Congelation-Structure and Frost-Heaving Ratio at Assan, Manchuria

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Congelation-Structure and Frost-Heaving Ratio at Assan, Manchuria

Sugaya, J.

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NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF CANADA

Technical Translation TT-596

Title:

Congelation-structure and frost-heaving ratio

at Assan, hhnchuria.

Author:

LEji

Sugaya,

Institute of Low Temperature

Science, HokkaidE University, Sapporo, Japan.

Translator:

E.R.

Hope, Directorate of Scientific Information

Service, Defence Research Board, Canada,

Translated, with the permission of the aul;hor, from

an unpublished

manuscript,

This translation has also been issued by the Defence Research

Board as their translation

T54J.

The Division of Building Research of the National

Research Council is keenly interested in permafrost research,

having now its ovm Permafrost Research Station at Norman Wells,

N.W.

. -

T.

.

Contact is maintained with the Sliow. Ice and Permafrost

Research Establishment of the

U.

S.

Departuie6t of Defence in

connection with this work and allied snow and ice research,

The Division shares this interest with many branches

of the Department of National Defence and in particular with

the Defence Research Board, Through the Defence Scientific

Information Service of the Board this translation was kindly

made available to the Division for inclusion in the N.R.C,

series of translations, following earlier cooperation of the

same order, The translation was kindly carried out

by

Mr, E.R,

Hope of the Defence Research Board staff with the permission of

Dr. Sugaya, The Division here records its thanks to Mr, Hope

for this further expert translation service, and to the Defence

Research Board for their kind agreement to the inclusion of

this translation in the N,R.

C.

series,

It may be surprising to some readers to find Japanese

research workers interes-te6

in the problems of permafrost,

until it is noted that the paper refers to work in Manchuria,

The translation shows that permafrost problems are certainly

not peculiar to North America, It is hoped that the publi-

cation of this translation, as a joint venture by the Defence

Research Board and the Division of Building Research, National

Research Council, will prove to be a useful contribution to

public lsnowledge of this irnportant subject,

OTTAWA,

CONGELATION-STRUCTURE AND FROST-HEAVING RATIO AT

!ASSAN, MANCHURIA

Institute of L o w Temperature Science,

HokkaidZ University, Sapporo, Japan

Translated (from unpublished manuscript)

by

E.R. Hope

Directorate of S c i e n t i f i c Information Service

DRB Canada January 25, 1956

The Defence Research Board of Canada thanks t h e author D r . J G j i Sugaya, and Professor Zyungo Yoshida, D i r e c t o r of t h e I n s t i t u t e of Law Temperature Science, Hokkaid5 University, f o r permission t o p u b l i s h t h i s t r a n s l a t i o n .

Note

-

An e f f o r t has been made t o a d j u s t t h e terminology of t h i s t r a n s - l a t i o n t o conform w i t h t h a t which

is

l i k e l y t o bocome standard i n Canada,

a

t e r m i n o l o w agreeing c l o s e l y with one suggested by t h e U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. For t h i s reason t h e r e i s a divergence from t h e language of previous t r a n s l a t i o n s , i n p a r t i c u l a r DRR t r a n s l a t i o n T 25 J ( a l s o published as National Research Council Technical T r a n s l a t i o n 382).

For example, t h e term " f r o s t l a y e r f f of T

25

J , which d i r e c t l y t r a n s l a t e s t h e Japanese expression, has been replaced, in T

54

J , by "permafrost", except

i n

a few cases where t h i s is n o t t h e c o r r e c t sense. The reason f o r t h i s i s the c o n f l i c t i n g use,

in

Canada, of I t f r o s t l a y e r n t o d e s i g n a t e t h e s e a s o n a l f r e e z i n g a t t h e s u r f a c e

...

a term of l o w i n h e r e n t i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y which might w e l l be replaced by f f t o p - f r o s t t f ( p a r a l l e l t o f f t o p - s o i l f f , e t c . ) .

CONGELATION-STRUCTURE AND FROST-HEAVING RATIO

IN

PERMAFROST AT ASSAN, MANCHURIA

JC

j i Sugaya

I n s t i t u t e of

Lon

Temperature Science, HokkaidE University, Sapporo, Japan.

1. Argument

During a five-day period from September 29th t o October 3rd, 19h3,

a t

a water resources f i e l d research s t a t i o n about f o u r kilometers from t h e v i l l a g e of Assan in t h e North Manchurian permafrost b e l t , t h e author c a r r i e d out a study of t h e congelation-structure of t h e permafrost bed, and c o l l e c t e d permafrost samples. I n t h i s work he u t i l i z e d a p i t excavated by t h e Manchurian Railway Underground Plater Resources Survey Unit f o r geological r e s e a r c h purposes. From study of t h e samples,

it

was p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e frost-heaving

r a t i o f o r t h e bod; a l s o t o suggest, from t h e s t a t e of occurrence of t h e frozen s o i l , a theory of t h e cause of t h e bed's formation. The r e s u l t s a r e s e t f o r t h below.

2. D e t a i l s of Topography and Time

The Assan Valley i s a t about 1 2 0 ~ 4 0 ~ E a s t Longitude and 49'53 1 North

L a t i t u d e , on t h e upper reaches of t h e Merger River, a t r i b u t a r y of t h e Khailar, where

it

p e n e t r a t e s deeply i n t o t h e Greater Khingan l!ountains. It i s

an

old

v a l l e y , w i t h a breadth of about f o u r kilometers and extending back about twelve km. The p o i n t where t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n was made i s about h a l f way up t h e v a l l e y .

On

t h e west of t h e v a l l e y

are

t h e mountains of t h e Khingan Range; t o t h e e a s t , a c r o s s t h e river-bed p l a i n , t h e ground r i s e s i n t o a b e l t of h i l l s ,

as

shown in Fig.2. A t about t h e c e n t e r of t h e p l a i n , t h e r e i s t h e slaw-

flowing Assan River, 1 0 t o

15

m wide. Close t o where t h e f o o t h i l l - s l o p e s of t h e mountains descend eastward onto t h e r i v e r p l a i n , we f i n d a swamp [muskeg] about a meter deep, fed by s p r i n g water; a good d e a l of water a l s o came from t h e borings which were made around t h i s swamp.

The p i t where we made our i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s on t h e border-line between t h e p l a i n and t h e h i l l which may be seen i n theforeground of Fig.2. The slope

in t h i s v i c i n i t y

is

about 2.s0. Four p i t s were dug a t i n t e r v a l s of 50 o r 100 m along a l i n e running s t r a i g h t d m t h i s slope, and ours was t h e t h i r d from t h e upper end. A t t h e time, t h e Water Resources Survey Unit was making a

hydrological and geological stucly a t t h i s s t a t i o n , u s i n g s i x t e e n borings and t h e s e f o u r hand-excavated p i t s . The author, i n t h e p r e s e n t research, d i r e c t e d h i s a t t e n t i o n mainly t o t h e s e p i t s . It was impossible t o study t h e permafrost s t r u c t u r e from d r i l l cores, because t h e water used in d r i l l i n g thawed t h e permafrost

.

