Safe Transport of Radioactive Material

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I N T E R N A T I O N A L A T O M I C E N E R G Y A G E N C Y

T R A I N I N G C O U R S E S E R I E S

E N N A 2 0 0 2

1

Third Edition

V I E N N A , 2 0 0 2

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IAEA SAFETY RELATED PUBLICATIONS

IAEA SAFETY STANDARDS

Under the terms of Article III of its Statute, the IAEA is authorized to establish standards of safety for protection against ionizing radiation and to provide for the application of these standards to peaceful nuclear activities.

The regulatory related publications by means of which the IAEA establishes safety standards and measures are issued in the IAEA Safety Standards Series. This series covers nuclear safety, radiation safety, transport safety and waste safety, and also general safety (that is, of relevance in two or more of the four areas), and the categories within it are Safety Fundamentals,Safety RequirementsandSafety Guides.

Safety Fundamentals (blue lettering) present basic objectives, concepts and principles of safety and protection in the development and application of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.

Safety Requirements(red lettering) establish the requirements that must be met to ensure safety. These requirements, which are expressed as ‘shall’ statements, are governed by the objectives and principles presented in the Safety Fundamentals.

Safety Guides (green lettering) recommend actions, conditions or procedures for meeting safety requirements. Recommendations in Safety Guides are expressed as ‘should’ statements, with the implication that it is necessary to take the measures recommended or equivalent alternative measures to comply with the requirements.

The IAEA’s safety standards are not legally binding on Member States but may be adopted by them, at their own discretion, for use in national regulations in respect of their own activities. The standards are binding on the IAEA in relation to its own operations and on States in relation to operations assisted by the IAEA.

Information on the IAEA’s safety standards programme (including editions in languages other than English) is available at the IAEA Internet site

www.iaea.org/ns/coordinet

or on request to the Safety Co-ordination Section, IAEA, P.O. Box 100, A-1400 Vienna, Austria.

OTHER SAFETY RELATED PUBLICATIONS

Under the terms of Articles III and VIII.C of its Statute, the IAEA makes available and fosters the exchange of information relating to peaceful nuclear activities and serves as an intermediary among its Member States for this purpose.

Reports on safety and protection in nuclear activities are issued in other series, in particular the IAEA Safety Reports Series, as informational publications. Safety Reports may describe good practices and give practical examples and detailed methods that can be used to meet safety requirements. They do not establish requirements or make recommendations.

Other IAEA series that include safety related publications are the Technical Reports Series, the Radiological Assessment Reports Series, the INSAG Series, the TECDOC Series, the Provisional Safety Standards Series, the Training Course Series, theNational Competent Authorities List, theIAEA Services Seriesand the Computer Manual Series, andPractical Radiation Safety Manuals andPractical Radiation Technical Manuals. The IAEA also issues reports on radiological accidents and other special publications.

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TRAINING COURSE SERIES No. 1

Safe Transport

of Radioactive Material

Third Edition

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, VIENNA, 2002

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The originating Section of this publication in the IAEA was:

Radiation Safety Section International Atomic Energy Agency

Wagramer Strasse 5 P.O. Box 100 A-1400 Vienna, Austria

SAFE TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL IAEA, VIENNA, 2002

IAEA-TCS-01/03 ISSN 1018–5518

Printed by the IAEA in Austria December 2002

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FOREWORD

Since 1957, the International Atomic Energy Agency has exerted efforts towards developing and maintaining its Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material.

The IAEA’s Transport Regulations are used worldwide as the basis for the safety requirements of relevant international organizations (including the United Nations Economic and Social Council, International Civil Aviation Organization, International Maritime Organization, UN Economic Commission for Europe, Universal Postal Union, and MERCOSUR/MERCOSUL) as well as the national transport regulations of many IAEA Member States. Indeed, Member States recognized at the IAEA General Conference in 1998 that “compliance with regulations which take account of the Agency’s Transport Regulations is providing a high level of safety during the transport of radioactive materials”.

Meeting its statutory obligation to foster the exchange and training of scientists and experts in the field of peaceful uses of atomic energy, the IAEA has developed a standardized approach to transport safety training as a means of helping Member States to implement the Transport Regulations. Under this approach, and compatible with a train-the-trainer concept, the IAEA provides training at the international level on the full requirements of its Transport Regulations to Member States’ competent authorities responsible for regulating the safe transport of radioactive material in their respective countries. In turn, those that have been trained by the IAEA are expected to disseminate their knowledge at a national level on applicable aspects of the Transport Regulations.

This training manual is an anchor of the standardized approach to training: it contains all the topics presented in the sequential order recommended by the IAEA for the student to gain a thorough understanding of the body of knowledge that is needed to ensure that radioactive material – ranked as Class 7 in the United Nations’ nomenclature for dangerous goods – is transported safely. The explanations in the text refer, where needed, to the appropriate requirements in the IAEA’s Transport Regulations; additional useful information is also provided.

Thus, this training manual – in addition to the Transport Regulations and their supporting documents – is used by the IAEA as the basis for delivering all of its training courses on the safe transport of radioactive material. Enclosed with the training manual is a CD-ROM that contains the text of the manual as well as the visual aids that are used at the IAEA’s training courses. The visual aids are presented in modules that are keyed to the chapters of the training manual.

IAEA training courses are mainly intended for national competent authorities for radioactive material, and address the full requirements of the Transport Regulations.

However, training is also needed at courses not usually organized by the IAEA: for regulatory staff needing only certain aspects of the Transport Regulations (e.g., non-nuclear fuel cycle requirements) or for non-regulatory personnel (e.g. consignors and carriers, emergency first responders and drivers); visual aids for such courses are also available on the CD-ROM.

Training courses for Member States’ national purposes may be based on these other sets of visual aids, the contents of which need only be expanded to address applicable national requirements.

