KINGSHIP AND THECHARACTERIN ACONTEMPORARYBfOWllL.E
by
CIKen Eckert
Athesissubmittedtothe Schoolof Graduale Studies
inpartial fulfilmenlof the requirementsforthedegreeof
MasterofArts
Departmentof EnglishLanguageandLiterature MemorialUniversityof NewfoundJand
May 2001
SI.John's Se...;foundland
Introduction
rmeandthcHeroin~from.
8akhl:inianPerspectM:
Conclusions Bibliography
18 44
61 89 91
AckDowledgemcats
Iwouldliketothankmyadvisor.Dr.WlIliamSchipper .'"hiskindassistaruin aU thingsover thelastthreeyears.Inaddition.acknowledgement mustgo10theEnglish dtpartmentatMUNfortheirsuppon. Lasely.Iwouldliketo thank Metrnrial'sHarbw c:aqJUSIt\IsItc$brtheir awardin1991 ofaBo~·Hariow3Cho1arsftip.which permittedme to conductdirect researchinEngland ofall mattersBcowulfian.
forCarolineEckert.1903·1998
Whonever1eamcdtoclick . computer mouse,butcould recitetometheChaucershelearnedduring WorldWarI.
M"l'SGodhirar/Zste• MayGodresther
latroduc:tioD
~occupiesaunique posa ionin Englishliterat ure,notonlybecausesolittle isknownofitsproveoat'lte,butalsobecause itisapoemwithnodocumentedaudimce unlilweDafterthe:renaissarx:e.WhereasChaucer'sworkshave beencopiedand enjoyed sincetheirwriting,thereisDOevidm;elhat~didIOO~thanlieforgottenona roonasterysbeU'for somelivebw.hedyears.FromRichardHarvey'sopiniononAnglo- Saxon manuscriptsin1597,'1..dthcm lye:indeadforgetfulnesselike stones..ltoQuiller- Coue:h'sstatementatCambridge that Chaucer"inherilednothing fromCaedmonand Cynewulf butonlyfromitalyandPro'm'ICC,..J:poemssuchas~ha,-ebadgreat difficuttybeingeceepeedasWOI1hwtWe piecesof literature.ThelackofavnUiabie historical audience for~hasgiventhepoemthe:criticalreputationof being irretrievablyalienand distant toa modemreader.Earl seesthe:pocntasbeing forever-e distant suanger..,.JIn1936, some twentyyean after Quiller-Couch, Toll.ienarguedfor
~smeritasaworkoflitenn utC wo rth stud)lnginitself.Hislecturetothl:Brilish Academy isseenasalurningpointin~criticism.Yet Tolkienalsotreatedthe poemas somethingantiquarianandinIentionallydistantinspirit.focusingnotontlv:
tMunancharectees,but onthemonsters.
IQuoIedillJohnD.Nilcs,-Bco\l.ulf,Truth. andMeaning."A BeowulfHandbooLcds.Robcr1E.
BjorIl.and John D.Ni1es(ru.er;VnivenilyofuderPress.1991) 1.
!Clinton AIberboA."Anglo-SaxonLileralUrC and WCSlCm Culture,":I:b!!!&!:!IJ3(1951) 94.
Jlamesw.Ear\. ThinQC About Beowulf(Stanfor4-Slanfotd UnivcniryPress.1994)11.
Part oftbis feelingofstrangenesscomes &omthe disappearanceofthecultural trappings of thepoem:themeadhall.the poetryof the harp,theglory ofbattle,anithe warriorwiIosweanlifelongfealty10hisbelovedlord.MitcheDandRobinson"intheir O&dEnglishprimer,discusstherojeof thcloyaltybetweenmananilordinthe'Nritings oftheperiod,notingthat"thetime was notfar distant when the interest ofwriten switchedfromthe'heroic:' love ofman tormallto the 'romamic' Io....eof manfor woman. ....C.S.Lewiswenteven further,agaDill1936,statingoutrighIthat"EveryODe hasheard of coun ly love,ani everyoneknows(halitappearsquitesuddenlyattheend of the eleventh centuryinLanguedoc.'"In comparison to this sea-changeinliterature. therenaissancewas"amere ripple'"inLewis'view.
Butsuchbroadshitbinpoeticthemesseldomhappensuddenlyandirreva'sJ'bIy.
Thetaste forbatt leanda gloriousdeath did not disappear frommedievalliterature;the martiaJ~enjoyed widepopularity,andMaJorywroteof aknighthoodcode which...asstemandhanh.'ThehusbandhimsclfofChrCticndeTroycs'patron,Marie ofChampagne,sponsoredtheVengeanceAkxandrewhere"'loyaltytoODe'Slordandthe smashingof heads are themainconcerns,...ChaucerhashisKnight,butalsohisMiller, an"antidote tocourtly Iove:09ByShakespearean times,chivalry,already destroyedby thccrossbow andthengunpowder.isadistanlenoughm:tOOtysothatfalstaff can
• 8nIoc:MitchellandfredC.Robinson. A Guide to Old English (New York;8ImlBlackwell 11IC.,1916) 1J7.
'C.S. lewis. TheAr!egorypf Loye (OIlJord;OllJord Uni\icniry Press.1986)2.
'~is,~ 4
'TerenceMcCarthy,"BcowurrsBairns:Malory" Sternei' Knights".InLeo Carru thers,~ andHeroinesin Medieval English Litenrurt (Cambridgc:D.S.Brevoer,1994) 153.
ILany D.Benson.Contradictions:From8eco.l.urf to CNucer(Broolfldd. VT:AshPlt Publishing,1995 )291.
'W.T.H.Jac kson.MedNILftrnrurc(New York:CoIlicr8ool.s.1961)205.
thegro",thofinlerestIncoatsohnns.,thenumberofkniglcsil'l reallifebadbeen declininssince1250.10
This trilkal tendency toanempl tofindbroad thangcsinliterarystyles.andto markthemtospecifictime periods. resultsin. secondobstadeinundentand~
~Thecharactersliveinafictionalworldcriticallyclaimedtobemilitaryand heroicratherthanromantic,cornibutingtothesenseof strangenessand distanceevoked byTolkien'semphasisonthe supr:maturalelemr:ntsofthcpoem.This separation heightens the impressionofdistancein~orwhatHeaneycallsthe"onceupona time..llfec:lingoftbestory.
Yet this bcroic-romanti:dicholomy isartlficial ratherthanhistoric:al;many Anglo-Saxon molifswhicharepresentedas beingessentiallydifferenl fromlater medtevalRomanceliteraturebnn.literarycorr.inuumrather than an abrupt changein values.Theoriginof counlylow: formsalivelydebate,withsome arguingfororiginsin thegrowingvenerationofthevirginMary,ls1amic tulttae,orevenclassicalSOurces..12 Vcgetiuswastheeccepeedearlyauthorilyonmartialchiv.llry.!JButUwishas no truck withpre-French sources, criticizingOdysseusforcoldlyloving Penelope "eshe lovesthe
..Peter Cess,Th!:KnighcinMcdiewalEngland1lXJG.1400(Dou~~r.NH:Abn SunonPublishing.
199)).
IIScamus Hc:ancy,8eovo1Jlf:A New Verse Translalion(NewYork:Farrar,SlrausandGiroult, 2000)ix.
I~DeborahWcbsl:erRogersandlvorA.Rogers.J.R.R.Tolkim(Boston:TWI)1'CPublishcn, 1910») 4.
IJLittleJohnof Saimi.,tnns.lrvineG~y (l...onr;kJn:GeorgeRoullcd ge andSons.19}1)6]-4.In bepIlR.Ruff,"Malory'sGarethFift~-«mIIYChivalry". LarryD.8cmalandJohn Leyerle,eds.'hr.-alneInera turt (Kalamazoo:TheBoardofthe Mcdievallnsti tule.1910) 102.
restof his home and possessions."I.YetOdysseusrefusesthe beautifulgoddessCatypso indeVOtklO10hiswife.and.aswithtbt"HusbaOO'sMessage",OdysseusandPenelope undergoa sortof lower'sgame involvingOdysseus"bedtoprovetheiridentitytoeach otber.
1kthemeofexilehas abobeencitedas adistinctAngJo-Saxontheme.with criticsargUtgthatexile'1Iasnoneortheromutic&W1Ithatalareragemightascribe10 it..•thesolitaryfigureisinvariablysuspect."uExilesinScandinavianliteratureare usuallyoutlaws.banishedfor'somekillings',asisGrenirand~·sGunnar.as weDasEriktheRedl,.Yet voluntaryexiles.pen griniproDIllOnDei.pilgrimsforthe loveofGod.werewell knowninearlyEngIand.17Onesuchpilgrimisdepictedin"1"hc Seafarer",who,whilerememberinghislostJugud,stillhasasonor -perversewluntaly addiction"tohislifeaI~.IThesea itselfhasbeendismissedasan obstacle,merely
andmystery, endingwiththedreamlike closurethat"menDCCUMOn/secgant6Sl.'kk.•.
bwi !'zmhlesteonfeng"·"mencould not saytrulyhow that cargowasreceived"(5~2).
Tbepoetsuggests amoodhereofaweand IIl)'SIcryin.stmiJarmanner10.1211-ccl'1 \U}' romanticpoet.
'· L.e-is. ~ 4
11Michacl1. Swanton,Crisisand[)e,.'('loornenlinGmnanicSociety700-100(ffilppingen:
KOmmerlc Ver lag.198 2)94.
I.
TheVinland Sagas.trans.Mal!trlusMagnusson andHermann Pilsson.(li.armofw;hworth:Penguin.1965)17.
l1EarlS9.
"EarI, S6.