The ground

in

t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e No.3 p i t , where we made our study,

w a s

2 o r

3

meters

above t h e water l e v e l

i n

t h e s w a p which may be seen

i n

t h e photograph.

A s f o r

the

pedology of t h i s region,

the

t o p s o i l w a s of h u m s , but

forming a comparatively shallow l a y e r , and t h e grass-cover was r a t h e r poor. Around

a

point 15'0

m

up from No.3 p i t , t h e s u r f a c e s o i l

wm

t h i n , from

70

t o

80

cm

i n

depth. Below

it

was gravel, apparently a weathered sedimentary d e p o s i t . S t i l l higher up t h e s l o p e , t h e r e were places where t h e s t o n e and g r a v e l showed a t t h e ground s u r f a c e and t h e grass-cover disappeared.

Excavation of p i t No.3 had been s t a r t e d on September 2 1 s t . Subsequent progress was a s shovm

in

Table 1.

When t h e author a r r i v e d a t t h e place, he found the p i t q u i t e w e l l corrwed with matting. R e s u l t s of ground temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n measurements (madi. by M r . Yamada of t h e Water Resources Survey U n i t ) during t h e course of t h e excavation a r e shown

i n

Table 2,

The ground. temperatures were measured, a s s h m

in

Fig.3 ( w a l l B),

by

c u t t i n g

a

block out of t h e w a l l ,

50

cm wide and going back 25 cm; then thermometers were i n s e r t e d h o r i z o n t a l l y i n t o t h e new f a c e t o a f u r t h e r depth of 25

cm.

The o r i e n t a t i o n and dimensions of the excavated p i t were a s shown

in F i g .3;

i t

was dug t o 1 x 1.9 m s i z e and taken t o depth 3.5 m.

The s t a t e of t h e p i t w a l l s on t h e 29th, t h e day we began our study, w a s t h a t t h e t o p s o i l and t h e brawn loam l a y e r beneath

i t

were thawed out, and t h e w a l l surface had d r i e d and hardened; f a r t h e r down, t h e w a l l s u r f a c e was permafrost. The permafrost w a l l s u r f a c e had thawed; n e v e r t h e l e s s , p o s s i b l y because of i n t e n s i v e sublimation, t h e e a r t h d i d n o t cave in, but kept more

o r l e s s i t s o r i g i n a l shape. The depth of thawing a t t h e time of our i n v e s t i - gation w a s around 2.1

m,

Between depths 1.9 and 2 , l

m,

pract,ically no i c e could be found even a t a d i s t a n c e of 60 cm back from t h e p i t wall. The permafrost l a y e r below t h i s c o n s i s t e d of bluish-gray c l a y , with a content of humus. It included a g r e a t d e a l of i c e - s t r a t a ; t h e s t r u c t u r e was t o

a l l

appearances very l i k e t h a t which i s seen i n frozen s o i l where frost-heaving has taken place.* This l a y e r went d m t o 3.5 m. Below

it

was

a

bed of f r o z e n gravel, an extremely hard-packed foundation. According t o t h e r e s u l t s from borings around t h e swamp, t h i s g r a v e l foundation, a l t e r n a t i n g with l a y e r s of sand, continues downward. Permafrost was s t i l l found even a t depths of

1 L

t o

15

meters.

The a i r temperatures as read i n t h o p i t were +6.0°c a t 2 m depth and

+IreSOc

a t

3

.5

m,

the e x t e r n a l atmospheric: temperature being

1 4 . 7 O ~

a t t h e time, weather f i n e and b r i g h t , no

wing. Tho

e a r l y morning

minimum

tomperature f o r s e v e r a l days i n succession was

-8

C t o -9OC, f o r which reason, no doubt, t h e frozen s o i l in t h e p i t was very slow

in

thawing.

-

--

u

U.

Nakaya, "The Mechanism of Frost-Heaving; Second Year of F i e l d Survey." KishE Shcshi, s e r i e s 2, vo1.20, N O

.h

(1942

)

.

U. Nnlcaya ,and J .Sugaya. "Perma- f r o s t in t h e Tundra Zone," Rilcen

,

:

]

!

I

vo1.21, No.8 (19L2).

Table

1

Date Depth of Excavation Working Time Remarks

a l l day no digging no digging 3-4 h r s a l l day a l l day a l l day a l l day no digging

During

the day whenever work

was

not in progress, and

a t

n i g h t ,

t h e p i t was covered w i t h matting f o r heat i n s u l a t i o n .

On

t h e 24th, ground temperatures

were read down t o 2 meters depth.

Depth of permafrost surface 1.9

m.

On tho 2Sth, ground temperature

a t 2.2

m was

read.

Survey begun.

Table 2

Depth Ground Remarks

( m

) Temperature

-

-

0.20

+3

.S0c

Measurements

a t

depths down t o 2 meters

0.hO 41.3 were made on t h e 2bth. The 1.9

m

penna-

0.60 4 . 3 f r o s t l e v e l determined by v i s u a l obser-

0.80 41.0 vation. (Atmospheric temperature

1.00 +3.8 +7.3OC. ) 1.20 +2.0 1

.LO

+2 .O 1 . +1.8 1.80 +1.0 1.90 0.0 Surface of permafrost. 2 000

-0.3

2.20 -0.2 Measured

on

t h e 25th.

_--

3 .

Thaw-layer and Permafrost-layor S t r a t i f i c a t i o n

D e t a i l e d determinations were made of the s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of t h e thaw- l a y e r and permafrost l a y e r in w a l l s A,B,C

,D

(as designated in Fig.3 ) of t h e p i t used by u s Fn our i n v e s t i g a t i o n , narnely p i t No.3. The r e s u l t s a r e shown i n Fig,)l, which is t h e developed e l e v a t i o n of t h e f o u r w a l l s of t h e p i t .

The depths shown

i n

t h i s f i g u r e a r e measured from

a

h o r i z o n t a l reference-plane passing through p o i n t P of F i g .3, t h e lovest-lying p o i n t of t h e ground s u r f a c e .

The s o i l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n - s t r u c t u r e around t h e p i t walls was a s seen

i n

Fig.b. The f r o z e n g r a v e l l a y e r a t

3.115 m

forms a q u i t e h o r i z o n t a l f l o o r .

On

it

t h e r e l i e s a 1.2 meter t h i c k stratum of b l u e c l a y containing a g r e a t d e a l of segregated i c e . This i s covered with a l a y e r of sandy loam about 1 0 cm t h i c k . S t i l l higher is a stratum of brawn loam, in a thawed s t a t e , about 2.2

m

t h i c k . A s t h e t o p of t h i s loam approaches t h e ground s u r f a c e , t h e amount of humus in

it

i n c r e a s e s , so t h a t it merges i n t o t h e black humus t o p s o i l .

