7

50.63-912.317.2,6.1•9.5.3 B1.84.4 8.85.92.5 I)0.52.50.3

S

3.80.2

0.4

1.5

412

11277.710.39.91.142.351.1-8.8,2 0*420o30,827*92.0 26.312.24.67*8

6.4 8.7

29.315.33-4*i•a30.1 0.73.00.82.22.81.40.51.20.10.60,7 3.411.1

1.9

1.42.43.71.44-43.9

1112 2.00.20.8

1.9

0.7

4.3 4.83.214-89.923.43.47.5 0.31-0 ;P2.522.86.695.013.730.16.39.410.4

34.1

0.815.75.616.5

6.4

9.45.7 2.6t.O^...14.03.52.15.45.72.40.41-7^3.3...2.4 H15.3

18.7

13.810.223.034-218.614.319.714.85.9*••10.9

**■26.917.3

12.9

3.035.733.021.28.48.4

1.10.70.50.32.5 3.52-71.3 41-99.42.96.4 2.31.52.91.53-5 15.818.810.3 8.05.0 ABCD_EPGH

Source 2 Year Book of Labour Statistics, 1972t ILO, Geneva/

AnnuairedesStatistiquesduIBravail,1972,BIT,Geneve-

\j UNECA Country Reports/CEA Rapports par Pays 2/ Employment and Earning in the Modern Sector, 1971, General

BureauofStatistics,tftjnistryofFinanceandPlanning,1973iNairobi,Kenya

1967PopulationCensus,Yol.4iEconomicStatistics,BureauofStatistics,MinistryofEconomicAffairsandDevelopment

Planning, Dar-es-Salaamt 4971. Tanzania (Statistics for Mainland only)

StatisticsrefertopeopleinGovermentServicesonly. Agriculture,forestry,Agriculture,sylviculti

Mining and Quarrying/

Industriesextractives

Manufacturing/

IndustriesmanufacturiiConstruction/ConstructionElectrioitscvgas,wate;

Elect ricira^gaz, eau 1 Commerce/

Commerce,banquejassu;immobilieresTransport,StorageandTransports,intrep6ts<

Services

ActivitiesnotadequatiActivitesmaldesigneei

FiguresnotavailablecPasdechiffresdisponinonapproprieeMagnitudenil(ornegliFaleurnumeriquenulle

o KK

£ g

< I

CQ

1

CO3

m UJ■>.

o Zo zo uUI

UJCE

oI

UJ o

u.o CO 'S 0.

a.

UJ

o

1

OCO

s

o:

■ i-u

. Z111 UJ o zo

ou UJ COUJ

COui Q

*

GUINEE BISSAU I96S HAUTE-VOLTA 1970

TOGO 1970 SIERRA LEONE 1963 SENEGAL 1970

NIGERIA 1963

NIGER I960 LIBERIA 1962

GHANA I960

TCHAD 1972

BURUNDI 1965

GABON 1963 •

ZAMBIA 1969

SWAZILAND 1966

MAURITIUS 1962 MADAGASCAR 1969 LESOTHO 1966

BOTSWANA 1964

ALGERIE 1966

TUNISIE |966

SUDAN 1956

MA ROC I960

LIBYA (964

EGYPT 1966

(9 (9

CD XCO

o"

coUJ

UJ 01 011-

3° P

— o

i

cr uiQ_

oz o

UJ

i

UJ

-<

o»co

Q

<o

0101

a:

<<

Q-X

Uij

— o>

CM =

N O

^ o

— M

1 s0) Z

I

uj Ui o o

1- aa: a:

o o

m ^ o X X0. Q.

o: q:

(9 O

RWANDA, 1969 GABON, 1963

NIGERIA, 1965 SIERRA LEONE, 1969 NIGER, I960 LIBERIA, 1962 GHANA, 1969 DAHOMEY, 1967

MAURITIUS ZAMBIA, 1969 UGANDA, 1969

TANZANIA (main land) 1967 MALAWI, 1968

MADAGASCAR, 1964 KENYA,1971 ETHIOPIA, 1970 BOTSWANA, 1971

TUNISIE, 1966 EGYPT, 1966 MAROC, I960 LIBYA, 1964 ALGERIE, 1966

INTRY

8 o z < z o 5 Ul cr 1 m CO m UJ U LU

COMf

z a UJ C9 ^ CD Z UJ CO

^Rsor

UJ a. o o 2 < Z UJ o u. o ^{UJ Ul 2 o o Ul -J 1— z 3 o 5 a: Q.} CO UJ z o

^PERS

CO Ul CO UJ t- I a: CO LU 2 UJ u. CO UJ a CO O i-

^POR

O a: a.