This edition of the training manual is based on TS-R-1 (ST-1, Revised) the 2000 Edition of the IAEA’s Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material. It features exercises that have been included at the end of every chapter to help students gauge their own

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understanding of the topics addressed in each chapter. Prepared answers can be obtained by training course administrators from the IAEA on request.

The Secretariat wishes to express its gratitude to all experts who have contributed to the preparation of this manual, and especially to Messrs. B. Dodd (USA) and L. Smith (United Kingdom).

Information about the IAEA’s transport safety training programme may be obtained from:

M.T.M. Brittinger

Div. of Radiation and Waste Safety IAEA, P.O. Box 100

A-1400 Vienna, Austria Tel.: (+43 1) 2600 Ext. 21262 Fax.: (+43 1) 26007

e-mail: M.T.Brittinger@iaea.org

EDITORIAL NOTE

The use of particular designations of countries or territories does not imply any judgement by the publisher, the IAEA, as to the legal status of such countries or territories, of their authorities and institutions or of the delimitation of their boundaries.

The mention of names of specific companies or products (whether or not indicated as registered) does not imply any intention to infringe proprietary rights, nor should it be construed as an endorsement or recommendation on the part of the IAEA.

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CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION . . . 1

1.1. Objectives . . . 2

1.2. Course overview . . . 3

1.3. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) . . . 5

1.3.1. Statute . . . 5

1.3.2. Mission and functions . . . 6

1.3.3. Roles and responsibilities. . . 6

1.3.4. Services and information . . . 9

1.4. Uses of radioactive material . . . 10

1.4.1. Food irradiation . . . 10

1.4.2. Health care product and consumer product irradiation . . . 11

1.4.3. Insect control . . . 11

1.4.4. Nuclear applications in medicine . . . 11

1.4.5. Nuclear applications in industry. . . 12

1.4.6. Nuclear reactors . . . 12

1.5. The IAEA’s Transport Safety programme . . . 13

1.5.1. Organization . . . 13

1.5.2. Missions and functions. . . 13

1.5.3. Roles and responsibilities. . . 14

1.5.4. Interfaces with transport safety regulatory organizations . . . 14

1.6. IAEA Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material . . . 17

1.6.1. History and development . . . 17

1.6.2. Basic philosophy . . . 19

1.6.3. Scope . . . 21

1.6.4. Unit . . . 22

1.7. Documents supporting the Regulations . . . 22

1.8. Overview of competent authority responsibilities . . . 23

1.9. Interfaces between transport and other aspects of radioactive material . . . 24

1.9.1. Interfaces with waste management programmes and with facilities . . . 24

1.9.2. Interfaces with other materials . . . 25

1.9.3. Interfaces with safeguards and physical protection functions . . . 25

REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 1. . . 26

EXERCISES FOR CHAPTER 1 . . . 28

2. REVIEW OF RADIOACTIVITY AND RADIATION . . . 33

2.1. Basic atomic and nuclear structure. . . 33

2.1.1. Atoms and nuclei . . . 33

2.1.2. Elements . . . 33

2.1.3. Isotopes. . . 35

2.1.4. Notation . . . 35

2.1.5. Prefixes . . . 36

2.2. Radioactivity. . . 37

2.2.1. Chart of the nuclides . . . 37

2.2.2. Radioactive decay and half-life . . . 38

2.2.3. Quantities and Units . . . 39

2.3. Radiation . . . 40

2.3.1. Ionization . . . 41

2.3.2. Alpha radiation . . . 41

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2.3.4. Gamma radiation . . . 42