In

t h e present c a s e , t h i s 2.2

m

thickness of b r m loam c o n s t i t u t e s t h e l o c a l ac t i v o l a y e r F o n d

.+:-

The point t o be noted

i n

Figs.3 and

4

i s t h a t in t h e middle of t h e b l u e c l a y l a y e r in t h e permafrost there i s

a

l a y e r of peat roughly 10

cm

t h i c k , which has a wavy form. Since t h e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of

a l l

t h e o t h e r s o i l s is

roughly l e v e l , t h e wavy foze.m of .this p e a t l a y e r i s

an

outstanding f e a t u r e ,

It means t h a t t h i s peat l a y e r was uneven from t h e start, and it got covered over

e t h

t h e blue c l a y which formed a l e v e l s u r f a c e . Above t h i s again, and

s e v e r a l times in succession, o t h e r l a y e r s of even thickness accumulated. We s h a l l now proceed d i s c u s s t h e s e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n phenomena

in

d e t a i l .

4.

C ~ n & ~ i o n - . s t r u c t u r e of t h e Permafrost Layer

W e made a s t , r a t i f i c a t i o n s k e t c h of .the permafrost column a t t h e

p o i n t n[i a p i t w a l g wherVe t h e s f g r e g a t i o n of i c e - s t r a t a w a s most developed, t h a t

i s ,

where t h e amount of frost,-heaving was presumably g r e a t e s t , and another sketch f o r t h e point where t h e r e w e r e l e a s t i c e - s t r a t a , t h a t i s , where t h e frost-heaving was p r e s ~ m a b l y l e a s t . These p o i n t s were, r e s p e c t i v o l y , between

Tho s u r f a c e strata in t h e permafrost b e l t thaw out to a c e r t a i n depth in

summer and f r e e z e up again in w i n t e r ,

in

most cases f r e e z i n g s o l i d l y t o the underlying permanent1.y f r o z e n l a y e r s . Those upper s t r a t a a r e c a l l e d the a c t i v e l a y e r . In Northern Manchuria t h e depth of the a c t i v e l a y e r is about 2

m.

According t o Shakuniantz, t h e Manchurian permafrost i s t h e southern l i m i t of t h e S i b e r i a n permafrost.

lines

5

and

6

on w a l l B and between l i n e s

9

and 1 0 on w a l l C in Fig.4. From t h e columns a t t h e s e p o i n t s , samples of c o n g e l a t i o n - s t r u c t u r e were taken. These s k e t c h e s a r e s h m in- Fig.5 ( c o l ~ m of n ~ i n i m u m frost-heaving) and Fig.6 (column of maximum f r o s t - h e a v i n g )

.

To o b t a i n t h e p r o f i l e s e c t i o n s , we c u t away t h e thawed s o i l on t h e w a l l , going a *rther 20 cm inward from t h e measurement-plane of Fig.4; from t h i s new f a c e , t h e thiclcnesses of a l l t h e l a y e r s were measured, and samplos were taken. For t h i s reason the s t r a t ~ L f i c a t i o n d i f f e r s a

l i t t l e

from t h a t o f Fig.b. The s q u a r e s in Figs.

5

and

6

show t h e p o s i t i o n s f r o n which t h e samples were taken, and t h e f i g u r e s

i n

t h e squares a r e t h e sample numbers. T h e s e

p o s i t i o n s were s e l e c t e d as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the c o n g e l a t i o n - s t r u c t u r e and s o i l - t y p e s f o r each p a r t of t h e column.

To d e s c r i b e t h e c o n g e l a t i o n - s t r u c t u r e , we s h a l l u s e t h e nomenclature which has been a p p l i e d t o t h e c a s e of frost-heaving.*

I n t h e p r o f i l e of Fig.5, t h e l a y e r of f r o z e n p e a t , about

7

c m t h i c k , appears a t a d e p t h of 266 cm from t h e ground s u r f a c e . Below t h i s we s e e t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r e shows a g r a d u a l v a r i a t i o n from t h e " f r o s t f f typo of c o n g e l a t i o n t o t h e " i c e w i t h s o i l i n c l u s i o n s " t n e . This c o n g e l a t i o n s t r u c t u r e , as i n Fig.5, i s found on w a l l C, and a l s o around l i n e s 1 and 2 on w a l l A , l i n e

7

on w a l l B, l i n e s 12 and

1 h

on w a l l D .

Now we t u r n t o t h e remarkable c o n e e l a t i o n s t r u c t u r e in t h e b l u e c l a y l a y e r under t h e p e a t in Fig.6. The s o i l below t h e p e a t l a y e r b h r e e times

i n

s u c c e s s i o g starts from t h e ffconcretedfl s t a t e +w and ~ a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e s its

c o n t e n t of i c e - s t r a t a , p a s s i n g from t h e f i n e f r o s t t y p e of c o n g e l a t i o n t o t h e f r o s t t y p e , then t o f r o z e n s o i l with ice-lenses, then t o i c e v d t h s o i l i n c l u s i o n s , and f i n a l l y t o pure i c e . Around t h e j u n c t i o n of w a l l s A and B in p a r t i c u l a r , s e v e r a l pure i c e strata, of t h i c k n e s s e s 1 0 cm and over, were found. I n Fig.6,

we s e e t h r e e such c l e a r l y a a r k e d p r o g r e s s i o n s , one above t h e o t h e r . This c o n g e l a t i o n - s t r u c t u r e as in Fig.6 i s seen, o u t s i d e of w a l l B, around l i n e

3

on w a l l A and around 1 3 on w a l l D .

I n t a k i n g o u r samples from each of t h e p r o f i l e s , t h e f r o z e n s o i l was f i r s t s l i c e d o u t in comparatively l a r g e blocks and then s e p a r a t e d according

t o each type of congolation. I n t h e c a s e of l a y e r s where t h e congelation-

s t r u c t ~ r r e v a r i e d in a continuous manner, we took, f o r convenience i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e frost-heaving r a t i o

as

d i s c u s s e d i n f r a , a p o r t i o n e x h i b i t i n g an i n t e r m e d i a t e type of c o n g e l a t i o n . Immediately a f t e r t h u s c u t t i n g up t h e samples, t h e s u r f a c e s were prepared and photographed.

u

U.

Nakaya and C. Magono. The Mechanism of Frost-Heaving; a F i e l d Survey.

Kish5 ShEshi, s e r i e s 2 , ~ 0 1 . 1 8 , No

.lo,

(1940). Nakaya and Magono. An Experimental Study of Frost-Heaving

.

~ i s h 6 S h k h i , vo1.20, No

.S

,

( 1942 )

.