ItJillMann,"'Sir Gawa'"andtheRomanceHero".HeroesandHeroines, 107.
beenOlfttCStmated.and usuaIJytheformerisclaimedtosufferin~But literaryworldviewswere notartificialconstructs. subjectto changebypoliticaledicts;
thevaluesemphasizedslowlychanged.just asthesocietiestheyminoredslowly changed.T01lUmdepictstheworldof ~asonea.Ireadyfossilizedand ancieri:
"timir:waswrittendown.aslboughitwere a"'onceupon atime"storyneninan Angb-SaxonmeadhalLYetthis \'iewrailstotakenoteofthemodemandOuiddemenu ofthepoem,
am
ignoresthe01Mous:theopirUonthattheworldof .lkmm!i is strange to modemears wouldnot have madeitstrange tocontemporaryears.Apopularfifth-centwy Latinlove storyborrowed fromGrcc~.~
:rm.
wasextar(,at~infragmentaryform.inadEnglishsom:tlmearoundthe conquest;itmayserve asanexampleofhowmodemsenr.imroumay cloud.contemporaryperceptionsofdistance.
D!namApollonius~gewrit ond rede.Ond,sanasw4 heoogearj)a:thegelufodwes&amMmmedere, hisandwlitaea1iriodode.m se cyngIn=tgeseah,
~namhi!AplUonieshand.ondtuneh~n&am}limcnihtumgewerde.
ondcwz6:'W"ast~p.,nefortidenanman?'ApoUoniusc....m:
°DUgOdacyning.gif~in willa~.ictUnewiI.·
m
geseahseC)TIgI:'ztApoDoniusmidrosan
rudewzscalofnbrzded. ~ongeathel>oneC'o\')'de.ond»usc,,-.:6 t4him:
'Bussa,blissa.ApoDoni.for6imPc:mindohaor&C"'~~
lkminwiIlai:s,.·
(ThenApoUonius looktheletterandread.And,assoonasheunderstoodthat hewaslovedby themaiden.hisfacered~ned.When tbe kingsawthis,he took ApoUonius' hand,andled himaway from the knighl5andsaid: 'Were youtheshipwrecked man?'ApllJonius said,'Goodking,if itisyourwill, Iknowhim.'Thenthekingsaw that ApolJoniuswasoverspread withthe
) IJadson.SI.
rednessof.rose.Thenhetmdemoodhiswords,andsaidIhus 10him:
·Rejoice.rqoice,ApoUonius.forIhaJ:whichmydaughterwills.so my
willis:1•
Two impressionsmay begamcttdfromthisSlory.F"nt.as maudlinasthe ApolJoniusIaIeis,there arealreadytheeccourreeeeeoflatermedievalromance;the deganceofmedicval courtlinessand politeness,andtheeasilyembarrassedherowho cannotopenlyproclaimhislovefOrhislady,areaDpresenIhere;clearly, suchthemes werenotalientotheAnglo-Saxom.
Second,tbesenseofcontcmporaneityshouJdbe recognized.TheApolJonius S10ryhas beensubtlyupdatedinitsttanslation&urnthe Greeklegend, aid theincestand brothelsoftbeGreekoriginal ha...-e beentidilycxpunged;thereare nowknightsand maidens.andallthegentilitysuch terms imply.AlthoughtbenintlKmtwyrncartin8of cnihldoesnolyetimplyarmoraidheraldry,thereisan intmion of rcle\1ll'a tothetime period.ltiseasylolOrgct thatthesecharactertypcsallexistcdwhentheSlorywastft'lg laidinEngland.andthat kings,princes.and shipwreckswere evidentinteallife.Anglo- Saxon narrators, sucb asthespeakerin"IbeSeafarer'"tendto speaklonginglyofthe past;)'diIsOOuldnot:bea.ssum:d that suchworks arenecessarily setintbepast.An Anglo·Sax;onaudiencemighthave identifiedwith themysteryandsenseoflossthaithe speakerin"TbeRuin"feelsasbeSC'CStbe worksofgiants,probablyabandoned Roman walls,long"gcbrocmto beorgum"-brokenmorubble· heaps; someintheaudience ...,.oukthave seenRoman stone withtheirown eyes,
Asthesettingsoflater medievalromancesbecameincreasinglyanachronistic10 theirreadership.thestoriesremaiDed consciouslysetinthepastor lookingbecktoi.
imdly,loa sentimenlallosr. age of Anhuror Cbariemagne.u CbritiendtTroyes writes froma timeeven thengonein~:"Thosewhointhepastobeyedthedictatesoflove
\1fCf'Cac:counledwliant,ienerousandworthy,butnow loveis turr'ICdinto •trifling thiIIg...JJIn oneOf CaxtO D'SearlyprimedboobiDEnglish.bedecriesthelack ofrrodcm men like RichardandHenryV,anigmltyasks."0 ye knyghtesofEnglond.wbereisthe CUSlOmeandusage ofnoblechivalrythatwasusedinthoda)'S~4Thisisa workfrom 1483alreadyiammtingchivalry
lIS .
monbundinstitution.In agunpo wderage.,lhe supposed innocenceof chivalrouslifegained.stntimerulanliquation;butthiswould not havebeenthecase fortheaudienceofa storyaboutjoustingwhichhadlivedinthe ageof joUSlS.Therealityisthatrru:bofmedaevalliteraturewas written tobeconleJlllORI)'to itsaudience.forthewritingof literaturehadpoliticalconsequences.lewisviewed aduhery as anessentialaspectof chivalry.inwhich"'\hepoetIlOnnaUyaddrnsesanother man'swife...nYet:this poeticmode was criticizedandbecamemutedinlalerromancn astheirbehavioralcodeincreasingly"becamea guidetoconduct....16Bensongoes
l2JohnI...cycric,"The Map ThemesofONalric:LiteratuRM.l...arTyD.BensonandJoMlq:erie, cds.Chivalriclitmlurt(Kalamazoo:The Boardor the Mcdiev.llnstitule,1980) IlS.
DChrdiende Tr0)'e5.fu.!!:!II1121lf,qOOl:NinDeborahWebsterRogenand(\' OfA.Rogers.
I.R.R.Tolkicn(Boscon:TW&yncPublishers.1980)129.
J'William Caxton.-Exhor1a l ion 10theKnighasofEngland'"(1413).Ch ivalric:Litmture.. ..iii
~lcwis. ~l.
•I....orenaWaucnnan,-HonorandShamein
s..
GaMin ardtheGra:nKnight",in~~90.
II
furtb:r.arguingthat.tndnion ofcourtlyadulterynevercxisted.%7Bothopinionspointto 01contemporaryconcern thatreadcnmightidentifytoocloselywithlhestorieslkeyread;
Englishromanceshadalwaysbeenwnerthanthose&omFranceinterms ofmora1ity(in Mabry,aduhery ultimatelydestroysArthurianci\iJiu,tion.11)Again.themodem viewpointistoascribea greaterdistanccbetweeetbeperceivedtimeframeofmedieval.
literatureanditsaudiencelbanaetuallyexisled:themotMl a.,nsandactions oCtile characters couldbehighlyCWTent.~also does not mourn alostwayofIDe;it gloriesinitsever-presenceandC;urmlC)'.howeverprecariousitmaybeatthe poan's end.Itsmoralityisprescriptiveandmeant forthepreseru;the narrator saysswdsceal -:
AstopossiblecontCIDpOrarycriticismoffk!.m:ylfsmorality.nothingisknown,
layswere no morethan the"croakingof harsb-voicedbirds.K29~itselfisstudied withanintensityits"originalpoetandscribemightfind~.Themanuscriptdsclfis plainandlacksornateillumination.and
me
scribebeginstorooItiplyhisuseof abbreviaf'lOnsintheIas1leavninorder tojaminthetextwithoutusingadditio nal parchrrers."Other thansomenebulousandcontentious echoesin~thepoem cannolbeproven10havebeenpopularorweD-readatanytime. Kiernan positsthatthe wornconditionoCthelastmanuscriplleaf impliesthatitservedas the book's outside!7Benson, 296.
ltJackscn. 1I7.
111R.W .Ch.1mbm. Widsith (l9 36;Rcpr.New York:Russell&Russcll l96S) 2.
•JohnD.Niles,"Beowulf.Truth and Meaning-,A BcowulfH.ndbool. 2
JIKcvinKicman,Bcov.\IlfandtheBco!u lfMarMCripI (l 91 1:kepi'.Ann Attlor: UnMniryof MidripnPrm..19(6 ) 149.
cover.nThebfurmtmontheIo..ucdge ofthcleafrnighlsuggest that the bookwas handkdbymanyreaders;itmayalsomerely indicatethatone individualheld dwithvery
TheOntyrea!factwhichsu.ggeststhepoem'spopulariryisthatsomeonebothered
\\1Utclocknotes,uereare no recordsof Anglo-Saxon clericscomposing secular poems forthemselves!Jinatime before solitat)'readingwascommon,poems wereintended to bebrardbyaudirncnandperhapsacco~byaharp.as evensermonsoftenwere.
Someearlymissionariessangsecularsoag5toatU3CIcrowds..BothAldhelmandAlcuin.
despUchisone-time"\lJbacbasIngcldto dowithChrist?"outburst.knew and respected non.etuistianstories.~and Bede washimselfskilledinnativeminstrelsy.J5
Modernauitude$havebeen nokinderthan AIcuin'srtmark.Nilesrightly points outthat:manyacaderrUcswouldbe"ernbanassed10be asignoranr.oflheclassical antecedents ofth:ircivilizationastheyare or its natMEnglishroots.,.)6Despitethefact thatAnglo-Saxonpoetrywashighlysophisticaled(Brodeurclaimsitwas soinfleXIbleas tobealready onits waytodecadence)7), themythof Romanmissionaries encounteringa mindlesspeople dinhard.asweDasthe anitudcthat..Latincuhw-eistheonly culture...lI TheGcnnanicv.orldwasrich ""Mits ownimages.symbols.,andmusic.Cynewulf;"'00 UKiemaR, '''9.
] IDorothyWhitdock.TheAudit:nceo[aco...-u1fCOllford:ClarendonPress,1951)19.
}OW.F.Bohon,Alcuin&nd~ulf(N_Jerscy:RUlgcnUnivmityPrns.1918) 4.
l'
W.L.RenwickandH.Onon,TheDgcinningsof English Literature(london:CresserPress.1939)Pt.I ,2"'cd..19S2.27.