^{(9 . k}

^{tfj |}

^{_ — OCM — I^- a ■_ o< uj(E CCtU UJo o<UJ (0UlXh- Qcc tro oO Ulo GABON 1963CONGO 1967}SIERRA LEONE 1963 NIGERIA 1965

NIGER I960 LIBERIA 1962 GHANA 1969 DAHOMEY 1967

UGANDA 1969 TANZANIA 1967 MAURITIUS 1970 MALAWI 1968 MADAGASCAR 1964 KENYA 1971 ETHIOPIA 1970 BOTSWANA 1971

TUNISIE 1966 MAROC I960 LIBYA 1964 EGYPT 1966 ALGERIE 1966

% OF WOMEN AMONG WORKERS IN MANUFACTURING, BY SUB-REGIONS

GRAPHD GRAPHHHJED

PROPORTIONSDESFEMMESDANSLEPERSONNELDEL1INDUSTRIEMANUFACTURERE PARSOUS—REGIONS 50- 40- 30- 20- 10-e.e

1

^{NORTH NORD}

29.330.1 4.6

23.4 7.8

1

WEST QUEST 4.8

!

^5.9 3.4

EAST EST 8.39.9 7.5

I

>5C 5S5

S. .3 ? " » t

3831_ -*to

SOURCES. YiorBookofLabourStatistics,1972,ILO.Gtntw Annuaira.d«sStatistiquasduTrowlltl972,BIT,Gtntva CENTRAL CENTRE 2.5

12.2 3.2 (MEDIAN*8%) (MOYENNE-8%) COUNTRYANDYEAR PAYSETANNEES

page 24

14'S

- -~

34, Employment in Agriculture* Forests, Hunting and Fishing, Graph B shows percentages of women among all persons engaged in agriculture, by sub-region and by country. It depicts strong participation of women in

agriculture in Central and West Africa, but only minimal participation in

East Africa (Botswana excepted), despite the fact that food-production is

women's work in Bast Africa,^ In Horth Africa also, women engage in

agriculture; but this fact is refleoted in data only from Sudan. For 22 countries with data reported, the median of women1 s participation is only 11.9$ - in spite of the agricultural involvement of women - 70^, as

shown in Chapter I.

35, Bnployment in Commerce. Percentages of women among all persons engaged in commerce are shown in Graph C. Here the data for West Africa

are, for the most part, a reflection of the numbers of market women

(Nigeria being a major exception). But the commercial activities of women in the other Sub-Regions are not very visible. For 21 countries

with data available, the median of women1 s participation is 9-4$. It

is clear that women1s employment is sometimes reflected in labour force

dataj but far greater accuracy is needed.

36, Manufacturing. This is a "modern" area of employment, and it offers a variety of jobs demanding more or less physical strength, various levels of skill and education. It is a field in whioh women are employed in industrial societies, and may be a potential field of employment for African women. Graph D shows percentages of women among workers in manufacturing, by sub-regions. The median for 19 countries with data

available shows that a low 8 per cent of workers are women.

1/ It is most likely that some countries inolude only those persons engaged in wage-employment in agriculture.

CHANGES IN % OF WOMEN AMONG WORKERS IN MANUFACTURING

VARIATIONS DES PROPORTIONS DES FEMMES DANS LES EFFECTIFS DE U INDUSTRIE MANUFACTURIERE

GRAPH £ GRAPHIQUE E

50 -

40 -

30 -

20 -

10 - _8.8

o u>

ID (0

0) oi o »

SOURE SOURCES.