The photographing was done a t t i m e s j u s t a f t e r s u n r i s e o r j u s t b e f o r e s u n s e t , when t h e atmospheric temperatures were r e l a t i v e l y low. These temperatures being as high a s +2-10oC, t h e t a k i n g and photographing of t h e samples had t o be done in h a s t e , and f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h e e r r o r in t h o volume d e t e r m i n a t i o n s ( i n f r a )

i s r a t h e r l a r g e . For photographing t h e c o n g e l a t i o n - s t r u c t u r e s , we used a Leica

camera t e m p o r a r i l y f i t t e d w i t h a

135

mm Z e i s s Sonnar l e n s . R e p r e s e n t a t i v e examples of our photographs of t h e c o n g e l a t i o n - s t r u c t u r e 3 in t h e f r o z e n s o i l

are shown i n F i g s .

8

t o

16.

Fig.8 i s a photo of t h e loam l a y e r a t 2 in Fig,S. Fig. 11 i s t h e permafrost in t h e b l u e c l a y l a y e r a t 1 3 i n Fig,6. A s may be s e e n

i n

t h e s e photos, t h e f r o z e n s o i l above t h e p e a t l a y e r shows v e r y

l i t t l e

s e g r e g a t i o n of i c e - s t r a t a . Fig.9 and Fig.10 show t h e permafrost below t h e p e a t l a y e r i n ~ i g , S ; h e r e t h e i c e - s t r a t a a r e comparatively numerous, F i g s , 1 2 t o

15

a r e photographs of t h e permafrost j u s t below t h e p e a t l a y e r ; t h e y show in d e t a i l t h e p r o g r e s s i o n e x h i b i t e d i n Fig,7, t h a t i s , t h e c o n t e n t of i c e - s t r a t a g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g from t h e llconcretedll s t r u c t u r e . Fig.

16

i s a s p e c i a l l y s e l e c t e d photograph from below t h o p e a t l a y e r a t lj-ne

4

on w a l l B.

W o w when we examine t h e above photographs, w e f i n d t h a t t h e f r o z e n s o i l

in

t h e permafrost l a y e r has a c o n g c l a t i o n - s t r u c t u r e g e n e r a l l y v e r y similar

t o t h a t seen i n t h e phenomenon of frost-heaving. I n p a r t i c u l a r t h e s o i l in

F i g , l 6 e x h i b i t s a t r u l y t y p i c a l ' I f r o ~ t ' ~ t y p e of c o n g e l a t i o n . Therefore we may conclude t h a t t h i s permafrost was formed under c o n d i t i o n s q u i t e similar t o t h o s e

i n

t h e f r o s t - h e w i n g which occurs c l o s e t o t h e ground s u r f a c e ,

In

a l l c a s e s , however, a d e t a i l e d microsco?ic examination of t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e i c e - s t r a t a i n t h e frozen s o i l s shows t h a t they c o n s i s t of t r a n s p a r e n t i c e , I n t h e i c e - s t r a t a of a n n u a l l y f r o z e n s o i l , t h e r e a r e g e n e r a l l y v e r t i c a l air-columns

o r a i r bubbles, and t h e i n t e r f a c e s between t h e columnar

i c e

c r y s t a l s a r e d i s t i n c t l y seen, but i n o u r permafrost l a y e r t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were p r a c t i c a l l y undetec- t a b l e . This i s evidence t h a t t h e f r o z e n s o i l h e r e i s permafrost. The i c e -

s t r a t a

i n

t h e permafrost bed c o n s i s t of i c e which was formed a iong t i m e ago; t h e c r y s t a l s , through s t a n d i n g f o r a l o n g time a t temperatures

in

t h e neighborhood of z e r o ( c e n t i g r a d e ) , have been f u s e d t o g e t h e r b y r e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n i n t o masses of pure i c e .

Immediately a f t e r t a k i n g t h e c o n g e l a t i o n photographs, we c u t t h e f r o z e n s o i l i n t o cubes o f about 7 cm a s i d e , and measured t h e i r volumes; t h e n t h e y were s t o r e d i n h e r m e t i c a l l y s e a l e d tins, f o r l a t e r weighing, These samples were d r i e d o u t i n t h e f i e l d by h e a t i n g t h e t i n s over h o t water, and a g a i n i n

a

d r y e r a t 1 0 0 ~ ~ a f t e r our r e t u r n t o t h e I n s t i t u t e , Then t h e d r y weights were determined,

Our o r i g i n a l i n t e n t i o n , a f t e r c o l l e c t i n g o u r samples a t t h e p o i n t of maximum frost-heaving, was t o excavate t h e f r o z e n g r a v e l l a y e r in o r d e r t o determine i t s l i m i t i n g t h i c k n e s s . Hmever, t h e ground was s o hard t h a t t h e work made l i t t l e progress: two l a b o r e r s got d o m b a r e l y

15

cm

i n

a d a y ' s d i g g i n g , A t t h i s depth we took permafrost sample No .22.

Although t h e d e p t h of t h e p i t had now reached

3

,5

m, t h e v e r t i c a l w a l l s s t a y e d up q u i t e s a f e l y , i n a very s t a b l e c o n d i t i o n , wl-rilo Inre were t h u s t a k i n g our s o i l samples, T h i s was because t h e thaw-layer a t t h e top,

approximately 2

m

t h i c k , had j u s t t h e r i g h t ~ a t e r c o n t e n t and was in a very compact s t a t e . No "run-out l a y e r f t o r l a y e r of e x t r e n ~ e l y high water c o n t e n t was encountered a t t h e i n t e r f a c e between thc? f r o s t l a y e r a i d t h e thaw l a y e r , nor indeed between any of t h e o t h e r l a y e r s . The s o - c a l l e d l1loonV odor w a s v e r y

s t r o n g

in

t h e p i t , s o much s o that,

it

was n o t easy t o remove t h e smell which adhered t o c l o t h i n g , e t c .

C o l l e c t i n g t h e samples took t h r e e f u l l days1 time. The f r o z e n s o i l

weights, r e l a t i v e water contents, and apparent s p e c i f i c g r a v i t i e s

as

determined

f o r a l l theee samples

are

shown in Table

3.

A grain-size a n a l y s i s f o r t h e

permafrost

is

shown

i n

Table

4

and

a

s i m i l a r a n a l y s i s f o r t h e g r a v e l in

Table

5 .

A s

may be seen I n Table

3,

t h e f r o s e n s o i l s all c o n t a i n

a

very

large

f r a c t i o n of water, t h e maxirmrm water content being about

80$,

with averages

about

50%

and

over.