:IllJohnD.Niles. ~(philadelphia:Univcrsity ofPCI'Il'l$yl....niaPres s..1999 )5.
IIArtIJur GilchristBrodcut,The Artof 0c0wu1((8cridcy:Uni1ocnily of CalifomLaPress,1969) I.
•Renwid.andOrton,27.
was~1kducaled.sciD composedoraIly.J·~itselfhadtobercscuNfrombeing LatinizedwhenTolkienremoved'The'from itstide.4/)Earlyacademicsmislabe5ed the poem as an account ofDanish\Wt'S.and itsverysunivaJmaystem from. renaissance theologian'ssearchtorpoliicalmaterial;prmouskingshadaftady usedeccouras of ArtIu'tobolsterthe..own genealogiuJ claims;PolydorcVcrgiI's~ (1534)wasmetwith .... stormo(obloquy"""whenhequestionedGcoffieyof Monmouth'sinflatedhistoriesof Arthur.whichTudor kingshadlongused as an official nationaJpastlOrpropagandapurposes..
liIeruy~criticismhadanequallydimstan.Victorianacademics an empeedton::claimthepoemas a Ioslprimal.nationalepicfOfthea-ownrespective countries.In 1897 Blackburncalled~"essentia.lly .heathenpoem"'2.Strong wentlinlcfurtherin1921incallingthepoem 001of"purelyliteraryinterest..••0
Problemsininterpretationwereexplainedawaybysimplyclaimingthacthepodor copyistswereiDco~~or at best,magnifyingasIighlGennarUc layor series oflays into epic: form.MasifMihonhadrecountedthestoryof JackandtheBeanstalkinnoble verse... TennysonandLongfclbw bothtranslateda fewlinee,but thepoemhasuntil recentlyinspired littlecreativeoutputincomparison10ChauccrianandShakespearean
JtBrodeur.J.
..SethLcrcr.~~IfandCorllemporaryCritical Theory". AEkowulrH andbook,329.
'. J.D.Mackie,TheEarlier Tudors\485·1 558(O!\Jord:ClarendonPress.1952) 27.Craig R.
Davis.,Bcoyoulfa ndthe;QemiscorGqmani£Jsm HNewYork:Garland Publishing. 1996)3.
.!InC.TIdmanhMajor, "AChristian W)Td:SyncretisminBeowulf'".EnglishLanguage NO(cs 32:3.Matdll995.I.
nJ.R.R.folIUm.Beowulf:·The Mon5Im and the(ritic5(NorvooodEditions,197 6)(1936)3.
MT~ien.l0.
Jl
mnc:diedlhisneglect.asthepoemseemsto haveinspireda wealthofquasi-adaptations;
therehasbeen a~rockopen..stringofc:omicbooks.a 1977parodyentitled
~.,andevenalinux coftl'Ulingprotocolnamed'"Beowutr.Moreserious litnat)'outputincludesMichaelCrichton'sEatm GrlbeIJC'3d.\libich incorporales echoesof the poem'splot elnnents,aswellasSeamusHeaney's1999poetictranslation, drylydubbed'Hoaneywulfby.",dc mh
literaturewithitsol' nset ar rules.complainingofHrothgar'sanaclronislicChristianity whilefreely acceptingthaiShakespeare's charactershave Elizabethan mannersinancient Grttk sdtWtgs.Acadernicshavetendedeithertotmder·anaIyzethe poem.criticizingit fornotbeing"somethingthatthescholarwouldhave likedbetter...suchas a heroiclay OThistoryof Scandinavia,or10over-analyzelhcpoem.Suchisthecasewiththe
"blirlheon"·blithe·hearted (180 1)ravenwho awakensBeowulfafterhiscteamingof Hec rc t, Critics..unableto see beforePoe,have variouslyfoundtheraven 10be. sun- deityand a symboloC.,heC'Vttprt'SefUdeathi\life:'" Thisignorntheun-pcdanticfact thathorne ravens stillinhabitIcelandic farms,wheretheyarc"' houghtof ascanyingthe luckofttle house....•AsimilarelWTtPle oftrusacademictendencyisfoWldincriticism
of Cha ucer's"Miller'sT. ...\lrkftthe rock ",ithwhich AlisonthreatensAbsalomwas
turnedinto a complexbiblicalalkgory.ThelheoryenduredWIlDa cortmentalorv.ho
'1Marijane Osbom ."Translations,Ven ions.lIlustnl ions" .A Boowulf llan4book.354.
"ToIkic:n,4.
"Marijanc Osbom,~Domesl:icalins the lla}TQ\'E'"in ~ 1 80 1(WilhSomeAnmlion 10
Alison'sStOll)w.inHelenDamicoand JohnL.eya-Ie.oi HeroicPoetryintheAngio-SnonPeriod (Kalanuno:Mcdiew.IIRSliMePublicalions,1993)316.
.. MMijaneOsbom,~324,321.
"
happenedtoberaisedinanW1heatedWmhouseexplainedthateven-reeksan:oftenused 10keep ruralbedswarmat nighl.49AsLewisdl)'lynoted,Manamazingknowledgeof Chauc:erianorShakespearianaiticismSOtmUnesco-existsweba~inadequate knowledge of Chaucer01Shakespeare..,jO
Itis00safer10ignoreaUliteraryimagn.<mndel',eyesarc describedastwo dots oflireinthebIac~"himofblgwn~6dlligge gclico51~hlunfiqer"'.'"from IUsC)'e$gleamedftameslike anuglylight..(n 6-7).SinceHonaicfimes.darbJCS:s has been symbolicofevil.'INeverthe~inunderstanding~iisessential10 remembertherealandeveryday nature ofnwnerous imagesandobjectswhichare now, centuries later.onlyintellechw concepts;"WecansliDsay'swiftasan arrow',butonly mcmbenof certainclubsknow justhowlMoiftthatis...1JTheAnglo-Saxonknewwhal:
arrows andswordslookedandfelt like:fromdailylife.Bede's storyofhea thC'ns comparingman's life to asparrowwhichfliesthroughthehalland backintothedarkhas a metaphorical meaning.but ","'Ouldalsohavebeen familiartopeoplewho hadseen sparrowsdo exactlythis.
Theconcretenessor lhl:SCory may have historicalgrounds.Academicsare not convincedthai~derives from layssuch as Greuir' ,Saga.andthe argumentthat thepoemderivesfrom aScandinavianoriginalisnow metwith "'aconsensusofminh."') Whatismoreacecpl.edisthattherewasarealHl gdac (orat~aChIochi1aic:hllS),
recordedbyGtegoryofTounin575 as
bema
killedbyFrisiansduringacoasuJraid.:I<e legend takesagooddealoftimr:to grow,andthecriticalassumptionrerds tobelhallhe poet.lilc;eVirgil,aLso"casthistimedOtheIons-ago.becausea1readytheIoni-agobada specialpoeticalattraction.oJ,
Butmepoemisabout..~windagum".'"thesedaysof strife"(1062).and001about a lostpast.Agreatdealofcnergyhasbetn expendedon attacking ordefendingBeowulffornolactingas•kingshould orwouldhave.Nritber p:nitiooisaccurate.,forthestorywassetina historicaJEnglishprnentwbeee theroleof•C}"fitlgwas001fixed.Ifthen'isambiguityinthepoem,itwasinl:enaional;thepoet
wroteabouthisowntime period and theinstabilityhesawin it.
Tbeeewas noclearbreakfromthe literaryvaluesoCtileAnglo-Saxonsandthose ofthcmedievalromantics.New poeticstyksdo not creerethemsetves;asEuropean culturalinstitutionsevolved, literatureevalved10mirrorthern.~alsoreOectsits limeperiod.andthe senseofcontempor.uy'realness'foundinthepoem indicatesa conclusion:Beowulfwas notantiquariantoitsownaudience.butratherreOectN(be vaJuesandinstitutionsofAngb- Saxon England.Ahhoughmodem5OC:tetyhasinmany waY'outgrown the Romance ofth!;Roseandthe melancholyprince dyinginhis lovesickness.J6theliteral earthinessof ttle OldEnglish language. withtherealismofthe dragon"sniffingalongthestore'..~17..'"!lone M.zfterslane"(2288).makesit cotdmtpOl'al)'again.InHeaney'swords.,"illivesinits ewe continuousprc-senl.""
SoOWhitelock.,40.
IIToIkim, 20.
~Lewis..M!m!:x.I.
:1..-is. ~ 57.
Hcancy,a:,
11
Disputesoverthe poem'Sage havebeentheAJsace..Lorraine oflk2mM scholarship.withdetailedargurnmts placingits",Tilinganywherebctwftn theseventh
«ntury(GirYan)andtheelevemh(Kiernan).thedale ofthe~itself:Butitts safetosaythatthepoeminiLspnesc:nIfonnwasprobably\\on nen do"'natsome time duringthetwocenturies between700and900 withoutcloudingtbcissue:oCtilepoem's tonlcmporality,rmstof the poem'sdetailsofsetling and characterwouldhavebeen n:cognizaNethrougb ndanyof tlaetimesinAnglo-SaxonEngland.Itsaudiencewould haveknownwhatkingsandbaIlslookedlike fromexperience.andmayevenha-..eheard thepoeminthesametypeofhall.making~astorythatremainsrootedinand rdevanl toilspr-eseu:.
Thisconcernis•conceplwhichrequmbothexpansion.Therearethreekey aspectstothe kIcaoft imc referenceinthepoemwhichdeservediscreteexaminadon. II isfirstnecessarytoeJWnincBeowulf'sfunction asprinceand kingintermsofthe changingconcept ofkingshipinAnglo-Saxon Englandinordertodct:enninebow credibleBcowulfwasukingandcharacter tothepoem's audieru.Sccond.thejdeaof Beowulfasa real chataeterisimportant;hemustbeacceptableas arealisticandethically justifiedcharacterinorder10function asa belevablero lemodelforthepoem'shearers.