2.3.5. Neutron radiation . . . 43

2.4. Fission . . . 44

2.4.1. Criticality. . . 44

3. REVIEW OF RADIATION PROTECTION PRINCIPLES . . . 49

3.1. Some quantities and units. . . 49

3.1.1. Absorbed dose . . . 49

3.1.2. Radiation weighting factors and equivalent dose . . . 49

3.1.3. Tissue weighting factors and effective dose . . . 50

3.1.4. Committed equivalent dose . . . 51

3.1.5. Committed effective dose . . . 51

3.1.6. Collective equivalent dose and collective effective dose . . . 51

3.1.7. Collective effective dose commitment . . . 51

3.1.8. Radiation level. . . 51

3.2. Background radiation levels . . . 52

3.2.1. Natural background radiation . . . 52

3.2.2. Man-made background radiation . . . 53

3.3. Biological effects . . . 53

3.3.1. Short term biological effects . . . 53

3.3.2. Long term biological effects . . . 54

3.4. The system of radiation protection. . . 55

3.4.1. Principles . . . 56

3.4.2. Justification . . . 56

3.4.3. Dose limits. . . 56

3.4.4. Optimization . . . 57

3.4.5. Dose constraints . . . 58

3.5. Control of the radiation hazard. . . 58

3.5.1. Time. . . 58

3.5.2. Distance . . . 59

3.5.3. Shielding . . . 59

3.6. Control of the contamination hazard . . . 59

3.6.1. Containment . . . 59

3.6.2. External and internal personal contamination. . . 59

3.6.3. Protective clothing. . . 59

3.6.4. Fixed and removable contamination . . . 60

3.7. Controlled areas . . . 60

3.8. Radiation protection programmes . . . 60

4. REGULATORY TERMINOLOGY . . . 65

4.1. Special form . . . 65

4.2. A₁and A₂. . . 65

4.3. Specific activity . . . 65

4.4. Exemptions . . . 65

4.5. Excepted material . . . 66

4.6. Low specific activity material . . . 66

4.6.1. LSA-I . . . 66

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4.6.3. LSA-III . . . 66

4.7. Surface contaminated objects . . . 66

4.8. Fissile material . . . 66

4.9. Fissile excepted . . . 67

4.10. Consignment, consignor, consignee, carrier and conveyance . . . 67

4.11. Exclusive use . . . 67

4.12. Packaging, containment and confinement . . . 67

4.12.1. Excepted packages . . . 67

4.12.2. Industrial packages . . . 68

4.12.3. Type A packages . . . 68

4.12.4. Type B packages. . . 68

4.12.5. Type C packages. . . 69

4.12.6. Fissile packages . . . 69

4.12.7. Overpacks, freight containers, intermediate bulk containers and tanks. . . 69

4.13. Low dispersible radioactive material . . . 69

4.14. Transport index. . . 69

4.15. Criticality safety index . . . 69

4.16. Special arrangement . . . 70

4.17. Competent authority . . . 70

4.18. Quality assurance and compliance assurance. . . 70

REFERENCE FOR CHAPTER 4 . . . 70

5. BASIC SAFETY CONCEPTS: MATERIALS AND PACKAGES . . . 75

5.1. Basic safety concepts . . . 75

5.1.1. Inherent safety . . . 75

5.1.2. Passive safety . . . 76

5.1.3. Active safety. . . 78

5.1.4. Summary of objectives of Transport Regulations . . . 78

5.2. Radioactive material . . . 78

5.3. Packages . . . 79

5.4. Optimization . . . 80

6. ACTIVITY LIMITS AND MATERIAL RESTRICTIONS . . . 83

6.1. Derivation of A₁/A₂limits . . . 83

6.1.1. Background. . . 83

6.1.2. Basis of the Q-system. . . 84

6.1.3. Dosimetric models and assumptions . . . 86

6.1.4. Alpha emitters . . . 92

6.1.5. Neutron emitters . . . 92

6.1.6. Bremsstrahlung radiation . . . 93

6.1.7. Tritium and its compounds. . . 93

6.1.8. Radon and its progeny . . . 93

6.1.9. Assessment of low specific activity material having unlimited A₁or A₂values. . . 94

6.1.10. Tabulation of Q values and selection of A₁and A₂limits . . . 94

6.1.11. Consideration of physical and chemical properties . . . 96

6.1.12. Multiple exposure pathways. . . 96

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6.2. A₁/A₂ratios, mixtures, and unlisted radionuclides . . . 97

6.3. A₁/A₂values for mixtures, unknown quantities and unlisted radionuclides . . . 98

6.3.1. Mixtures of radionuclides. . . 98

6.3.2. Known radionuclides, but unknown individual activities . . . 99

6.3.3. Unlisted radionuclides . . . 99

6.4. Material types . . . 100

6.4.1. Exempt quantities for material and consignments . . . 100

6.4.2. Use of A₂values for LSA material. . . 100

6.4.3. Low dispersible material . . . 101

7. SELECTION OF OPTIMAL PACKAGE TYPE . . . 105

7.1. Introduction . . . 105

7.2. Excepted packages . . . 105

7.2.1. Contents limits . . . 105

7.2.2. Types of contents . . . 106

7.3. Industrial packages Type 1 (Type IP-1) . . . 107

7.6. Type A packages . . . 111

7.7. Type B(U) and B(M) packages . . . 112

7.7.3. Lightweight Type B(U) and B(M) packages . . . 114

7.7.4. Type B(U) packages containing very large quantities of activity . . . 114

7.8. Type C packages . . . 114

7.9. Packages containing uranium hexafluoride . . . 115

7.9.1. Content limits . . . 116

EXERCISES FOR CHAPTER 7. . . 117

8. TEST PROCEDURES: MATERIAL AND PACKAGES . . . 125

8.1. Material . . . 128

8.1.1. LSA-III Material. . . 128

8.1.2. Special form radioactive material . . . 128

8.1.3. Low dispersible radioactive material . . . 129

8.2. Excepted packages . . . 130

8.2.1. Requirements . . . 130

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8.2.3. Examples . . . 130

8.3.2. Design considerations. . . 132

8.3.3. Examples . . . 132

8.4.3. Examples . . . 134

8.5.3. Examples . . . 136

8.6. Type A packages - general . . . 136

8.6.3. Examples . . . 139

8.7. Type A packages - liquids or gases . . . 140

8.7.3. Examples . . . 141

8.8. Type B(U) and B(M) packages . . . 141

8.8.1. Requirements for Type B(U) packages . . . 141

8.8.2. Requirements for Type B(M) packages . . . 142

8.8.4. Examples . . . 146

8.8.5. Approvals . . . 150

8.9. Lightweight/low density Type B(U) and B(M) packages . . . 152

8.9.2. Design considerations and approvals . . . 152

8.9.3. Examples . . . 153

8.10. Type B packages containing high quantities of radioactivity . . . 153

8.10.2. Design considerations and approvals . . . 153

8.10.3. Example . . . 153

8.11. Type C packages. . . 155

8.11.3. Approvals . . . 156

8.11.4. Examples . . . 156

8.12. Packages containing uranium hexafluoride . . . 157

8.12.3. Approvals . . . 159

8.12.4. Examples . . . 160

8.13. Introduction to test procedures . . . 162

8.14. Overall procedure . . . 163

8.15. Material tests . . . 164

8.15.1. Test for LSA-III material . . . 164

8.15.2. Tests for special form radioactive material . . . 164

8.15.3. Impact test . . . 164

8.15.4. Tests for low dispersible radioactive material . . . 165

8.16. Tests for normal conditions of transport . . . 165

8.16.1. Acceptance criteria . . . 165

8.16.2. Water spray test . . . 167

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8.16.4. Stacking test . . . 168