The p e a t was

in a fairly

advanced s t a t e of decomposition, c o r r e s -

Table 3

Point of minimum frost-heaving, Wall C, Fig.5

Sample No. Weight of Weight of Water Ratio of Ratio of Frozen s o i l Apparent Type of S o i l type Photo

frozen s o i l , dry s o i l , content water t o water t o v o l ~ e ( c c ) specific congelation

ma

( w )

W (gr) dry s o i l frozen s o i l gravity

1 172.7 161.5 11.2 0.07 6

.5%

-

-

Thaxed s o i l Reddish-brown

loamy clay

-

2 3 U .3 229 .O 83.3 0.36 26.7 192 1.63 Coarse f r o s t Reddish-brovm Fig. 8

sandy loam

3 288.0 199.5 88.5 0.U 30.7 17h 1.66 Concreted S i l t y blue clay

b 267 .O 161.3 105.7 0.66 39.6

-

-

Fine f r o s t Blue clay

5 2bl .l 97.6 U 3

-5

1 . 59.6

-

1.U ldassively frozen Peat

6 232 .O 110.6 121.b 1.10 52.11

-

-

Coarse f r o s t Blue clay, Fig.9

humus content

7 220.3 76.2 Ub.1 1.89 65.6

-

-. Frost ~ I t h Blue clay, F i g

.lo

ice-lenses humus content

6 121.8 b l .O 09.8 1.97 66.b

-

-

Ice-layer with Blue clay,

s o i l inclusions humus content

Point of m a d m u m frost-heaving, W a l l B, ~ i ~ . 6 .

10 h9.6 33 .O 16.6 0.50 33.5

-

-

Fine f r o s t Reddis h-broun

sandy loam

11 123.3 82 .O h1.3 0.50 33.5

-

-

Fine f r o s t B r m s i l t

1 2 260

.o

192.7 67.3 0.35 25.9 1h9 1.7h Concreted S i l t y blue clay

13 193.5 118.5 75 .O 0.63 38.8

-

-

Pine f r o s t Blue clay Fig.11

l h 86 .O h l .l U . 9 1.09 52.2 78 1.09 bkssively frozen Peat

15 306.5 212 .O 9b.S 0.h5 30.e

-

-

Coarse frost Blue clay, Fig .12

humus content

16 305.3 159.0 llt6.3 0.92 h8.0 250 1.22 Frost Blue clay, Fig .I3

humus content

17 30h .O 127.3 176.7 1.39 58.1 220 1.37 Frost with Blue clay, Fig

.llr

ice-lenses h s content

18 288.1 120.2 167.9 1 . 58.3 233 1.2b Ice-layer with Blue clay, Fig .l5

s o i l inclusions humus content

19 83.5 h6.5 37 .O 0.80 h4.h 63 1.32 Frost Blue clay,

humus content

20 2h9.3 h7.0 202.3 h.30 81.b 2 h6 0.99 Ice-layer w i t h Blue clay,

s o i l inclusions humus content

21 118.8 6b .7 511.1 0.8h b5.6 89 1.3b Fine f r o s t Brown loam

22 239.5 161.7 77.8 0 .L8 32.5

-

-

Concreted Gravel

2 3 118.2 65.0 53.2 0.82 h5.0 83 1.39 Typical f r o s t - Blue clay Fig .16

Table

Ir

Results

of

Grain-size Analysis, Frozen S o i l

Sample No.

Fine

s o i l (<2.00

m )

,

percentages

Remarks

2-0.25

/

0.25-0.05

1

0.05-0.01

1

0.01-0.005

1

<

0.005

1

Thaw layer, clay

Permafrost layer (upper part)

Just

on

top

o f

gravel layer

Permafrost layer (upper

part

)

Blue clay, representative samples

Between blue clay and gravel layers

m i c a 1 permafrost

Table

5

Results of Grain-aiee Analysis, Gravel

5.

Amount of Frost-Heaving

in

the Permafrost Layer

From the survey r e s u l t s which have j u s t been described,

we

s e e t h a t

t h e frosen s o i l

in

t h e permafrost stratum has q u i t e t h e same form

as

is found

i n l o c a l i t i e s where frost-heaving has occurred. Consequently when any building

i s done on the a c t i v e l a y e r

a t

t h e ground surface, t h e heating or thermal

i n s u l a t i n g e f f e c t of the s t r u c t u r e s

w i l l cause a thawing of t h e permafrost,

and t h i s

w i l l

n a t u r a l l y cause

a considerable subsidence.

Let us nuw t r y t o

c a l c u l a t e t h e frost-heaving r a t i o s

in

t h e s o i l s above t h e gravel foundation

l a y e r

and

t h e a c t u a l amount of frost-heaving

i n t h e two s e c t i o n a l p r o f i l e s

which

we

have studied, and from t h i s t o W e r t h e amount of subsidence which

w i l l occur when t h e s o i l thaws out.*

I f

V

i s t h e frozen s o i l volume and

Vo

t h e o r i g i n a l wet s o i l volume,

then according t o t h e findings of the author and h i s colleagues,

i+++

t h e f r o s t -

heaving r a t i o

in

t h e frozen s o i l may

in

general be represented

by

t h e expression:

v-v,

F i

P

-

v

Moreover from experimental research,

V

and

Vo in

equation ( 1 ) are:

Since v

,

,

v i and v,

in

these equations a r e , respectively,

vw

=

makro

(11

we

s e e t h a t they can be found experimentally. The notation here is:-

v

,

=

volume of dry s o i l p a r t i c l e s

v i

=

volume of i c e

v,

=

volume of water

i n the met s o i l

W

=

water content

i n frozen s o i l

G,

=

t r u e s p e c i f i c gravity of s o i l p a r t i c l e s

u

We may here consider t h a t t h e gravol l a y e r does not undergo any f r o s t -

heaving, and thus has no subsidence.

w

U

,

Nakaya and

J

.

Sugaya,

The Mechanism

of Frost-heaving; a F i e l d Survey.

ma

= weight of dry s o i l

ro I r a t i o of saturated water content t o weight of d r y s o i l .

The

c o e f f i c i e n t k which modifies

ro

has

in

_{most cases}

_a

_{value of about 0.&-0.9.}

C1 and C2

are

constants t o allow f o r t h e amount of air-spaces

i n

frozen s o i l

and

wet s o i l respectively; they a r e generally

i n

t h e range 1.0 t o 1.1. Since

C1 = C2, t h e s e constants

may

be dropped from the above equations. Accordingly,

when we s u b s t i t u t e (2), ( 3 ) and

( b )

in equation ( l ) , we have:

NOW we use

( 5 )

t o c a l c u l a t e t h e frost-heaving r a t i o s of t h e s o i l s in Table

3.

Table

6

shows t h e measured values of Gs and

ro

f o r t h e s o i l s

i n

Table 3. Appropriate values of k a r e 0.9 f o r loam and 1.0 f o r clay, and t h e

corresponding Values of kro a r e thus 0.35 and 0.44.