Ust.thequestionoftimc referencemustbeformallydiscussedinlennsofhow indicatorsoflimepositionandsequence arehandledbythepoet.Ausefulthesison both time andtheheromaybefoundinBakhlin'swrilings,which can provideinsight intothe questionofwhere~issetintime foritspossibleaudience.
Thewordpossibleisimportant.Allofthesc propositionsare predicatedona likelybutlqIfOvcd,andCOreowunprowbk,assumption:that
me
poemhadanaudim:c.Itismoreimportanttokeep~rr:sclf inmind.andto considerwhattheftmiomof thepoemandpodmayhave beenrather thanwbetberthey were acco mplished.Thetext
or~'. machinemadeofwords' uWd1iamCarlosWilliamswould say.5fsays
byclassicaJmodels.For eumple. as Robert Bjork notes, ourideasofproper plot sequencereflectan Aristotelianbiasratherthansimplescquentiallogic;1lOthemany digressions.wiUchcan makeusfeelthatwe are being"chamel-surfed into another poem...may001havedistressedanAnglo-Saxonaudience.Thequestion oflimc referenceherecalls for aformalistmcthodoktgy,inananempt toseewhat thetextitself
$3)'5'olIithouttheoveNlnalysis"'iUchhasplaguedAnslo-Saxoncriticism. M MitcheD andRobinsonagainpolitelyCOmrne1'l.,inrejereece to"IbeWtk 'sLament..,"'theonly available curb10ever more ingeniousspeculations"iscommonsense.6JW"ttoout anemptingto seeifthercarcrealisticp601 rtaSOMforcharactersto actastheydo.onehas thelevelof dialoguemlployedbyBlackburn,whoarguedthatthe~lext¥oOWd meansomethingelseif itwasreplacedwithdifferent words.6J
,.MarcHudson,~(Cranbury.Nl:AssociattdUnivers ity Press, 1990)25.
IIIRobert E.Bjork. "Oigressionsand Episodes".A BeowulfHandbook.200.
61Hc:ancy.l iii.
tlMitdJdJandRobinson.249,
~FABlackburn,MTheCllrntianCOOrin&inTht~LewisE.Nicholson,ed..A!!
Anrho!ogyolBcowulfCrititism (NotreDame,IN:Uniwnity ofNl,'Itr'cDunePrfts.196] ) I].
19
Cbaplt'r2 Kl.apbip••d~
~ts.firstandfomnost••royalist'spoem,depictingapurelyaristocmac world.1Theconcernsart'those ofone class ofwarriors;thefocus ofaetiondthe king's meadhall:"wenever secpeasanlSengagedingrowingtheir foodorbrewingtheir ale•...J Beo\lrlJIf ent crslhcsto ryas aprinceanddies.king;indecd.lbereartover thirtydifkrcnt wordsfor'king'inthetext! Despitethepersistentvio~nceof Beowulfs world which appealed to earlyredlscoverersorlhe poem charmedby''wild and natural"Anglo-Saxon poetry'.thereare elaboratehaUritualsand alengthyroyal protocolfor actionssuchas approachingHrothgar'sgifSfol.Thewanion seem10ktlctheirIivnaway fQSting.
drinking, and quarreling;yettheevenings end withthecompanyrisinginunison(651).
IDik~MtbgartheHorrible"canoon.King Features Syndicale,24 May 1986.
1GeorgeClark.~(Boslon:TwayncPublishm.1990)ix.
JEdward B.Irving.Jr.lntroduetion10 8«Mu 1f.(EngbuodCliffs.,NJ:Prenlice-fJll l.lnc.•
1969). 20.
•fkw.-ell D.Chickcring.Jr.8cr.J".ulf(ToronIO:AnchorBoob.1977)S.
,John D.Nilcs,"~Ir.Truth,and Meaning".RobertE.BjorkandJohnO.Niles,cd~ Peow!Jlf Uandbook (beter.Uni\.~CyofExel CfPress.1997)l.
Even thedispensingofmead. undertaken byql.l«nWedhtowVl-.tJHcorol's""5elefur·
"'balkup"(619),is.ccmmnialact..
Yel.as thecartoo n aboveindicates.,theseareallrolesinchrunologicaJnuxin.
AngIo·Saxon limes.TitlessuchISking,prince,orVihng maysuggeslsomctNng more specificandfonnalloamodemreaderthantheymighthave10.contemporaryaudtence.
Vikingslikelydidnotthinkoftheir activities8.'1dCTlOtingatraditionalprofession ortrade. faScandinaviacspccially,thetitleoflcingwas~freelybymanymaleadultsofa royalkin"';the etymologyofC)'PIingilselfismerely'sonofthekin' .Thedistinctions bet"'ftIIGermanic:andRomanfonns of go\'mVllefllwerebothwideandtroublesomefor doseinpositionsarpa werinAnglo-SawnEngland.TheGennanickingderivedhis authorityfromthe consentor hiswirmrandfromthe generalprinciplethatrealpower lay inthewillof theJoIc.incomparison tothe Christiancaesar,whoruledinprincipleby divineordainment.
For~theimplicationsare considerable,foritscompositionjesinthe centurieswhen Englishsocietywasmovingaway fromthef olcrihland towardsproto- feudalism.7Thepoemdoes notdepicta static.idealizedandearla ronnofgovemmert..
but portrays . societyintransUtQnbetv.rcntn"baJ andmonarchicalformsofrule.'Both Hrothgar and BeowulfareclWI'lples ofthesechanging'o'iewsoflingship.andinINsis thepoem'srelevancetoitshearers;thepoliticalimplicattcn1scf'tbetwocharacters'
6HenryLoyn, TheVikinUinBrilain(Cambridge,MA:Blackwell Publishers.1994)~. IMichael J.Swanton. Crisisand DevelopmmtinGermanicSociety7()(1..800 (GOppingcn:
KiirmM.TIeVerlag.1912)12.
ICraigR.Davis.,QcowulfandtheDm!iseofGenn.lnic J..qmd (NewYork:GarlandPublishing.
1996).i.
"
act ions"could hardlyhave beenWlSl onitscontemporaryaudience....Thepod'sSUCttU inpresmir!sthechangeingo~worldviewstoanalX1iencelikelymadeupof bothGermanicwarriorsand. clergytrainedbytheRoman.churchmightalsodomuchto explainthepoem's survival.wo modemlimes.AsS\loantondrylynotes. "less acconmdatingpoets,like uncoR1"Omisinskings.mayhawfoundtheir business broughttoarapklCOnclUSk:ll1...II)
Aswithmanytraditionalcultures,'o\isdomisimplicitlyassociatedwithagein earlyGmnanicsociety.HrothgardescribesBeowulf8$wisedespitehisMgeongum feore"-youngage(1843),andtheyouthof'tbefoolhardy(M-{onc)Hygelacisalso emphasittd(1969).Thepoet~izesthis pointofBeov.ult'snewIy-eamedmaturily uponhismum10w Ilandincomrastto HygebcaOOHygd',inexperience,~ Beowulfseemsto have"agedpastthem...IIAgedid notdisqualifyoneas an effective wvrior,iDdecd.Ongenlhcowis
an
lhe more"eaJdcedegesfulJ"'••terrible' ..ctnan (2929)•becauseon us yearsof experience.U
Age also gaveonethelegitimacytojointhewitan. thebodyinwhichtheessential willof lhefo/cresi&d.Apatentageof~nobility"IJdidguarantC'Cacertain
amouruof poliltcaltnfluence.butitwas notautomatic;fewcontinentalfamiliesbefore thehighmiddleages (:Ouldsuccessfully prosecutelheir"inalienable righll0 go on ruling
'Swanlon. IS2.
10Swanton, 13.
II~AbrahanL"TheDotuumofBeowulf".Phllologitl.1OuarlCftvn:.3(1993)274.
1~Leo CarT\lthcn."Kingshipand Heroismill~utr.LeoCarruthcn.,ed,Heroes and Hero ines inMo.1ieYai Ertclishlilmturt(Cambridge: D.S.Bmwcr.1m) 26.
lJSWUJlon,17.
Dislincttoasof rank continuedtocrumbleilltransplantedsettlementsafterthemigraJ:ion periods.andespecially50inplac:cs withastrongfrontiermentality such as IcelaOO.With theearlyGermansthe:senseof royaltyas aninheritedrightisweak.Successiontended tobea corJllC1icionamong princes;eveu CharlemagnewaselectedandnotsinW eb'atcdtoregalswus.ISSuchriectionsmay often havebeen.formality;yeteventhe SUCttSSion of Charlemagne's sonLouiswasnotautomatic.Abilityonthebattlefield guaranteedmoresolidprestigeamongAngio-Saxons.Acomparisoncan be madewith NorthAmericanIndians., where there was littleof apolitical commandstructure;chiefs tmded~Iytobeprovenwarriorschosen on anadhocbasis.1611Ic: combined cJq)«Utiom orthegud-cyning(war.king)are never\IU)'separableinrealityorin dramatic6teralw-e;whenCharJemagne'smenexclaim'"1cs reaestvassals!"·thSkingis a soldier!(3343)inthe~it ismeantashighpraiseindecd.17
Theposition of king,whenitwasitselfattained,waslimitedInscope.L.ac:kinga literateadministralionandtheorgansof modemgovernment,IIearlykingshipheld few materiallt3pping~O~SaxonkinginSaxoGrammaticus.Frothc,isadvised by his retinuetogethimselfawife10mendtheirraggedclothing."In~thereisno
.0J.M.WaJ1ace-HadriILThelong·Haired Kings(london:MdhuenandCompany.1962). 20.
I'
EjnhardandNaderthe Staf!!!!!l;!'q:TIW!lives ofCharkmagne.trans.LewisThorpe (Hat'l'l'll.lndsv.orth:Penguin,1969~51.I'Richard A.Preston.Alex Roland,andSydney F.Wise,MalinArms(Toronto; Holl,Rinchan andWinston,Ine.,199 1),6 .