8.16.5. Penetration test . . . 169

8.16.6. Additional tests for Type A packages containing liquids or gases. . . 170

8.17. Tests for accident conditions of transport . . . 170

8.17.1. Overview and basis . . . 170

8.17.2. Pass criteria. . . 172

8.17.3. Mechanical test. . . 173

8.17.4. Thermal test . . . 175

8.17.5. Immersion test . . . 176

8.18. Enhanced water immersion test . . . 177

8.19. Type C tests . . . 177

8.19.1. Puncture/tearing test . . . 177

8.19.2. Enhanced thermal test . . . 177

8.19.3. Impact test . . . 178

8.20. Test facilities. . . 178

8.20.1. Facilities for testing normal conditions of transport . . . 178

8.20.2. Facilities for testing accident conditions of transport . . . 179

8.20.3. Facilities for the Type C impact test . . . 180

8.21. Model testing . . . 180

8.21.1. Reasons for model testing . . . 180

8.21.2. Replication, scalability and validity . . . 180

EXERCISES FOR CHAPTER 8 . . . 183 9. REQUIREMENTS FOR TRANSPORT (CONSIGNOR’S RESPONSIBILITIES) . . . 193

9.1. Controls . . . 193

9.1.1. Radiation exposure controls . . . 193

9.1.2. Contamination limit controls . . . 198

9.1.3. The Criticality Safety Index (CSI) . . . 200

9.1.4. Activity limit controls . . . 200

9.1.5. Exclusive use shipments. . . 201

9.1.6. Separation and segregation. . . 201

9.2. Communications . . . 201

9.2.1. Markings. . . 202

9.2.2. Labelling of packages and overpacks . . . 204

9.2.3. Placarding of freight containers, tanks, and rail and road vehicles . . . 206

9.2.4. Communication documents . . . 207

9.2.5. Notifications . . . 208

10. CONTROL OF MATERIAL IN TRANSPORT (CONSIGNOR’S AND CARRIER’S RESPONSIBILITIES) . . . 217

10.1. Consignor’s responsibilities . . . 217

10.1.1. Material definition and package selection . . . 217

10.1.2. Use of the Schedules . . . 220

10.1.3. Other administrative responsibilities . . . 220

10.2. Carrier’s responsibilities. . . 221

10.2.1. Regulatory responsibilities . . . 221

10.2.2. Practical responsibilities. . . 221

10.3. Stowage . . . 224

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10.3.2. Transport Index Limits (TI) and Criticality Safety Index (CSI) . . . 224

10.3.3. Segregation . . . 224

10.4. Maximum radiation levels . . . 225

10.5. Storage in transit. . . 226

10.6. Customs . . . 226

10.7. Undeliverable packages . . . 226

10.8. Physical protection . . . 226

10.9. Use of agents . . . 227

11. FISSILE MATERIAL: REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS AND OPERATIONAL ASPECTS . . . 231

11.1.1. Criticality . . . 231

11.1.2. Definitions for fissile material . . . 236

11.1.3. Examples of consignments of fissile material . . . 238

11.2. Requirements for packages containing fissile material . . . 240

11.2.1. General principles. . . 240

11.2.2. Exceptions from the requirements for packages containing fissile material . . . 241

11.2.3. Methods of criticality safety assessment . . . 243

11.2.4. Special package design and test requirements . . . 245

11.2.5. Assessment of an individual package in isolation . . . 245

11.2.6. Assessment of package arrays . . . 246

11.3. Controls in transport and storage in transit . . . 246

11.3.1. Pre-shipment checks. . . 246

11.3.2. Determination of Criticality Safety Index (CSI) . . . 247

11.3.3. Categories of packages, marking, labels and placards. . . 247

11.3.4. Transport documents . . . 248

11.3.5. Limits on CSI during transport and storage in transit . . . 248

11.4. Approvals and administrative requirements. . . 249

11.4.1. Competent Authority approval . . . 249

11.4.2. Information on approval certificates . . . 249

11.5. Physical protection and safeguards . . . 249

11.5.1. Physical protection . . . 249

11.5.2. Safeguards . . . 250

EXERCISES FOR CHAPTER 11. . . 250

12. QUALITY ASSURANCE . . . 255

12.1. Introduction to quality assurance . . . 255

12.2. Development of a quality assurance programme . . . 256

12.2.1. General . . . 256

12.2.2. Minimum requirements for a Quality Assurance Programme . . . 257

12.2.3. Quality Assurance and the different phases of transport . . . 259

12.2.4. Documentation and Quality Assurance . . . 262

12.3. Quality assurance standards . . . 262

12.4. Elements of a quality assurance programme . . . 264

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12.6. Conclusions . . . 266

EXERCISE FOR CHAPTER 12. . . 268

13. NATIONAL COMPETENT AUTHORITY . . . 269

13.1. The role of the national competent authority . . . 269

13.1.1. Need for the Competent Authority . . . 269

13.1.2. Identity of the Competent Authority . . . 269

13.1.3. Duties of the Competent Authority . . . 271

13.1.4. Technical resources . . . 271

13.2. Regulations . . . 273

13.2.1. National regulations . . . 273

13.2.2. International regulations. . . 274

13.3. Implementation . . . 274

13.3.1. Compliance Assurance . . . 274

13.3.2. Approvals . . . 282

13.3.3. Quality Assurance. . . 286

13.3.4. Emergency planning . . . 287

13.3.5. Radiation protection . . . 288

13.4. Administration . . . 291

13.4.1. Issuance of certificates . . . 291

13.4.2. ID marking . . . 291

13.4.3. Receipt of notifications . . . 293

13.4.4. Recording of incidents . . . 293

13.5. Information . . . 293

13.5.1. Regulatory guidance. . . 293

13.5.2. Policy guidance to government and response to public concerns . . . 293

13.5.3. Training. . . 293

13.5.4. Co-ordination of research . . . 294

13.5.5. Physical protection and safeguards . . . 294

13.5.6. Third party liability . . . 294

14. ADDITIONAL REGULATORY CONSTRAINTS FOR TRANSPORT. . . 299

14.2. United Nations Economic and Social Council Committee of Experts on the Transport of Dangerous Goods (UN-ECOSOC) . . . 300