Year Book of Labour Statistics, 1972, ILO, Geneva Annualrc des Statfstfquss du Travail, 1972, BIT,Geneve UNECA Country Reports /CEA rapports por pay

Employment Incomes and Equality, a Strategy for Increasing oroductlve Employment In Kenya, ILO, Geneva, 1972

23

11

6 6

I

li

^1.5

q at o> at

■a at n «

to » to <o 01 ci a at

COUNTRY AND YEARS PAYS ET ANNEES

O7< - 380

page £6

37. Graph E gives significant information on the changes in percentages of women among all workers in manufacturing, in 7 countries where data are available. Four of the countries (Algeria, Egypt) Kenya, Rwanda) show only slight positive or negative changes over a'5or6 year period,

Zambia shows a fivefold increase, and Tunisia a doubling of women workers?

Ghana shows an increase of 3*. From this and other analyses,-' it appears that women's employment opportunities may (but do not always) increase when the economy is growing rapidly or, as is more likely, when Governments make and enforce policies favouring the employment of women, 38. It is also important to realize that women may dominate the low

status, low paid jobs, or provide day labour, as shown in some case studies.

Table 10 shows that women's salaries in manufacturing are lower than men's, tmt are rising. The same is true in wage-remunerated agriculture.

Table 10

Comparative Wages in Agriculture and Manufacturing

Employment Country Year

Agricultures Ghana 1962

1970

Kenya 1962 1966

^ of male

salary earned

"by females 74

79 34

60

Year

1962 1969 1963

1966

°jo of women among workers in

the category

4

12

19 18

Morocoo 1962 75 na na

1971 80

Manufacturing: EQrpt 1962 ■ 53 , na na

Kenya 1962 74 1963 19

1966 93 1966 18

Source: Yearbook of Labour Statistics

1/ See: The Impact of Modem Life and Technology on Women's Economic Rolest

11 Implications for Planning, OTECA, ESN: THEP/V72/9-A, May 1972

E/CN.14/stf/37

page £7

page

39, On the level of professional and technical employment, women1 s rep

resentation ranges between 20$. and 30c/o in a number of countries and rises

to 40% in Botswana and Mauritius (Graph P). But the median is 2l$6 for

12 countries with available data. Here we can expect to find large

numbers of teachers and nurses.

40. In the region as a whole, there are magistrates, doctors, and other high-level professional persons who are women. But on the administrative,

executive and managerial levels women's representation is poor (except in

Botswana), and indications are that it is increasing only slowly.

(Graph G) The median is a low 6.4$ for 14 countries. Women participate

•very little at the decision-making levels. Here also changes are occurring less rapidly than in manufacturing. In Algeria, between

i960 - 1966, women executives remained constant at 6$; in Egypt during the same years, percentages dropped-from 5$ to 4.4$. In Ghana between I960 - 1967, the percentage of women rose from 3 to 4% of executives*

Ivory Coast showed a dxop from 1,5% to 6Y79& from 1966 - 1970,-='

1/ Yearbook of Labour Statistics, ILO, Geneva, 1967 and 19725 ECA

Country Reports.

%OFWOMENAMONGPROFESSIONAL,TECHNICALANDRELATEDWORKERS:1960-1969 BYSUB-REGIONS

PROPORTIONS DES FEMMES DANS LES CADRES ET LE PERSONNEL TECHNIQUE ET AUTRE

1960-1969PARSOUS-REGIONS GRAPHF GRAPH1QUEF 50-| 40- 30- 20- 10-

20.9

NORTH NORD 23.9 13.8I4S

20.9

EAST EST 39.1

I

^41.6

^I I

20.9 mr s«

3. 2

m-

* s *

o

5 I

o» «n

c o> w Ot ro

WEST QUEST 26.6 19.7 14.9

26.6 ass

SOURCES YearBookofLabourStatistics,1972,ILO,Geneva AnnuairedesStatistiquesduTravail,I972,BIT,Gtneve

GRAPH.9GRAPHIQUE6

50-I

40-30-

20-10-

I % OF WOMEN AMONG ADMINISTRATIVE EXECUTIVE AND MANAGERIAL WORKERS,

BYSUB—REGIONS,1960-1970

PROPORTIONS DES FEMMES DANS LES POSTES D'ADMINISTRATION, DE DIRECTION

ETDEGESTION,PARSOUS—REGIONS1960—1970

NORTHNORD

44 13

10.5 WESTOUEST

26.5

I I

SOURCES

6.8

.07 YtarBookofLabourStatistics,1972,ILO,G«n«vaAnnuairtdssStatittiquM4uTravail,1972,BIT,Gsniv*

? s

•i

m35—•*s**E

BOTSWAh MAURITIl ZAMBIA,1

GHANA,1!