IJQuotedinEdward 8.Irving,Jr.,"HeroicRole-Models:BcowulfandOthers ",inHelenDamico andJohn~k.Eds.,HeroicPoetryintheAngJo..Su onPeriod(Kalamazoo:MedievalInstitute Publicaticm,199))lSO.
1' 1.0)11,6.
••Riidl ic Ginan,Paw.utf andtheSe\mthCemJry(london:Methuenand Compaqy, J9}S),47.
P:!ic:alionthatHrothgar'shrebeant.dgrandhallsoftheirown.Poweritsdf'was
\mSlRandprecarious;tollCemporary Frriisbhistorianswerejustifiablyconfusedin cklnmininawho wasinc:harjewhenrealPJYr'U'layinthemayors o ftbepalace.
ManersinEnglandwereno5essopaque.AI 01'11:pointWessexhadlivecynings., andMerciankingsreferredtothemselvesasdwasincharters.20downplayingthe regal implications ofkingshipinfavoroftbemore tangiblemilituyCOMOlationsorella.The righllO rdlcl againstunjustUtgswasimplicitlyassumed.and oftenutilized.R~power emanatedfromthewi/Q1lasthepeople'sreprnetUlNn;thllSoolytheposil:iooofkmg andnotthentividualholdingitwassacred. Reglcidccalls for00morethanaIUgher _rgild.ThiswasinclearoppositiontoRomanmodesanditspre-a.islianC'Xlre11'aof emperorveneralaon.Thelate Romanviewoforderostmsibl)'saw finalauthorityinthe caesar asthevoice ofttle gods.Major portionsorearlyEurope envisagednosuch relationship;oneGallicchieftan,Ambiorix,madetheunderstandable: complainttoCaesar thatthe peopleruledhimas muchasheruled the pcoplc:.11
Although lheAnglo-SaxonramilywUthadlittlecontrolin dc'lmnining succession. itwas~bdessPO\lomuJenough10underminewhatlittle ordertheking couldprovidewith theseeminglyomnipresentkinshipfeuds\loiUchfigure50prominently inmedievalhistoriesandliterature.Belongingto akinasthecriterionofmembershipin acommunity;Beowulfconsistentlyintroduceshimselfbymeansof explaininghis pedigree andisconventionallyreferred to as beamEc~ol.uGrendel, significantly.is
;'lISwamoo.26.
:1Caeur.De BelloGallav 27.CiredinSwuton, II.
2J
doubly ominous because'"niOhiefzdcrcumon"·"'they did nolknowhisfinher"'(l3S5).21 In • ",u tldwithDOpolicelOn:c.kimhipfeudsweresotinntymlmlchedthatthebestthe chun:hcouldinitiaDydowastom:ouragecoqlCtlSationin thebrmofpaymera (t''ergilJ).Ascrimeswerean offenceagainstthe common customandnotyetthe'king's peace.n,ttaewasoftcnlittleregalinten'a1lionpossiblcaM kings.ifnolpersonally involvedin thefeudtbemsdvcs.tendedto stay oUl ofsuchmatten.24 A:sIDUICbascrit:ics readtragedyintotIM'SWc:as toldin~theeisa plsitivecloSUle10thc story:
Hildeburghreturnsto ber people.aod atitsending "gamen eft 1stAh"· "'revelry roseup again"(I160)among Hrothgar' smeninHeo rot.Theoccasiono(ttlestory'stc lling. joy overtbeendofGrenderslong anac:ksonHrothgar'smen.does DOlseem to indicate a condemnationof revenge.2)
Thesensethatjusliceresidesinthekinisconcomitanl:\lolththelackof moral oppositionbetweencombatantsinBeowulf.thesense oftheenemybeing-magin their actions. asopposed10merelybeingontheotherside.isa mirdsetstillindevelopmentin thetext.Theprimeconcerninfeudingwas lossandrestitutionandnotethical juslificalKm;theconcqJto f personalor collectiveguiltorinnocencecameonly'"withthe slow evolutionofthe ideaofsin...u; At a nationallevel,Ongentheow,though anenemy oCtheOears,isstiDpoeticallyreferred toashis"'Cokes hyrde".theshepherdorms
UGillian R.<>verina.'"TheWomenof~:AConteK.t forInterpn:tationR•PderS.Baker,ed
~If;BasicRea~(NewYork;Garland Publishing,1995)223.
SWllInton,,36.
!4Da...is,26.
15JohnM.Hill "'SocialMilieuw.A~lrHandbook26S.
::t[)a"idWilliams. Cainand~ulfA StudyinSecularAllegory(Torooto;UnMniryof TotonIOPress. 1912) 1.
people (2981).17Much~$Cholarshipofthcl940s andearly19SOswas writtenina politica1ly chargedaumsphere."whentheappm:iationof'BeetbovenOfGoethebecame guilrysecretpleasures...uandwas notpanicularlysubtleinsemim:m.Thisperiodhas passed,butthereisstilloft(l1acriticalassumpcionofmepresence ofst4te:s andDidional idcobgiesin medievalEurope which didnot)'d exist.
Vikingssaw their earlyraidsmore as "joinr.--stock venturcs..zt.than asadsof poUtical.signi6cancebyaunitedpeople.Pillagingputicsdid 110Iembodyanyinhermr.
~towardsEnglishmen,andturnedtheir attentionsatwilltoFrancia orwhcmu pickingswereeasiest.TheEnglishand DaneshadcoexistedinBritainas tradingpartocrs for c:cnturicsbeforetheraids.and the chroniclesbetray ancmotioDof surpriseand shock 0\ulheseviolm.incursions.)OItisonlyaslate asthebattleofMaldon (991)thaame Vikingsarcfirmlyand distinctlytbought of b)'chroniclers asa"1a~re¢code"·aloathed people(MaJdon.90);theimplicitmoral wrongnessofttle encmy's attackisgivenasa reasonalone for resistance.
Additionally,thesense ofbclonging to adistinct couraryas opposedto apeople in~islessthansolid.ItisonlybyI100that p1aindclincationsbctwcenNol""'3Y.
Swcdenand Denmarkexist;JINorwaywas itsclfnot unifiedUDIU after900underHarold Fairhair.Inopposition tolaterEnglishIitcralUrcwbereitisassumedas a manerof course thai royal roots originateinFrance. Bco\1tulfisof thcGcatishpeopleandlittle
lJCatTUthers.21.
211RoyMichad Liuzza.,"Onlilc Datinjof~.Heroes . 1IdHeroines285.
~~IS.
Jill..o)'n.l9.
JlLoyn, I.
mentionismadeoCQeatIandasaphysical plac.e.Thisethnicas opposedtotmitorial identificationwould likelyhavebeen thesituation duringthemigration periodfromthe COl1linmltoEngland,whentherewasnonatM tmilory to idemif)'with.
wonttoemphasizethesharedfamilyliesbetweenEnglandaOOOmmny.writingin738 that"We areofODebloodandonebone...,2 HrothgarhastheVandal Wulfgar as8guard I1hisc:ourt.lUIdno onefindsthe~oftheforeignertobeanoddityorthreat;the
poet.""""""
tholHrothgotishis_ " . friendaOOIonI(360).Unguistblly,therewas littledifferentiationintheGcrmarUclanguagesbytheseventhcentury.and men suchas WtlfiidreportDO"'seriousimpedimcu...uinco~nduringtheir missionarytra\lelsamongtheFrisiansorDanish.BeowulfofCO~.l'ftdsno interpreterin histra~ls.andevenByrhtnothandhisVikingenemies aredepictedas und~nd ingeachother'swarcries acrossthecold Pantcwaters atMaldon(991)near theclose oflhe Anglo-Saxon age.It isonly indirectlythaiByrhtnolh remindshis warriors oftheirnationaldutyto ....E~lrfdeseard"".Ethdred'shomeland(MaIOOn, 53);
theprogression of earlyEnglandisfromthekin-unittotheethnic polityandonly fOmlativcly the state,and theliterature mirrorslhistransition.
ThepoetbegmBco~llIfbyrcfermgtotheglory of the"P:odcyninga",the people'sIcings(2 ).Theterm can mean botbthekingofthepeople and ofthenation.
Thissemanticambiguityisreflectedthroughthe textandthrough the limeperiod.
u..CHIOrOsonpiM t ltk IUlOOSHJIUft.us."lnlany D.Benson.Contradic'lions:fromBoov.\Ilf to
~~Idd.VT:Ashg,atcPublishing.1995)23.
27
Feudalism
was.
land-basedinslilution,andinthedisimegratiollofRomanorderland was'increasinglytheone possessionworthhaving...)4 Aswithsomany western insIitutiom,therewas.
militaryadVUUgC:10feudalism,II1Ide aDthemore pressina:with the devdopmenl of tbestmrparoW1d700andthegrowingnpemcof cquippingforwar.Charlemagneformallyaheted thebasisofmilitaryservicefiomtheindividualto those hold ingland.TheViUlgsinitiallyrUJedfor goods.wives.andslaves.fOr.allLoyn argues,therewas110lladitionof primogeniturewtUcb\Wuldhavesett~thequestionof statusandsuccession.UYettheOanes eventuallydomakelandtheirprimaryintcresl, andwomenandchildrensometimes accompanied latercampaigns.J6
intact;Hygclac seemstoneed00permission10makeBeowulf.bndgranaof seven thGusandhides(219S).Thetitlecnihl.originallyreferrins 10ahouseholdretaineror diW hegtl(steward),rtgraduallycameto have connotationsof landownershipand gentility ratherthandomesticservility.Thiswasa clear evolutionfrompre-migration practices,whetethetideofkinghadnoinherentpropertybasisal
an.
JIYetthetransition was notcompletelyunidirmionaJ;evenMercian kings suchasWihtrzdarerecordedas beingkingnotof'KentbutoCtheCanIWllfe.J9Setbackswereindeedthe caseintheslowsynthesisbetweenRomanand GmnanX:conceptsofpolilical onkr.Akuin adviKdCharlemagne todisregardthe }OW.IIace-H.dril~12.
l'toyn,16.
~1oyn.46.