Table

6

S o i l type Sample Nos. Gs ro

dense very dense mean kro

Brown loam 2 +9 +10 41 2.49 0.42 0.36 0.39 0.35

3

+6

+7 +8

Blue c l a y 11+12+13 2

.I46

O.lr8 0 .39 0.44 0.L4

+15-20

Using t h e f i g u r e s

i n

Tables

3

and

6,

we now c a l c u l a t e V and Vo, and

then t h e frost-heaving r a t i o f o r each s o i l , w i t h r e s u l t s a s shom in Table

7.

Then we multiply t h e values by t h e frozen s o i l layer-heights f o r each type of

congelation, as seen in Figs.5 and

6,

and thus obtain the amount,^ of f r o s t -

heaving. The r e s u l t s are given i n Table

8.

The t o t a l values shom in the

l a s t column represent t h e amounts of frost-heaving in t h e two v e r t i c a l p r o f i l e -

s e c t i o n s , namoly 34.7 cm

a t

t h e point of m i n i m frost-heaving in Fig.b,

and

50.2 cm a t t h e point of maximum frost-heaving i n Fig.k.

We conclude t h a t when these frozen s o i l l a y e r s thaw, subsidence w i l l t a k e place in amounts roughly oqual t o t h e above amounts of frost-heaving.

Consequently when we undertake t o put up buildings or other s t r u c t u r e s i n t h e s e

permafrost areas, it seems obvious t h a t we should f i r s t , of a l l d i g t e s t - p i t s

t o determine tho depth of t h e permafrost, whether

it

i s frost-heaved, and what,

t h e amounts of frost-heaving a r e . Then t h e work could proceed on

a

b a s i s of

6.

Discussion

--

of t h e Origin of t h e Permafrost Bed.

Now we come t o t h e question of what form of permafrost t h e above-

described f r o z e n s o i l l a y e r i s , and here we f i n d many questions a r i s i n g .

S m g i n +t says t h a t t h e region of our survey is on t h e southern boundary of

t h e permafrost s h e e t , and t h i s i s confinred by l a t e r r e s e a r c h c a r r i e d out by

t h e bfanchurian Rail.wav. Vle have spoken of f i n d i n g i c e , a t Assan, t o a depth of

around

15

meters below t h e ground s u r f a c e , and from r ~ i n t e r ~ e a s o r ~ e a r t h -

temperature measurements a t Assan v i l l a g e , t h e thickness of t h e a c t i v e l a y e r

i n t h i s region mas fourid t o be about 2 m.Hc Thus t h e r e i s no doubt t h a t t h e

frozen s o i l a t t h e p o i n t where our s t u d y was m d a i s indeed t h e permafrost.

N m

we s h a l l t r y t o draw some conclusions r e t h e o r i g i n and formation of t h e permafrost l a y e r a t t h i s point.

i ) C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of Permafrost according t o

Origin.

.-

A s regards t h e o r i g i n of permafrost,

it

has been argued t h a t t h e r e

a r e two cases. The f i r s t i s when very l o r atmospheric temperatures cause

permafrost t o form, by t h e draining-off of heat and gradual p e n e t r a t i o n of

f r o s t i n t o t h e ground. Tho second

i s

when a s u r f a c e l a y e r of frozen s o i l i s

b u r i e d by somo sudden occurrence, s o t h a t

it

never thaws out again.

Now from t h e Soviet Union we have numerous s t u d i e s in connection w i t h

t h e f i r s t of t h e s e cases, b u t they may be regarded only as general t h e o r i z i n g

about t h e o r i g i n of t h e p r e s e n t l y e x i s t i n g permafrost l a y e r . Thus we have s t i l l

t o hear of any evidence, q u a l i t a t i v e o r q ~ ~ a n t i t a t i v e , based on a c t u a l examples

of t h e causation a t i n d i v i d u a l p l a c e s , Moreover, because of t h e l a c k of

o b s e r v a t i o n a l d a t a , we ar5

s t i l l

ignorant of whether t h e permafrost a t any

p a r t i c u l a r place i s , under t h e p r e s e n t c l i m a t i c conditions,

i n

process of form-

ing o r i n process of disappearing.

A s f o r t h e second case, we may t a k e

it

t h a t t h i s can occur from time

t o time i n t h e permafrost zone. This i s amply evidenced by t h e remains of

mamrrioths which, exposed by r e c e n t earth-novements, a r e discovered from time

t o time a t p o h t s 3x1 t h e Arctic Ocean c o a s t a l region where t h e permafrost i s

f a i r l y t h i c k ; t h e s e cadavers must have been buried suddenly,

i n a

f r e s h

condition ,M

w

M e

Sumgin. Permafrost i n Soviet T e r r i t o r y . Vladivostok, 1927. ( T r a n s l a t o r ' s

note:

See

item 17189, A r c t i c Bibliography, A r c t i c I n s t i t u t e of North America,

1953. )

wt U , Nakaya and

J,

Sugaya. A Report on Permafrost Surveying (Manchuria 1943 ),

Teion Kagaku, 2 (1.949), 119. Defence Research Board T r a n s l a t i o n T 25

J;

National

Research ~ o u n c n of Canada, Tech. T r a n s l a t i o n

3

82.

3 . w E

,W

.Pf itzenmayer

.

In Search of lfammoths

.

_{T r w s l a t e d . by Ken} j i Hashiguchi ,

However, if we f i n d t h a t i n s t e a d of dependlngon such a c c i d e n t a l d i s c o v e r i e s we can r e v e a l t h e o r i g i n s of t h e permafrost by study of t h e

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and congelation-structure ln t h e permafrost as it now e x i s t s ,

then t h i s

is

something which may f u r n i s h important c l u e s

in

permafrost research.

Let

us

examine t h e r e s u l t s of our survey from t h i s p o i n t of view,

i i ) Origin of t h e permafrost a t Assan a s deduced from the s t r a t i f i c a t i o n p i c t u r e .

I f we examine t h e permafrost bed

in

Fig.4 from t h e point of v i e w

of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , we see a group of l a y e r s deposited on t h e n e a r l y l e v e l

foundation l a y e r of gravel: a t t h e bottom t h e s i l t y loam l a y e r , then

a

blue

c l a y l a y e r , and on t h i s t h e p e a t l a y e r . Over t h e p e a t t h e r e is

a

second l a y e r

of

blue c l a y , obviously

a

l a t e r d e p o s i t . Above t h i s again t h e r e i s a t h i r d

group of l a y e r s , reddish-brown sandy loam and brown loaqy c l a y , r e p r e s e n t i n g

s e v e r a l successive d e p o s i t s . That t h e t h r e e groups of s o i l - l a y e r s w e r e l a i d

down a t d i f f e r e n t times

i s

evident from t h e presence of t h e p e a t l a y e r , and

from

t h e f a c t t h a t t h e second l a y e r of fine-grained b l u e c l a y i s o v e r l a i n

by l a y e r s of coarse-grained loam. Moreover, from t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s second

blue c l a y l a y e r and t h e loam l a y e r s over it r i s e h i g h e s t above t h e h o r i z o n t a l

plane a t l i n e

8

on w a l l C (Figs.