14.3. Transport by sea – International Maritime Organization (IMO) . . . 302

14.3.1. Introduction . . . 302

14.3.2. IMO regulations concerning the transport of dangerous cargoes . . . 304

14.3.3. Technical assistance . . . 308

14.4. Transport by air. . . 311

14.4.1. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). . . 311

14.4.2. The International Air Transport Association (IATA) . . . 313

14.5. Transport by post – Universal Postal Union (UPU) . . . 314

14.6. European regional agreements for inland transport . . . 315 14.6.1. International Regulations Concerning the Carriage

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14.6.2. European Agreement Concerning the International Carriage

of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR) . . . 316

14.6.3. European Provision concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Inland Waterways (ADN and ADNR) . . . 318

14.7. Regional agreements in South America . . . 318

14.7.1. The South American Common Market . . . 318

14.7.2. MERCOSUR/MERCOSUL Agreement of Partial Reach to Facilitate the Transport of Dangerous Goods . . . 319

15. INTERNATIONAL LIABILITY AND INSURANCE . . . 323

15.2. Background. . . 323

15.3. Paris and Vienna Conventions . . . 323

15.3.1. Liability . . . 323

15.3.2. Scope of application . . . 323

15.3.3. Nuclear material/substances . . . 324

15.3.4. Financial limits . . . 324

15.3.5. Insurance. . . 325

15.3.6. Time limits . . . 325

15.3.7. Territorial scope . . . 325

15.3.8. Jurisdiction . . . 325

15.3.9. Exoneration. . . 325

15.3.10. Liability during transport . . . 326

15.3.11. Liability during storage in transit . . . 326

15.3.12. Liability during carriage of nuclear material/substances belonging to more than one operator . . . 327

15.3.13. Damage to the means of transport . . . 327

15.3.14. Certificates . . . 327

15.4. Other International Agreements . . . 327

15.4.1. Linking the Paris and the Vienna Conventions . . . 327

15.4.2. Brussels Convention. . . 328

15.5. Revision of the Vienna Convention . . . 329

15.5.1. Protocol to Amend the Vienna Convention . . . 330

15.5.2. Convention on Supplementary Compensation . . . 331

16. EMERGENCY PLANNING AND PREPAREDNESS . . . 335

16.2. Overview of Safety Guide TS-G-1.2 . . . 335

16.3. Emergency response planning . . . 335

16.4. Consequences of transport accidents . . . 337

16.5. Response to transport accidents . . . 337

16.5.1. Initial phase . . . 338

16.5.2. Accident control phase . . . 338

16.5.3. Post-emergency phase . . . 339

16.5.4. Transport modes other than road . . . 340

16.6. Responsibilities for emergency planning and preparedness . . . 340

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16.8. Public information . . . 341

16.9. International notification and assistance . . . 341

16.9.2. Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident . . . 341

16.9.3. Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency . . . 342

16.10. A review of selected nuclear transport event case histories. . . 343

16.10.1. Introduction . . . 343

16.10.2. Case history No. 1 – Boston, Massachusetts, 23 February 1968 [10]. . . 343

16.10.3. Case history No. 2 – Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, 4 May 1970 [10] . . . 344

16.10.4. Case history No. 3 – Clinton, Tennessee, 8 December 1970 [11] . . . 344

16.10.5. Case history No. 4 - Houston, Texas, 31 December 1971 [12] . . . 344

16.10.6. Case history No. 5 – Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 5 April 1974 [13]. . . 345

16.10.7. Case history No. 6 – Buenos Aires, Argentina, 24 June 1975 [14] . . . 346

16.10.8. Case history No. 7 – Rockingham, North Carolina, 31 March 1977 . . . 346

16.10.9. Case history No. 8 – Wichita, Kansas, 22 March 1979 . . . 347

16.10.10. Case history No. 9 – Hilda, South Carolina, 3 November 1982 . . . 347

16.10.11. Case history No. 10 – Houston, Texas, 27 January 1988 . . . 347

16.10.12. Case history No. 11 – Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 26 March 1989 . . . 348

16.10.13. Case history No. 12 – Montreal, Quebec, Canada, 23 May 1989 [15] . . . . 348

16.10.14. Case history No. 13 – Springfield, Massachusetts, 16 December 1991 [16] . . . 349

17. TRAINING . . . 353

17.1. IAEA training policy . . . 353

17.1.2. Competence . . . 353

17.1.3. Training requirements. . . 354

17.2. Training system . . . 354

17.2.1. Preparing a training programme. . . 354

17.2.2. Analysis . . . 355

17.2.3. Design. . . 355

17.2.4. Development. . . 355

17.2.5. Implementation. . . 355

17.2.6. Evaluation. . . 357

17.3. Training programmes . . . 357

17.3.1. General . . . 357

17.3.2. Training for supervisory personnel . . . 357

17.3.3. Training for emergencies . . . 358

17.3.4. Continuing training. . . 358

17.4. Experience requirements . . . 359

17.4.1. General . . . 359

17.4.2. Managers . . . 359

17.4.3. Practitioners and hands-on persons . . . 359

17.5. Authorization . . . 360

17.5.1. General . . . 360

17.5.2. Basis for authorization . . . 360

17.5.3. Re-authorization . . . 360

17.6. Records . . . 361

17.7. Assistance available from the IAEA . . . 361

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17.7.2. Training programme aims and objectives for policy makers

and senior managers . . . 361

17.7.3. Training programme aims and objectives for managers and responsible persons . . . 363

17.7.4. Training programme aims and objectives for drivers of road vehicles . . . . 363

17.7.5. Training courses available . . . 364

18. SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE IAEA. . . 367

18.1. Data collection . . . 367

18.1.1. Regulations development and maintenance . . . 367

18.1.2. Implementation of the Regulations . . . 375

18.2. Training and public information. . . 376

18.2.1. IAEA Training . . . 376

18.2.2. Training material for national training programmes . . . 377

18.2.3. Public information . . . 377

18.3. Transport Safety Appraisal Service (TranSAS) . . . 378

18.4. Computer tools . . . 378

APPENDIX I. TYPICAL PROGRAMME FOR A COMPREHENSIVE TRAINING COURSE ON THE SAFE TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL . . . 381

CONTRIBUTORS TO DRAFTING AND REVIEW. . . 383

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1. INTRODUCTION

The transport of radioactive material embraces the carriage of radioisotopes for industrial, medical, and research uses, as well as the shipment of radioactive waste, and consignments of nuclear fuel cycle material. It has been estimated that, throughout the world, between eighteen and thirty-eight million packages of radioactive material are shipped each year [1].