IIPda
cess,
TheKnightinMedievalEngland1000- 1400 (Drover,NH:Alan SunonPublishing.1993 )12.
•S" utcn,17.
"S"aI'llOn.26.
'turru tl'oftbecrowdbecause"accordingtodivine law,thepeopleare10belednot followed....0butthecontinentalSaxonsapparentlydid notbuy iNaRoman modesof politicalthought.resistingCbarlmlagnecotbecausebewasforeign.but becausehewas an authoritarianruler,Saxony itself
...remains.QtI1lCI'ofdenn:ratic resistance into theelevembeem..yand beyond..no...DOnxdioljonbyprincesbutcIemondma\hotthekingbe madedirmlyaec:essibIe10hispeople.·'
Naturally,thepaucityof documen ls leads 10qucst ions of inlerpreta t ion.Tac itushasbeen eccusedof wishful.thinkingfordepictingtheGermansas nobk savages;1~-cenlury GennanscholarsequaDypaimedaIoslgoldenage ofdemxrxy.IOrgetting Wtkings werecho~outof a relativelysmaUpoolofNue-bioodedclaimants. Much ofthe growth of centralizedorderisattnbutablemerelytoitsgrowingpossibilityfuelkdby technoklgy and populationandnot a sra-changeinsentiment;nevertheless.the concept or NlebypublicCOmeniremainedstronginEnglishlaw.
ThespreadofChristianitywasanadditionalimpetustothegrowthof monarcby. Pan ofOuistianity'srapidNordic:aceeptanc:c: was due totheattitudethatgods.as~Uas rulers,werel'tplaceableutheydid nolplease:
Thebardnecnsity of relianceon selfand companionsinthebitterstruggle againsttheclimateand naluralconditionsledto acuriousanirude ofequality towardsthegods.TheScandina..ian didnotcreeptothedar.Thegods themselves"lottesuljecttolestingandopentorejectionifastrongerdeity thantheyappeared.~-
.."Popll1l1.JilalDsanctiQII~Jdi)"inasdut:~ttthLs~s,_ J~qlle1Jthu.RQuolcd inS""anlon.13.
"S~ 2J.
u~ 4.
2.
Forsome,Christianitypromisedsuch. stronger deily,suchas onel;Orwcrtin~ wboexclaims.."'Grey~imerFfC)ja."·'1 thinkFreyaisa bitch....lSuclunattitudeis paraUelcdinthepopularstoryof BedeaboutPaulioos'missiontoNorthwriria in625.in whichCoifi.theheadpriestor kins Edwin.quicklyandcynicallyrepudiatestheold religion becauseit"hasnovirtueorprofit..init."To Bede
me
unexpectednessoftheact isproofof God's providence;butheoverlookstheunderlyinganiludeof1hepriest:the godsan: repIacc:abIeiflhey donot producethegoods. ButChristianitywasequallyopen totesting;CloviswasaSC'CtdfOlloweruntilsureofpopularsupport.andEofpwakIof EastAngliawasassassinatedshonly afterconversion,U Bishops~DwoAlfred's time preferredtoavotdbecomingtang1edinsuccessiondisputes.andkingsas lateas CnUlstill hadtoprohibittrtt-v.'Orship.Yet Christianityandthe monarchyconsciouslysupportedeachother.AsEarl claims.native religionssupportedapolitywhichno kmgerexisted.oK> Pope Gregory, alternatively,appealedto ..€Ihelberhc'sdesireforkinglyprestigebygivinghim heavenly justification.writing"Almi ghtyGod raisesupca1aingood mentoberulers...' Alreadyby 710,writers:suchasQolfridof Jarrowstalelhat kinglypowerderivcs 001 fromthe/ olebut fromGod...State prayersand theanointingofkings wi.hitsanendant ritualssoonfOllowed.Theconsecrationof Charkmagne as HolyRomanEmperorin800 was representative orlhis changingrnindset. fortheconcept oCtile'king's peace'was
~lQoolcdinLarsLOnnroth.~(Berkeley. Un;vmityofCaJifomiaPress, 1976)216.
.. Bede.Ecclesiastical HisloryoCtileEnglish People.InJames W.Earl.ThinkingAbout Bcoo,o.uIC (Stanford:StanCordUniversityPress,1994)51.
IlSwanlon,27.
"Earl.52.
•"Bede,inDlvis, J2.
• S"anIon.SO.
deYelopingabngsidetheCM:stianconcernfOrcrime as apersonaland.rmral Kt...Tbe RomanviewoforderandjusticeflowingfromGoddownwardwasgraduaDyovmaking thewitan.
~canbereadas a microcosm of theseissues.Thestory does not
ananc~LouisXIV.proeJamnshimself/'jlat.There~subtk:semanticandplot shiftstlroughoUlthe text demonstraling the topical tensionsbetween therok: oflcine as agent ofQodand as agem oftheprop'e.Inthe beginning oh hetexttheshifthasalready begun;smallgroupsofmagjJe(tnDes)arewktsingtheirethnithomogenei~by submittingto therule ofaneighboringupstart.ScyldSeeling.Seyldarrives Moses-like outoroo~re."ofery6eunborwcsende"·"overthewaves asachild"'(46),buthis dynasty issetinmotion:regalrWepasses fromhimtohisson.Beow,and thento Ucalfdene,inanapparentprocessofdirectsue«ssion.littleisknownabouethepolitical developments oftbe Swedes, ahhough matters are nol sofixedsoastoprevent Ongenlheow'ssons fromrebellingand seekingoutside help.Criticshavemoreoften usedaco~nbeweeethekingdomsofHrothgarand Beowulfto ilIustra!e diffemresinkingshipstyJes..Leyme~Hrothgartheidealmonarchinthepoem lOrhavingthe"'discrctmn andmelU16a,,5t\\tuehBeowulfapparedlylacks. Thetext wouldseem to disagree witbLeyerle.astheGntishpeoplelaud Beowulfat hisfUJyralas
"'mannummildestandmo~wa:rust"·"mildesttohismenandmost gentle"(3181)of
..WiII'ams,I.
-Davis.,70.
,.Johnle)'erle."Bcowvlflhe Hero andtheKing",MediumtE'llnl:U:2 (1965) 97.
earthlyU1gs.IIismortcertainthaithetwodwactmdo significantlydifferpoli:ci:ally intheir rmdesof ruling.andin50doingdeJronsl:ratethe shifting toneso( go~
which ..~co~i:ssucsfOrtbeaudieDceo(tbepocm.
Thebegimingsof Hrothgar'skingshipere neither dearlytribalmrfeudal,ard yetthereis.sense thatlhepxtseeshisMe inmoretnditionalGcnnanic:termsof
oot the first-bom:theacc:owcofHeaIfdane'schildrenlists'"Heorogir ondI-IrMgMond Halgatil" (61).HrothgarisDOtautomaticaUykingbut mustprovehimselfbyanracting followers:"'himhiswinetmgasIgeorreh)Tdon".hisfriendsandkinsmenwillingly obeyedhim"(65-6).TheDanishkingdom,moreover,is...dividedooJlUllUIlity"'~where somefollowChrist andothersheathenism;
me
tnOOJcharacterisassertedint.tmlackof regal6nality.Hrothgar possesses asonof primilivegod-Ukestatus as"betrulymakes . wo~]increatingmenameof Heorot;""5c:ophimHcortnaman" (78).Heorotisnot.teuda.lcourtbutapeople'spalaceS4 (jolcsmk), where everythingissharedexc:tpt
"'fokscarcoodfeorum gumma". the COTmlOnLandand thelivn of men(73).1k emphasisoftbislinerecallsthai(ormanykingstheoppositewasthenthereality,the assigningoflandandpeople10caretakers wasthesinequa nonoffeudalism."
' lTheodoreM.Andenson."Hcatha!SacrifICeinBoovrolf.ndRimbert'slifeof Ansgar".
McdievaliaecHumanistica13(198S):6S·74.
JlIrving,IntroduetionlolJcoy,lllf.31.
"'SlIlo antOll,90.
"Davis,141.
II
ItistruethatHrothgarisno lnbal warriorinpermittinghissonsand Beowulfto fi&.hI.tOrhim.Fromthissuncc,inHrothgar's'"passive1;OUf1.""hehassceminsly abdicatedhisduty as protector. Yet the dismissivenotion that Hrothgar~Iyhandsout advicein.acapacity"thoughtmost suitablefOrsenior citizens..nisasunkind asitis inac:curate;Charlemagnealsoletshisstrongson.Louis,.ligbIfor himinoldagewMollt censure&'OmCOfll~wrilcn.51Htothpt isdesaiJcdin hisyouthwith00mincing words;bewas"berespedgyfm,IwfgesweorOmynd"."given successinbenk , gloryin war"(64-5).ToBeowu1fthemanisnot adoddering kingbuta"gomel gMwiga"· old warrior(2 112)whoremembershis'11ildestrmgo".SlmJgthinbanle(2113).Thet'M) addresseachother aswillt':&icnds,butwiththecofUlOtationo f beillgfelJowoortradesin armsandequals."Theflavororthesceneisnot ofHrothgar asakingsetabovehis warriorsbutas an experiencedsoldier withthegrey-haim1 practical\\'isdomofhis"'TtOll behindhimtogroundhisactions.
YetGrendelcomplicatcseverything.Asachallengetothe harmonycf'Hecror andto Hrothgar'srule.,Gn:ndeldemonstratesthecontemporaneityof~andthe changingopinionsofGmnanic government.fortheoldsystemisshown10beinadequate 10standup10him.60Tbepeople are notunitedbyastrongkingand splinterinto desperateheathenworship;the"'"itanliesimpotent.Locked into amindsctofkinfeud and rctn"b.ition. theCOWISC~Bcanadvise00otheractionthan10offerpaymentstothe
~W.T.H.Jat kson,TheHeroandtheKing:AnEpicTheme.(NewYork:Columbia University Prcss..1982)132.
l7Irving.-Heroic:Role Mcdeb",3S6.
Sllqaie.100.