LIBERIA, MALI,19 NIGERIA, SIERRA 1

COUNTRIES,BYSUB-REGIONPAYSPARSOUS-REGION

r\

page 30

41* The question of women's employment gains seriousness from the per

spective of women's family responsibilities. While data are incomplete,

the numbers of female-headed households in both rural and urban areas, and the etepped-up migration of young women to towns, suggest that the need for women to have incomes to support themselves and their children will increase. =* In Kenya, more than one-third of rural households are headed tsy women? in Ethiopia, women outnumber men in the towns,

42. Women in the towns have special difficulties finding employment - particularly if they are illiterate or have a low education standard, as

is the case with most. It has been said that even the market women of

West Africa "are in danger of being squeezed out by big commercial under- takings-=*' and yet "there are no noticeable new openings for women1 s

employmentn,** For many women - whether married or not and whether

husbands are present or not - life in the towns means a struggle to get an income; and the only avenues often opened to them are brewing, baking, hawking or prostitution or the acceptance of unskilled employment at low wages and sometimes poor working conditions with little job security, 43. As desoribed in Part I of this paper, it is in the sector of what is

called informal employment (self - or family employment), that women are

most heavily engaged - on farms, in markets, cottage industries, brewing or baking. This sector, although contributing significantly to the

economy, is often overlooked by Governments who tend as yet to give greater encouragement and priority to formal and large-scale industries*

44. In summary, while inclusion of women as members of the active labour foroe is improving, there remains the need in many countries for data to

reflect the i-ealities of women's traditional employment. In the modern

sectors, where women's employment indicates the degree of their integration

in development, women are not well represented, despite their family res

ponsibilities. Only among the educated are there good proportions of

l/ Yearbook of Labour Statistics, ILO, Geneva, l$6l and 1972$ EGA

Country Reports.

2/ Rabat Conference, 1971) op* cit.

3/ TWCA West Africa Regional Conference, 1970. This is a general problem

for all small-scale commercial enterprises. A programme of training,

financial encouragement, incentives and development is required to

promote entrepreneurship among women that will enable them to move into

higher level commercial areas hitherto unavailable to them.

1^3-=-

page 31

women workers. But when it comes to decision-making,* .entflii^thesje women lag far behind men. As increasing numbers-of men seek jobs, the

outlook for women may be even less optimistic than at present, since employers, including Governments, appear to prefer men.

45, Persons who are self-employed are not always fully accounted for in labour force data, and since many- women find incomes outside wage employment, their activity is hot properly recorded. Nevertheless, the indications are that, whereas women had very clear eoonomio roles in traditional Africa, they play only a relatively small part in the modern wage employment sectors.

46. The wage employment situation of women, in countries where data are

available and comparable, may be pictured according to units of par ticipation as follows!

Area of Access

Agriculture, forests, hunting, fishing

Marketing Manufacturing

Professional/technical

Administrative, exeoutive, and managerial

Unit of Participation (median)

0.12 0.09

0* 28

0,21

0»06

[■'

page 32

2. bcpcjpioj flpn>.

47. Education - formal and non-formal,., and -including .extension services! -

is a means of opening minds to the possibilities and practical methods of

development and preparing them to make a contribution 4o it. According to the International Development Strategy, educational and training programmes should be designed "to,, inorease productivity substantially in the short run

and to reduoe work".1^ The importance of women's productivity - particularly

in the rural areas where 80 -90^ of them live and produce, process and prepare

most of Africa's domestic food, has been discussed already in this paper. The waste of time and energy was also implied in the descriptions of the hours of

work women put in. . :

48. Opportunities for education and training of girls and women have a

strong influence on development of the traditional areas. But they also

influenoe the growth and formation of the coming generation, since women have

the major and often exclusive responsibility for early child-rearing. Finally, the need to mobilize all human resources for development dictates that half of

the continent's people should not be left behind,

(a) Formal Education

49. Women constitute the majority of illiterates in the Region, with the

exception of Lesotho.-^ .They form the majority of pupils in literacy classes in most countries.