The United Nations (UN) approved the statutes of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in October 1956, and these statutes entered into force on 29 July 1957 [2].

The mandate given to the IAEA at its creation was to promote peaceful applications of atomic energy worldwide for humanity’s benefit while, simultaneously, guarding against the spread of its destructive use [3].

One of the first tasks undertaken by the IAEA following its creation was the development of regulatory standards for ensuring the safe packaging and transport of radioactive material. Work on the safe transport of radioactive material was initiated at the IAEA in July 1959 when the United Nations Economic and Social Council requested that the IAEA be entrusted with the drafting of recommendations on the transport of radioactive substances [4]. The result of this effort was the publication of the IAEA’s Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Materials¹, 1961 Edition, Safety Series No. 6 [5]. This first edition of the Regulations established basic prescriptions in terms of packaging standards and package make-up for the containment of radioactive material and for the prevention of criticality when the material is fissile [4].

Since the Regulations were first issued, the IAEA has diligently worked with its Member States and relevant international organizations to update the Regulations, taking advantage of experience in the application of the Regulations and of advances in technology and knowledge. Consequently, the IAEA has issued the following revisions to the Regulations:

1. 1964 Edition 2. 1967 Edition 3. 1973 Edition

4. 1973 Edition (As Amended 1979) 5. 1985 Edition (Supplemented 1986, 1988) 6. 1985 Edition (As Amended 1990) [6]

7. 1996 Edition

8. 1996 Edition (As Revised 2000)

Throughout this document, when the IAEA’s Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material is being referred to, it is denoted by capitalizing the first letter in the word Regulations. This is to distinguish the IAEA Regulations from other national and international requirements, regulations and codes.

1In issuing the 1985 Edition, the title of the Regulations was modified, changing the word to the singular

“material” rather than the plural “materials” which had been used in previous editions. It was decided, during the 1985 review, to use the singular for radioactive material both in the title of the Regulations and throughout the regulatory provisions. Therefore, that practice is continued here.

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The 1996 Edition of the Regulations was issued with a new nomenclature. It was identified as “IAEA Safety Standards Series, Requirements, No. ST-1,” [7] rather than

“Safety Series No. 6”.

In 2000 a revised edition of ST-1 was issued. This 2000 edition was identified as

“IAEA Safety Standards Series, Requirements, No. TS-R-1 (ST-1 Revised),” [8]. Henceforth in this training manual, unless otherwise noted, “the Regulations” meansTS-R-1.

In approving the first revision to the Regulations in 1964, the IAEA’s Board of Governors authorized the Director General to apply the Regulations to IAEA operations.

Member States and other relevant organizations were encouraged to use the Regulations as a basis for their respective national regulations for domestic and international transport [9]. As a result, the Regulations have been adopted worldwide by Member States and international regulatory bodies as the basis for relevant national and international regulations.

As one means of promoting safety in transport, as well as encouraging harmony in regulatory control, the IAEA has from time to time organized training courses with the co- operation of Member State Governments and organizations. These have been aimed at individuals from developing countries with appropriate responsibilities in the area of the transport regulations and their implementation. The programme started with individual training courses to specific Member States in the early 1980s and a regional training course for the sub-Andean countries in 1984. Beginning in 1987 (with a course held at Bristol, United Kingdom), formal regional and inter-regional training courses have been held about once per year. Thus far they have been held in Argentina, Australia, Belarus, Belgium, France, Germany, Lebanon, Lithuania, Syria, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

In order to encourage further training, the IAEA found it desirable to develop a basic course text on the safe transport of radioactive material. It was therefore decided that the lecture notes from the 1987 course held at Bristol would form the basis of this text, and that it would be focussed on the 1985 Edition of the Regulations [9]. The result was the IAEA’s Training Course Series No. 1 on the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material, which was updated to a second edition in 1991 [10]. To facilitate training, a Supplement to Training Course Series No. 1 on the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material was developed and issued in 1996 [11]. The current text is a further update of the training manual to make it consistent with the latest TS-R-1 Regulations [8], and to encompass the IAEA’s desire to structure its training courses in a modular format.

1.1. Objectives

The purpose of an IAEA regional or inter-regional training course is to provide guidance to regulatory and key industrial personnel on the Regulations and practices for the safe transport of radioactive material. The participants at such a course may be officials of national authorities or managers and technical staff from organizations undertaking or involved in the transport of radioactive material. In order to ensure proper regulatory and quality compliance, it is most appropriate if these persons have suitable background knowledge of the scientific principles that underlie the control of radiation hazards.

The objective of each IAEA training course is to ensure that the student thoroughly understands the philosophy, principles, and application of the provisions of the transport Regulations. Some practical reinforcement of this knowledge is afforded by means of exercises in appropriate chapters of this Training Course Series manual. In addition, during any course in which this material is used, efforts will be made by course organizers to further

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reinforce the training by arranging visits to the premises of suitable consignor and carrier organizations, as well as to package design and testing facilities.

The purpose of this training manual is to provide a rational method for convening a training course and to foster high quality training. This manual serves as a tool for instructors to use in presenting subjects pertaining to the Regulations in a logical and understandable manner. It also allows training course participants to become knowledgeable about the Regulations and how they should be applied. The document further provides a reference for students to use after the course to ensure their understanding of the requirements in the Regulations and how the regulatory requirements may be practically applied beyond the training course.