"SwanlOn,,30.
IIOSwa nlOl\,101.
JJ
killer(1'6).GrendelispartiallymotMiledbyspite out ofbeins excludedfromthe kinshipofthehall.butabobysomethingmoreintrinsicaUyevil fOrwhichhebears
"'Godes)Tft".""God'sire"(7 11).Thesystemo(w:ngeanccandretributionisinsufficitrt.
(0explainGrendel'sinhercnlenmitytowardsman.Grendel'smotherkillsAscberein order10avengeherSOil,but thereisno indicationthatbeTanackswillDOtcontinuein the samepatternas<mnders.
PetVer.iCIy.atthis pointHrothgar's court begins(0adopttheconccptsoffeudal rule asWealtheowcampaignsfortheir childrm asthelogicalsuccessors10Hrothgarand blocksBeowulfas aregalcandXlatC." But hermotivationsare maternalandnotbased on theevolutionofDanishpoti:l:icalthought.Furthennore.themovenetonlydestabilizes Hrothgarbydefyinghiswishes,butis futileinitself.Thepoetforeshadowstbatthetnbal.
ptaelicesofsuccessionwillpersist;Heororwillberacked by'"cc:ghete~".
theviokrchatredofSOD-in-law andfather-in-law(84) ,culminatingintheburningo( thc great hallitsclf.
Hrothgar' s actions afterthecleansingofboththemereand Hearneare additionallyinterestinginthatHrothgarreclaimshis authority by btcominga roleroodd forIncyoungerBeowulf.despite the failureorilleDanes10faceGrendelthcmselves. Thesamemanwho hastobeconsoledandrestoredbyBeowulfafter Ascbeee'sdeath 'Aoiththewords"Nc sorga,snotor guma.l"·"Grieve not,wise man!"(1384)DOWbecomes a mentor.lecturingBeowulf ontheevilsofprideandbyadvocatinghimastheGeers' futureking.Hrothgarstilldefersto the authorityofwilom.SlalingthattheGeats "'Kiran
~Earl,12l.
nzbbcnIfagcdosennecyninga=nignc"."'willnotbeable10efcose a beeerking"(I'~
I).Thethemeorageconsistcnlly informsHrothgar'sfinaJwordsinthestory,i>rhis longreignof"'hund.mWm,-,fiftyyean(1169)iseventuallyendedas ")1dobmamI megeoeswynnwn"·"old age removedhisproud strength"(1886-7).Thesagacityof Hrothgar'snpericnccculminatcsinhissmnonette 10IkowultinHeorotinthe celebrationofthecleansinaof the mere,where.byinverse~DtoHeremod.
HrothgarremindsBeowulfthat!ortilJM!owilldeclineinage.butsapientiowiDcarty.
king through afflicIion.62
To Lc)'erle.Hrothgar" srefusal10
race
Grendelpersonallyisexplainedbythe"ise riskanalysisthall-korolisthreatenedmorebyinIemaJfamilydivisionsthanexternal threats,andthathisdeath would exacerbatesuch divisionsina fightever SUlXCSSion.6JIt may ormaynotbeso;Hrothgardoesnotmentionsuchsurmises.Buzlhefeisnoqunl ion thalHrothgarisskilledinnalpoli/ik;hedeftly forestal1sgrumbtingin hiscourtO\'ft'the possibleoffenseimpliedbyBeowulf'sbelieftha tHrothgar'wesmannat>eart"."wasin needarmeu"(201)byrelatingthestory arbis rescue ofBeo wuIrsWhet&omthe WI1fings.subtlyshiftingthegroundofBeowulfsactofahruism totberqJaymentofan old favor.iWBecwulf willbea differentsonofking;buthestill learnsfromtheold type of ruler,Hrothgar,wOOmainlainshiscndibilityand authoritynot fromkinifyinstitutioru.:R.E.Kaske."SapicnliactFortitudoastheControllingThemeof~If".l....ewisE.
Nicholson.ed,AnAnthoiogyof8«no"UlfCriticism(NotreDame,IN;Uni"cn ityolNoac Dame Prees,I96J ) 2&4.
6Jleya1e. 92.
"Clartt,56.
JS
but fromenduringfameinwagingwar anda witan--Jikewilinessfor holdingpowerinan
_ court.
Beowulfwouldhavebeen. chanlcterwfloiDstandyappeaSed to a royalaudience. forhe isthenewtypeofprince whoseideologyiscloser10Romanmodelsofkingship.
HeisDOt.cbaraaer fromadosedheroicOamanicpasabutfrom an evolvingpmiC1ll symbesizing bothstyles.Alrivingin theIDlIai5eofHeorot wberetheold systemof loyaltiesisWlabletomeetthechallengeof Grmde l.heisthe "'new'kind'ofhero"which isrequiredtobreaktheWnpasse.6SAnadyinBeowulf!firstappearanceontheDanish shore,lhedifferingqualifications ofkinglinessinHeorotandinGcat1and canbeseen.
The coast~looksuptoBeowulfasa pkyrIing.claiming: NzfreitrrWangeseah
corta ofercortw'!l)onncis lowerun, seeg onsearv.wn.Nis~seldguma WEpUUmg~-na:fre hirnbis\loiitc lfoge.
znlicansyn! (247-51)
(Never haverseenagreater warrioronEarththan a certainoneofyou, a man inarms.That'sno merehall-retainermade"'llM)'by....eapora-unlesshis face.hismatchlessappearance,belieshim!)
But&o~sanswttdo"'nplayshisrnilituyaspect,introducinghimselfnolasafic'rte slayerof water-monstersbutbyhisregalconnectionasEcgtheow'sson.Hisreply combinesboththemindsets ortlle war-ehicftainandthefeudalmonarch,forhisfatheris describedasan« J1efe onJfn41NJ(263).bothawar-leaderandnoble.implyingan aristocratic heritagetowhichBeowulf hasa rightbybirthBeowulf,as bothtzjJeUngand outsider.beingHretbel'sgrandsononlyby hisunnamedmother's marriage,combines
"MidladSwanton,~(NewYork:St.Manin'sPress,199 7), 22.
,.
ideab""of bothtribl.IandinlenraJUlgship. -ThemanyhintsofBeowulfs aristocraticcharactergraduallytum inl.ofo~wingas Hrothgar pregnantlysuggests thatsomcdaY"1>li bcaldanwyltmIgarice"·j'ouwillholdlhe kingdomofyour kinsmen"
(1IliS2-J).ToBeowulf;whoconsislC1llly~hiscmotionalbondwithhisunclc HygelacandhisdWdhoodinHmtcl' shome.00an S'IIl'Cfisoccdcdashismheritanceof thethroneisanundentoodeventuality.
Beowulf, court demeanorisa contmuationof this theme. {oettle icn1ilityofhis behaviorisemphasized by thepod:his6erceuessas.warriorisdirectedonlyagains!:
non-humanagattSatHeorot. AfterthecoastguardinsuksBeowulfasaspyanddemands
•hasty(o!o.ste)answer(2S6).beresponds with U1dness.'1Despitehisfatbrr's co~lionsandHrothgar'shospitalliy,notanofHeorotisprepared10be.politehost.
Even beforeBeowulffaccsthemonsters.hemustpassthecredibilitylestoftheguard.of Wulfgar.o(Unferth,andofWeahheow.andthis isalladUevedby winningthemo~
withtactandverbalstrength;6Ihisdefensetothecoastguardissopolite lhat the laner offers(0actasBeo",'Utrsguide10Hecrot,evenofferingto guard their boatand to ask God'sblessingson the venture."Wulfgar'sdirective,"lzta3 lilldebord Illronbidan,I wudu ....zlsceaftaswordgepinges"."leavehereyour bank-shieldsanddeadlyshaftsto awaittheoutcomeofyoW'talk..(397·').ismadebolhouc.ofro)o'lllprolocol andoutof securityconcernsfortheking.YetBcowulfco mplieswithoutcomplaint.onlybringing weaponsDnothehomeof Grendel"smother;themendonotrushHooroebut"sigon
IIliDavis,144.
•, Chickering.294.
"lo-ing,oKI.
..1n--...2.
J7
lI:t5Omne"·ad\'atlCelOget~(301)inaristocratic:procasiolLBeowulf sbehavior conformswithregaletiquette evendowntohisthree-daystayatHeorct,whichGiNm claims wasthestandard lengtbofvisit amongtheGermans.JO
Hrothgarwhowarnshiminadvanceof succumbingtoselfishpride,andthenbyHygclac.
whogiveshim.bananda'princc:1ythrone'·"'boldDadbr'egostQl"(2196).In. sort of
«mnonialknighlin:g. Ikowulfisn u lawarded Hrethe!'sbeirtoom;hisgold-adomed swordis'"onBiowulfesbeannikgde".'"laidonBeowulf!lap"(2194).Ibeprincipie~f royal successionhas taken rootinGeatland,somuch sothat Beowulfupholds the princip~of primogenitureinsupportingHygeLac:'sson as cfWd_king.71Despitethe people's entmUiesandthewidowedHrgd'sprofferillgoCme lhronetohim..asshe""De. truwcde"-didnoltrustheryoungson'sabilities(2370),Bcowulfignoresthe'twnuhof the crowd';heresistsviolatingroyalprotocolinthecause ofmilitaryexpediencyand supp:>rts theyouthwith""freorw.1larurn"·friendlycounsel(2371).AsBeowulfsrewaJd fortakingtherightaction,thepodgMstheaudience ashortwait befocethekingdom
"onhandgehwearf'.passesintohishand(2208).
Theeffectsof disorderare long-lasting.Bco"",,lf pcedicts 10Hygelacthat Hrothgar'SproposedmarriageaIlianccbetweenFreawaruandIngeldwillfailas "'zfl.er JeodhryrelytIC'h....ikIbonglrbUgC\\tab
sea
bryddugc"·"afterthefalloh manthe deadlyspearrests only alittlewhile,thoughthe bride maybegood"(2030-1).The implicitpoint,expressed quitebluntlybythe poet,isthaiordermustbemaintainedbya"'Ginan.44.
nS_nlOR,1l 5.