3

and

L),

we r e a l i s e t h a t t h e d e p o s i t s here

have been washed down, t h r e e o r more times i n succession, from this d i r e c t i o n ,

t h a t

is,

from up t h e present ground-slope.

The question here a r i s i n g i s whether t h e s o i l below t h e p e a t l a y e r

was frozen before

it

was covered over by t h e e a r t h and sand nuw l y i n g above

it.

As.we s e e from Table

8,

t h e amount of frost-heaving

in

t h e l a y e r under the

peat, f o r i n s t a n c e , a t t h e p o i n t of maximum frost-heaving, i s

L1.5

cm (in t h i s

l a y e r a l o n e ) . If it i s assumed t h a t t h e f r e e z i n g took place a f t e r t h i s l a y e r

was covered over, then t h e upper s u r f a c e of t h e second c l a y l a y e r would have

been pushed up i n t o t h e same unevennesses a s the peat l a y e r . Actually, however,

t h i s boundary i s n e a r l y level..

The same conclusion follows i f we consider t h e frost-heaving i n t h e

second c l a y l a y e r . A s may be seen i n Table 7, t h e amount of frost-heaving

in

t h i s l a y e r i s comparatively small. The f a c t t h a t t h e l a y e r i s t h i c k

a t

one

s i d e and t h i n

a t

t h e o t h e r cannot be due t o d i f f e r e n c e s

in

t h e amount of f r o s t -

heaving.

A l l t h e above circumstances i n d i c a t e t h a t f r o z e n s o i l l a y e r under

t h e p e a t was a l r e a d y frozen b e f o r e

it

was covered up, w i t h t h e same congelation-

s t r u c t u r e a s now. Thus we know t h a t t h e higher l a y e r s were deposited on t o p

of t h e f'rozen p e a t l a y e r which had a l r e a d y been buckled up i n t o h i l l s and hollows.

i i i ) Origin of t h e f r o s t l a y e r a s deduced from the congelation-structure.

The above may a l s o be deduced from t h e congolation-structure. Vie

have seen i n Section

3

and i n Fig.7 t h a t t h e f r o z e n s o i l l a y e r under t h e poat

d i s p l a y s a continuous progression i n congelation-structures, from t h e " f i n e

f r o s t " type t o t h e " f r o s t " type, then from frozen s o i l w i t h i n t e r s p e r s e d i c e -

l e n s e s t o a pure i c e l a y e r . Moreover, t h i s progression i s repeated a t d i f f e r e n t

l e v e l s . A s may be seen from t h e s e l e c t e d photograph

i n Pig

-16, t h e permafrost

shows q u i t e t h e same congelation-structures a3 t h e single-year f r o z e n s o i l s

found in frost-heaving surveys i n Hokkaid6 and elsewhere. These s t r u c t u r e s a r e q u i t e d f l f e r e n t from t h e congelation-structures i n permafrost formed a t

s i m i l a r depths in t h e s o i l by s t e a d y - s t a t e thermal conduction, a s seen

in

another case by t h e a u t h o r , d u r i n g a survey c a r r i e d o u t

in

1945 i n t h e

Manchurian hinterland.*

These p o i n t s a l l suggest t h a t t h e permafrost under t h e p e a t l a y e r

i s s o i l which was frozen a t g e n e r a l l y t h e

sane

r a t e s of congelation

as

observed in f r e e a i n g which t a k e s place c l o s e t o t h e ground s u r f a c e and under

t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e e x t e r n a l atmospheric temperature v a r i a t i o n s .

Moreover t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s e l a y e r s of t h e permafrost have under-

gone a good d e a l of frost-heaving i s no doubt duo t o tho f a c t t h a t t h e g r a v e l

bed,

sinco

we f i n d

it

f r o z e n

in

a water-saturated s t a t e , must E e f o r e f r e e z i n g

havo c o n s t i t u t e d a good source of water.* Table 8 shows us t h a t t h e amount

of frost-heaving of t h e second b l u e - c l a y la.yer over t h e p e a t i s very sma3.1,

in s p i t e of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e s o i l i s about t h e same as i n

t h e b l u e c l a y l a y e r below t h e p e a t . Again, t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s o i l , a s in t h e

sample of Fig.12, shuvrs f r o s t shrinkage, l i k e t h a t seen in t h e case of

"closed system'' frost-heaving,+= i n d i c a t e s t h a t in t h i s second c l a y l a y e r t h e

congelation took place under conditions such t h a t t h e supply of water from b e l m w a s c u t o f f , because of t h e p e a t l a y e r ' s being a l r e a d y f r o z e n .

Nuw a s regards t h e f r e e z i n g under t h e p e a t l a y e r , i f from Table

8

we

c a l c u l a t e t h e wet-earth h e i g h t s , b e f o r e f r e e z i n g , a t t h e p l a c e s of maximum and

minimum frost-heaving, and i f we compare t h e s e h e i g h t s , then

in

each c a s e t h e

h e i g h t ho of o r i g i n a l wet e a r t h t u r r ~ s o u t t o be around 32.6 a

4

.O cm. Thus

we may t a k e

it

t h a t t h e b l u e c l a y under t h e peat, b e f o r e

it

f r o z e , was roughly

l e v e l i n s t r a t f l i c a t i o n

.

The uneven frost-heaving of t h e s a i d l a y e r was probably due t o t h e

varying t h i c k n e s s of t h e p e a t l a y e r which topped

it.

In f a c t , if we examine

F i g o h we f i n d , g e n e r a l l y speaking, t h a t a t p l a c e s where t h e frost-heaving i s

g r e a t t h e p e a t l a y e r i s t h i n , and v i c e v e r s a , Moreover, a t t h e time when

t h e p e a t l a y e r was a t t h e ground s u r f a c e and immediately a f t e r it got covered

over w i t h e a r t h and sand, it had a considerable t h i c k n e s s , a conclusion which

we may draw from t h e f a c t t h a t d e n s i t y of t h o l a y e r i s q u i t e high, as ore s e e

in Table

3.

A t t h e time when it got buried, t h i s t h i c k p e a t l a y e r c o n s t i t u t e d

an

e f f i c i e n t p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e f r o z e n e a r t h ' s thawing.