1.2. Course overview

The subject matter of the course focuses primarily on the transport Regulations of the International Atomic Energy Agency [8] and interweaves other requirements, supporting guides, and technical documents as necessary. Particular attention is accorded to:

1. The Basic Safety Standards for Radiation Protection [12], and 2. The advisory material for the Regulations [13].

Recognizing that the Regulations specify 'what' is to be accomplished for a given requirement, the guidance document [13] presents the basics both on 'why' the individual regulatory provisions exist, and on 'how' to apply them. As such, it serves as a primary supplement to the Regulations.

Normally, the subject matter provided in this publication will be divided up and taught by expert specialists in each topical area. The lecturers will be drawn from the International Regulatory Community, National Competent Authorities, and from national organizations experienced in international and national transport. The lecturers may not necessarily teach directly from this text, but will use it to enhance their presentations and as a reference text book.

The exercises provided in this training course manual will usually be used during the course to enhance communication and understanding and to evaluate progress in learning.

Other exercises may also be used if it is determined that they are more suitable for the specific participants. Practical exercises will be used as much as possible throughout the course to enhance the learning process.

Other practical inputs during the course will include visits to appropriate consignor and carrier organizations, or other transport-related facilities. These visits will be structured to include talks by staff, conducted tours of operational areas, and practical demonstrations of methods.

This training manual has three parts. Part I, comprising Chapters 1 to 4, serves as a comprehensive introduction for the training course.

Chapter 1 The remainder of this chapter discusses the structure of the IAEA and introduces some common uses of radioactive material. The IAEA’s programme on the safe transport of radioactive material is then described, before the overview of the history, basic philosophy, and scope of the Transport Regulations are presented. Finally, Competent Authority

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responsibilities are introduced together with some of the IAEA’s transport interfaces.

Chapters 2 & 3 These two chapters provide reviews of radioactivity and radiation, and radiation protection principles. Good comprehension of both of these topics is essential to the course.

Chapter 4 An entire chapter is devoted to a general introduction of the terminology used in the Regulations. This provides the course participant with some of the basic language of the subject. Ultimately, a complete understanding of terminology is essential to the proper use, and application of the Regulations. To obtain this complete understanding, the student should refer to Section II of TS-R-1.

Part II, comprising Chapters 5 to 14, provides a detailed discussion of the Regulations.

The different chapters address topics vital to the proper implementation of the Regulations.

These topics include:

Chapter 5 Basic safety concepts: This chapter provides a general overview of the safety concepts associated with materials and packages, which are the core of the regulatory philosophy.

Chapter 6 Activity limits and material restrictions: These parameters are the basis for the correct selection of package type and material classification.

Chapter 7 Selection of optimal package types for a given radioactive content: This chapter provides the details and distinctions of each package type including their limits and typical contents.

Chapter 8 Design and testing requirements and procedures for materials and packages:

Material and package test procedures: The detailed requirements for each of the different types of material and package are covered along with a discussion of the design considerations. Examples of different packages are given. Each of the performance tests is presented along with some discussion of the facilities required to conduct them.

Chapter 9 Consignors responsibilities relating to the proper preparation of packages for shipment. Attention is paid to such items as radiation controls, marking and labelling, preparation of shipping documents, and contamination controls.

Chapter 10 Controls and communications: The focus of this chapter is on those actions that are required primarily of a consignor but also of the carrier. These ensure that hazards are properly controlled during transport and communicated during all phases of the shipment operations. Attention is paid to such items as radiation controls, placarding of conveyances, shipping documents, and contamination controls.

Chapter 11 Fissile material: The requirements which are imposed on packages and shipments of fissile material are presented here, noting that special care has been taken in the Regulations to ensure criticality safety for this material.

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Chapter 12 Quality Assurance: The emphasis in this chapter is on those requirements which must be satisfied in terms of developing a Quality Assurance (QA) programme, and implementing that programme in a graded fashion.

Chapter 13 National Competent Authority: Chapter 13 focuses on the vital roles of the National Regulatory Body (or bodies). They are the organizations in each Member State responsible for promulgating, implementing, and administering the Regulations and/or providing necessary information to ensure that adequate guidance and training is available.

Chapter 14 Deals with additional regulatory constraints imposed by international modal organizations and agreements: The various modes (i.e., road, rail, water and air; as well as post) are discussed in detail, and the roles, responsibilities and agreements of the international organizations are covered.

Part III, comprising Chapters 15 to 18, deals with other relevant information. This material is not directly sequential and may be taught in more or less any order. Topics in this part include:

Chapter 15 International liability and insurance: The complex issues related to liability and insurance of radioactive material transport are summarized in this chapter. In particular, the distinctions between material that is covered by each protocol, and that which is not, are emphasized.

Chapter 16 Emergency planning and preparedness: Although the application of the Regulations leads to a high level of confidence in safe transport, accidents do occur. It is therefore necessary for all involved in these activities to have adequate emergency plans and to be properly prepared.

Chapter 17 Training: It has long been recognized that training of involved personnel is a keystone to both the successful implementation of the Regulations and good compliance with them. Therefore, training policies, programmes, requirements and records are discussed in this chapter.

Chapter 18 IAEA information services: The IAEA’s vital role in providing information on the safe transport of radioactive material to Member States and international organizations is summarized here.

1.3. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

Various events and activities, beginning in 1946, led to the creation of the IAEA by the UN in 1956, with the IAEA’s programmes officially beginning in 1957 [2]. The key to the formation and subsequent functioning of the IAEA has been its Statute.

1.3.1. Statute

The development of the Statute [14] was undertaken during 1955 and 1956 by twelve of the future Member States of the IAEA. It was approved on 23 October 1956, during the Conference on the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency, convened at the Headquarters of the UN. The Statute came into force on 29 July 1957, and it has been amended three times. The last amendments were made on 28 December 1989.