~_ _ ondnotbycootrimlkmIUpalliaDocsond"nuplualdipIomo<y"n• the old wayofthechieftain.which.asthepoetlOreshadows.hasf.WedwithHildeburhand willWJagainwithFrea..lianL
Gcallandw.:IerBeowulfsruleCODlainssubtle difl'crmccs from Hrothgar's kingdom.buttherearesemanticswtbchindX:al:ethesort offeudalruSe with which
~saudiencewouldbevebeenincreasinglyfilmiliar.Thec:utmK:yoffcudalismis land,andsligblshiftscanbeseeDinthesecond section ofthestory",bich indicatea growinginterestinlanduseandappropnuion.Apart&omHcoroeandQrendrl's underwatercavern.thereislinklI'CflIionorlandinHrothgar'skingdomother thanthe bedsaamogthelIJY'teriousand generic'out buildings' •"tedcfterbUrwn"(140)lOr whichhismenabandon Hecrotafter Grendel'sanacks.Danishlande1seYobereinthetext isostensiblycommon land,such15thebeachandthepathsfor horse.riding.Thereis evidentlyenoughpubliclandforlhew«aster-bUendum"-the t:itydwel1en (768) 10be withinearshotofHeorot as8<owulfandGrendelbattleeachother.
Ho~.landisof partic:ulatinterestiDGealland; althoughthereisareferenceto
the"e6eIrihl"·theancestraldomain(2198).thebroadkingdombel~dloHYi d ae::
-Mnunsw00rIsideri:e}Wnbersi:1nwr.-."'theother.rather.who wasofhigher
rank.[hd dJthebroad kingdom"(2198-9).Tcnitorialapportionmentandusage is periodicaUyindicatedbythe"beorhthofu"·brightdwellings (23 13)-of ttlepeasanuy whichareburneddownbythe dragon,andbyarchitectural details suchasthestone arch nearthe:wallofthedragon'sbarrow(2S42).andbyBeowu lfs memorial;eventhe
1'1Oavi$.,101.
'9
dragonbas.'home'.Thelastgroupoffittshasan ataJJspbere ohpaeiousness. from the windybeadJand upon whichBcowulfprqmesfor battle.(0hisrecoUeetionofHretheL
"'"'" cioxs_1ImhcI1ooUlasadlyoao>sthe6ells "'"'"s=xd
on
100 _ and""""m
him·1>Ohtehimcallt6_ "(246').YetIlcowulf<tigtU6e$bDn;" linaIity.reponingthaiHrethellefthischildrenland"swIliM&dis:mon"-""asan honestman does"(2470).theimp6calioabringtbdhonestmenba~property togive.'!)
Theroyalhierarchyalsoseems10ba"C.moresolidifiedfeelinGea!1andthanil:
hasinHrothgar'skingdom.TillessuchasMM,referrineto'connde'Of'iiend', represent"'theessentiaUyhorizontalstructureofberoic societybasedon personal loyalties...7~andareused freelyinHeorotinthepoem. Theterm maybeusedbetween warriors ofanyrankorU1;HrolhgarspeaksofBeowulfas'wseminBal...'U1t'(457).
However.asSwanlOQ DOles.whileaDanishkingisusuaUyaffectionately caJled"';ne ScyJdinga-tiiend. ofttleScyldings.thisepithetisnotusedinGeatland.7'Wineappears sparsely,andlends10beusedDOlof BcowulfbutoChisinfc:rior1: "'Winia beaJdor'"·"the dearpeople'skKd'"(2S67). '"Significantly.theterm doesDOtSW"Vivcintomiddle English.ThetmnjJegnseems to gothrough.similar alteration;inHecrotaUof Hrothgar'sretainersseem 10bethanes(Grendel eatsthirtyofthem•'ll ritigPegna"(123) -in.onenight),butinGeallandonlythosewitha specialrelationshipofscrvi:ctothe kingreceivethetit'e.suchasW"tglaf;whobydefendingBcowulffromthedngonis.
nT.A.Shippey,~(London:Ed\I.ardAmoIdPublishen.1971) 56.
'~ S~ntoa.30.
."Swanton,]1.
•Swanton.31.
wouldthushave beenexposedtoatermwtUcbwouldincreasinglygainacormotation of an of&ialroyalrelationship.
the Wall. InBeowulf's)"OUtbbeisad\'ixdbythe'"snotoreceocIas"-wiselDeD(4 ' 6)-e f Geal bndtoseekoutHrothgar,despiteHygelac'smisgiv1nes.71HerethewitDIIopposes theOeatishkingwithimpunity;hisown retainersdefyhiminassemblingan exh.ibition forHcornt.Thesituationismusedlater onwhentheagedkingBcowulf ignoresthe rtM(3080)ortuspeopleandadvisors;his warrion:f4ithfuDyfotlow their kinginmectine
the dragon,aDwiththeapproval of thcpoet, Buttheambitionsof8eowuIrsfollowers arelessclear. for theyareeotthesame comitatwthattsfoundearlier inHcoml.
Beowulfs retinueisnotmotivatedbyhaU·feastingandtreasure- giving.butbyland.
W'lglafreportsthattheeleYen werechosenfromthe
he".
rd"crring10"'thewbo5e bodyof fightingmmwhowereintbc scrviceofBeoVr'UlfraJ.her thantoaninncrringof close companions...'/OJFurthermore,Wig1afsspeech10thedesertersaftertheircowardicefocusesboth onthefactlhallheywilllosetheir tr'easUre-givinglordasweU85theirhomes andlands (/ondriJrJ).WJTheirpunishmentisexileas
wen
asMedwitJir_. 1ifeofdisgrac:e(289 1).Thepoetusn their weaknesstohdghten Beo\NUlfsandW'l&larsglory;bullhe1r f1ighI
'"Swanton,66.
1tKemp Malone."Bcowulfthe Hadstrong",Anglo-SaxonEn8~ndI(Cambridge. 1972)139.
"Roscnwy Woolf,'"TheIdcalofMmDyingwithTheirLordinthe~io andin1M Bot/It
'tUJldott",
An&b-SuonEngland'(Cambridge,19 76) 61.Woolf, 69.
"
mayha~farmoresevereconsequencesthanthealwdomlmloftbekina'sbaDif~
raven, asthernessc:ngerpredicts.willsoonbetelli:ngthteagle"1ll1him a£Iespeow"".
"bowheWedilleating" (3026).
Beowulfsdeathcontains alastinlllicitadvocacyof fiunilial succnsion.His finalact.afterlamentingthathe hasnodirectheir,istohandover to\V'Iglafhisarmor pieces.enjoininghimto"use themweIr-"'bftbyncbr!icanweIr(28 12).Carruthers (1994)docsnotagreethat Beowulfispassingonthekingsbip,orthat'"suchan action wouldbeKeeptabictothecoD'mUDiry.'" It canbanUybebe6ewbletbatBcowulrs intentionsareotherwise.AitAnglo-Saxonprince's weaponsareno mere sentimental trinkets;BeowulfasksHrothgaratthemereto returnhisarmortohislord
"sU
ttJCCbUd nime"·'ifbattj takes~~(l48t ).informalm::ognition oftheir ~lationship.Hygcial:returnsthefavorwithHrethel' s swordinasortofkingly anointing.
Waglars actions afterthispointshowdecisiveleadershipifnot yet regality;the returningdeserters submitwithoutangertohisharshlyseveretauntthatBeowulf!gifts were "forwurpc"·utterlywasted(2872).Lateren,thepoetreports thatWiglaf"k Igdc of conncyninges/JlegnasS)fonclI:tSOmne"·""sumrm nodsevcu together outofthebandof the king'sthanes"(3121-2).W'8lafnowhastheaUlhorily togr.-eordentotheGeats.
andthepoetwaitsuntilnow tobackupthisregalitywith W"aglatslineageasthesonof Wihstan,.boldwarrior whose arisl:ocraticclaimsareensuredbyanotherland-based reference:heisamongthe"bo ldagendra"·theownersofhal1s(3112).
IICamrthen.1-kroesandHcroinq.21.
fn somewaysthenamtot'Sconcernwith~oJcytri"fWistransformedinto.
broaderpan-Germanic sensibilitywithBeowulf,EnglaOOinthe Anglo-Saxonperiodstill sawilseIfas belongingtoasortoflargcr Gmnania
with ..,
COnlinentalbrefiathm.of whichAttgle../andwasantJdensio ll.UThesignificantdivisionilleartyEwopctendednot tobebetweencountries,butbetweenlheChristianandheathen.In thetext.Beowutr!kindm:l'"isasbigasallScandinavia..IJ;bemovesfreelyas guest or warrior amongmany
ethic operatesalongside.dcarsen!Cthai:Beowulfisnottheold type ofkingwhois merelytheelected~cyningcfhiskin,butrather representsthebegiMingsoCtilenew type offeudalmonarchybasedon successiontIroughprimogeniture.
Mormver ,lheethicalsc:nIimenIofthcnewsysIerDisnotfar behind.Despitethe indefinitemoral responseofthecharacters10kinshipfeudssuchas theF'UIDSburgstory.
~canbe00mistakingthepoignancyofthewasteand the despairinglossfchby widowssuchasHiJdeburb."unsymurnwear61belorenlfotwna:tlMtlindpleganI beamumondbrMnun"·~wasguihlessJyckprivedofhrt beb ved sonandbrotherit theshield-play"(IOn-4 ).Bcowutf C8Slsdoubtonthe efficacyof Hrothgar'splanned maniageof Frea waru.,reco gnizingthe self-perpetuatingnature oftbe Danish feud.His viewofmoralitygoesbeyondlossandrntitution;Earlseesthisprogression asnoless thanamo~&omegotosuperego.'"
II:!KempMalone."Beowulf', AnlhoIogyof8eo¥oul fCril:icism147.
uEatl, lI.
"InThomaA. Shippey,"'Swc:turcandUnity'"APeowutfHudJooL171.