+t J. Sugaya. Permafrost Survey a t Shiichi in t h e g r e a t e r Khingan Mountains,

1945. (Unpublished. )

' ? ~ ~ ~ ? O e ~ " O e - f " O , ? p S O e ~ a q ( ? ? ~ ~ r l r c ~ u \ u \ r l r - - r - - O \ o o O r l ~ r l O C U \ O c h r l r l 3 c O N r c 3 r l ( ? r l O \ ( ? m c U o m c u rl 1 r l r l cu

I

C U e S e ' s c ' ; \ ? ' Z ~ o * ' Z ~ e - ~ ~ o e p S o e - ? m e ~ q s t o \ O r \ ; f L t P - - m 0 \ m o O \ u \ r c c u O \ m c h u \ + \ O m O \ \ O m C U \ O \ O O + ~ O O m m ~ l n r l r l r l

3

r l r l r l r l r l r l _\ d + \ O m a C h m c O m A N 3 r l A a O m O \ a O \ o \ r l m m - r l r l ~ + c O O ' u O \ a z t ( U u \ u \ r l r l r l rl r l r l r l r l cu

I

. ..._ .... I . . . ._ .,+ ... ....__ _ C . . . . _

??c';~-i"3.7'?9"?Q.V!?pSo':9~r!CU.

m - V \ r l = J O A \ O r l rcm-j'Q\O e C c c v z 3 m a 3 a O c v a ~ O r l a \ O t c O \ ~ t c Q m O u \ ~ r l r l r l rl r l r l r l cu " . . . ,.--. ... 0

=?'??2='!?993\??9?c".'?9Y?

I

C u m r ( O \ O r ( - ~ m C U c u - c u m + O w r c c j ~ Cu m \ o r l C c 3 O \ m a 3 O \ r l r l V \ n J C v 3 ~ = T \ D a r l r l r l rl rl rl CU rl I+ rl

I

Table

8

-- -

Sample Frost- Height of Amount of Amount of S t r a t a Total

No. heaving frozen s o i l f r o s t - f r o s t - d i v i s i o n s f r o s t -

r a t i o f o r each heaving, heaving, heaving

%

congelation f o r each f o r each (cm

>

s t r u c t u r e congelation l a y e r (cm)

(cm> s t r u c t u r e

(cm)

2

_{___,._.}

6.2

5

.g 0 .3 0

.3

I,..L

_

. _ . , . _ I l . ~ . . , - . , . . ~ . , - *---*.- ... ..--*--.---..- Sandy loam l a y e r 3 10 .O 11.O 1 .1 upper blue

- 4

-,.--.-...., 24 a 9 ...""...

?

,4

..,

,,.,.,

,., ,.-..

,.,.,9

*6

-.w..._.,,,,,,,.l.,~L

c l a y l a y e r (4)* 2b.9 13 .O

3.2

Lower blue 6 47

.6

18

.O 6.6 c l a y l a y e r 7 66.2

14

.O

9

.1

8

... &&--**.

6 7 2

,..,,.,.*m*pv-.

14.*!?*

..-,

,---.. >..

2

* 4 . n : - 3 K 2 1 24.2 1 0 .O

9

..,..-...-.--.~-..-..-.-...,..,..,.,... .

2.*4

..-....

...

.,.,_ ....

....,..

2:k-

Brown loam 34.7 l a y e r 2? 02 -.---

%3-&----.

10-0-

-...----.--.

?

.3"

--

2

.L

15

5

-6

1 4

.Q 0

.Y

16

40.3 10 .O

4

.O 17 56.2 22

.o

12

.3

Pure i c e 100 .O

7

.O 7 .O l a y e r Pure i c e 100 .O 2 .O 2 .O l a y e r 1 9 34 .O

6

.O 2 .O Sandy loam l a y e r Uppor blue c l a y l a y e r Lower blue c l a y l a y e r Brown loam 50.2 l a y e r

9 No s o i l samples taken here; t h e amount of frost-heaving shown has been

calculated from t h e thiclonesses of t h e s t r u c t u r e s

i n

t h e l a y e r , using t h e

f rost-heaving r a t i o found f o r t h e @ e i g h b o r i n d point of

similar

congelat ion-

CONCLUSIONS

An

excavatory survey was c a r r i e d out i n the permafrost b e l t of

North Manchuria during t h e season of g r e a t e s t thawing of t h e a c t i v e l a y e r .

It

was found t h a t t h e thav penetrates t o t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e 2

m

l e v e l ;

below t h i s

is

t h e permafrost formation. S o i l samples were taken both from

t h e a c t i v e l a y e r and from the permafrost l a y e r , and tho water-contents,

congelation-structures, e t c . , were determined. The study showed t h a t t h e

frozen s o i l l a y e r has congelation-structures similar t o those observed in

ordinary frost-heaving near t h e ground surface; i n f a c t t h e presence of

s t r o n g f rost-heaving

vras

evident.

After c o l l s t i n g these r e s u l t s , t h e permafrost l a y e r was again studied from t h e points of view of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and congelation-structure.

It w a s

concluded t h a t t h e f r o z e n s o i l under t h e

s t r a t u m

of peat i n t h e permafrost l a y e r had once been a t the ground surface and had frozen and

frost-heaved, a f t e r which

it g o t

buried t o i t s present depth by e a r t h which,

s e v e r a l times in succession during t h e s p r i n g thaws, w a s washed down from

t h e slope above; consequently it no longer thawed, and thus became p a r t of

t h e now-existing permafrost bed. W e found t h a t we were a b l e t o confirm t h i s o r i g i n q u a l i t a t i v e l y by our study of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and congelation-structure in t h e permafrost l a y e r .

The above survey was c a r r i e d out under t h e d i r e c t i o n of Professor Ukichir6 Nakaya, a s p a r t of a research program of t h e Manchurian Railways1 committee on Measures a g a i n s t Extreme Cold. During t h e f i e l d work, a s s i s t a n c e was received from Vice-I)irector Takano of t h e Construction and hlaintenance

Bureau, and from t h e personnel of t h e [Manchurian Railway] Construction Office

Fig. 2

NORTHEAST C---

Y POINT WHERE GROUND TEMPERATURES TAKEN LlNE 4

-

0 . 5 M n _?' L I N ~ 3 LINE 6 LINE7 /' /

7

Fig. 3

+

+

/ @ - /

MAXIMUM SLOPE te.sO) W 0 0 J LINE 2 cn W t C Z 3 LINE t

5:

P ,/ k' LlNE OF - 0 0 /

'

f A 0 0 9 0

'

/'

C 0 / 0 C /' / 0 0'

+

0 0 0 f / / D .,/' + I' f cp

LINE I 4 LINE 13 LINE I t LINE II

1.0 M

.

LINE 6

cn

J LlNE Q

5

w f LINE 10 C a 3 L

o THAW LAYER 0 0 a - _{(ACTIVE L A Y E R )} 0 a " - LL L O O P E R M A F R O S T .E 0 0

---

-

- -

o n 6

Fig. 5

PERMAFROST PROFILE, WALL C

Fig. 6

PERMAFROST PROFILE, WALL B

T - P e r m a f r o s t t a b l e (not c l e a r 1 y d e f i n e d )

Fig.

7

Fig. 8

Fig. 9

Fig. II

Fig. 13

Fig.

14