50. In 1965, an average of 379> of primary sohool students in countries with

available data, were girls. By 1969, this average had risen to 38ft (Graph H).

Inoreases in secondary sohool enrolments oame slightly more rapidly, from 27$<

in Z965 to 29% in 1969 (Graph I). The differences between primary and

secondary enrolments show a elear tendency for girls to drop out of school at

a higher rate than boys* By the time post-secondary, third-level education is

reached, percentages of women drop to X% in 19^5> "teen rise 'fc0 23% in 1969 (Graph*-).

l/ International Development Strategy, op.cit,

2/ See ECA Country Reports.

%OFGIRLSAMONGPRIMARYSCHOOLSTUDENTS %FILLESINSCRITESALENSEIGNEMENTDUPREMIERDEGRE I97E CflAPHH GRAPNtOUEH 80- 70- 60- 50- 40- 30- 20-

UNESCOSTATISTKAt. YEARBOOK UNESCOANNUAIRE snnsnouc NORTH NORO 3939

EAST ESTCENTRAL CENTREWEST QUEST 8.£ Ii

%OFGIRLSINSECONDARYSCHOOLS GRAPHI GRAPHIOUEI 100- 90- 80 70- 60- 50- 40- 30

1989 1969 Nil NORTH NORD

'

%FILLESINSCRITESAL*ENSEIGNEMENTGENERALDUSECONDDEGRE EAST EST

CENTRAL CENTRE

1972UNESCO STATISTICALYEARBOOK 1972UNESCOANNUAIRE STATISTIQUE WEST OUEST

1 II

23

1

£»

OS 5 sc

K ' t^Wtf*-

'"V

UJ

S

o

^^

e>

UJQ

UJ Uj to Ui

UJ UI-1

z UJQ -1i

oat

LU

u.o 3Q

UJW

UI

<

UJ

u h-u

TATI

^*

SCO

u<

3

N A

Uift

,»

3Z

SCO

UJ z 3

risTi

^i-10

n a*tO <D _ 01 0> 2

CO UJ UJ 3* O

-1< UJ

n

UJ UJ

<_> u

< CO UJ UJ

Wl

o oz z

X Xa. a.

< <

I 1

8 5

TOGO

SENEGAL *

MALI

LIBERIA COTE DHVOIRE GHANA DAHOMEY

RWANOA GABON

CONGO R

BURUNDI

MALAWI

MADAGASCAR

LESOTHO

ETHIOPIA

EGYPT SUDAN

MAROC

LIBYA AL6ERIE

51. The division of rural labour described earlier in this paper accounts in large part for the failure of girls to continue their eduoction, or in fact, in many oases, to "be enrolled at all. Young girls must help their mothers at home and on the farm; they oarry water in smaller pots behind their mothers.

Boys are often eioused from home tasks when they are studying, and they thus have the chance to do homework after school. Girls may be removed from school

"because of pregnancy or for early marriages. When family financ es for school

fees are sparse, boys receive preference. This partly traditional and partly

new cultural pattern persists despite studies which show that the performance of children in school correlates positively with the education of the mother, but "bears little or no relationship to the education of the father.-' Thus the woman's education has a direct effect on the next generation, as well as on present agricultural production and distribution of goods.

52. On the level of formal vocational eduoation at second level, the median

percentage of ^irls m& women is 22$ for 1965? and 22.!% f°r 1969 (Graph 3c).

Moreover, these data mask the reality that "vocational education" for girls and women is most often concentrated on sewing and cookery, which seldom lead to gainful employment, and relate to only a small part of women's work and, consequently, their needs.

53« Women make a better showing in second level teacher-training

institutions? percentages of girls averaged 30^> as median in 19^5 and 32J& in 1969 (Graph L). At third level teacher-training institutions girls did not fare well (Graph H). In 1965, of 23 countries with data available, 11 en rolled no women at all in these higher (third)level teacher training colleges.

Four years later, 10 countries still had no female students at this level.

By significant eioeption, in Madagascar, 80% of students were women, while in

Sierra Leone, Egypt and Zambia, the proportions were 44/^j A^% and 34> respectively.

l/ UHSCA: The Changing and Contemporary Role of Women in African Development,

op.oit.