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The objectives of the IAEA are clearly set forth in the Statute as follows:

“The Agency shall seek to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world. It shall ensure, so far as it is able, that assistance provided by it or at its request or under its supervision or control is not used in such a way as to further any military purpose.”

1.3.2. Mission and functions

The Statute also specifies the functions of the IAEA, by stating, in part, that it is authorized:

1. To encourage and assist research on, and development and practical application of, atomic energy for peaceful uses throughout the world; and, if requested to do so, to act as an intermediary for the purposes of securing the performance of services or the supplying of materials, equipment, or facilities by one member of the Agency for another; and to perform any operation or service useful in research on, or development or practical application of, atomic energy for peaceful purposes;

2. To make provision, in accordance with this Statute, for materials, services equipment and facilities to meet the needs of research on, and development and practical application of, atomic energy for peaceful purposes, including the production of electric power;

3. To foster the exchange of scientific and technical information on peaceful uses of atomic energy;

4. To encourage the exchange of training of scientists and experts in the field of peaceful uses of atomic energy;

5. To establish and administer safeguards;

6. To establish or adopt...standards of safety for protection of health and minimization of danger to life and property (including the standards for labour conditions), and to provide for the application of these standards to its own operations as well as to the operations making use of materials, services, equipment, facilities and information made available by the Agency or at its request or under its control or supervision; and to provide for the application of these standards, at the request of the parties, to the operations under any bilateral or multilateral arrangement, or, at the request of a State, to any of that State’s activities in the field of atomic energy; and

7. To acquire or establish any facilities, plant and equipment useful in carrying out its authorized functions.

1.3.3. Roles and responsibilities

The IAEA serves as the world’s central intergovernmental forum for scientific and technical co-operation in the nuclear field. It also acts as the international inspectorate for the application of nuclear safeguards and verification measures covering civilian nuclear programmes. The IAEA is a specialized agency within the United Nations system. As such, the IAEA provides a wide range of IAEA products, services and programmes that incorporate the co-operative efforts and interests of the IAEA’s Member States [15].

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FIG. 1.1. IAEA organizational structure

Considering the structure of the IAEA helps one to understand some of its varied roles and responsibilities. The IAEA currently has six Departments, each overseen by a Deputy Director General. Within each Department are a number of Divisions, and within the Divisions are Sections. Some Sections have specialized Units within them. As an example, the Transport Safety Unit is in the Radiation Safety Section, within the Division of Radiation and Waste Safety, which is in the Department of Nuclear Safety.

The current programmes of the IAEA can be classified under the following headings:

- Nuclear safeguards and verification,

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- Nuclear, radiation and waste safety,

- Nuclear power, fuel cycle and waste technology, - Nuclear and radiation applications and

- Technical assistance and co-operation.

1.3.3.1. Safeguards

In operation since the 1960’s, the safeguards system of the IAEA is a central component of the world's commitment to control the spread of nuclear weapons. Under agreements that Member States conclude with the International Atomic Energy Agency, IAEA inspectors regularly visit nuclear facilities to verify records that State authorities keep on the whereabouts of nuclear material under their control, check IAEA-installed instruments and surveillance equipment, and confirm physical inventories of nuclear materials. These and other safeguards measures provide independent, international verification that governments are living up to their commitments to peaceful uses of nuclear technology.

1.3.3.2. Nuclear safety

Nuclear, radiation and waste safety activities cover a large field from the development and publication of safety standards, guides and practices, to legally binding international safety conventions, to the very practical safety assessments of facilities by special review teams.

1.3.3.3. Nuclear energy

The IAEA's nuclear power programme assists Member States in nuclear power planning and implementation and in advanced reactor technology development. Assistance is provided to developing countries to assess the role of nuclear power in the future expansion of electricity supply systems. A significant emphasis is placed on the training and qualification of plant personnel.

The IAEA's programme on the nuclear fuel cycle covers such key areas as uranium supply and demand; light water reactor fuel performance at extended burnup; the reliability of spent fuel under long term storage; the management of spent fuel from research and test reactors; and the safe handling and storage of plutonium.

The radioactive waste technology programme focuses on the handling, processing and disposal and storage of radioactive waste; decontamination and decommissioning of nuclear installations; environmental restoration, quality assurance and management; waste management planning and infrastructure building; and technology transfer and exchange.

1.3.3.4. Nuclear sciences and applications

The promotion and development of the multiplicity of uses of radiation and radioisotopes is part of the function of the Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications.

Several of these are briefly discussed later in the section on uses of radioactive material. The main topic areas of usage include:

- Food and agriculture,

- Physical and chemical sciences, - Industry and earth sciences, and - Human health.

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The IAEA plays a key role in co-ordinating the global project on the next step towards nuclear fusion energy, the ITER project.

1.3.3.5. Technical co-operation

Of particular interest is the fact that it is through the Department of Technical Co- operation that regional and inter-regional training courses are facilitated for developing Member States. More importantly, however, it is through this Department that the IAEA provides development assistance to Member States. Dr. Hans Blix, former Director General of the IAEA, has pointed out that:

“…over the course of more than three decades, IAEA’s Technical Co-operation (TC) Programme has helped to build the foundations for effectively applying nuclear-related technologies in dozens of developing countries. The degree of sophistication of many nuclear applications has made this capacity building phase a complex process. It has entailed many stages of education and training, sharing of research, development and refinement of appropriate equipment and facilities, as well as international co- ordination of efforts.” [16]

In pursuit of the IAEA’s focus on assisting developing Member States in the application of nuclear technologies to enhance the quality of life, the IAEA has delivered to them almost US$800 million in technical support. By 1996, 95 countries and territories had, or were participating, in TC projects in 49 principal areas, including:

- Building food security,

- Managing water resources,

- Promoting a sustainable environment, - Enhancing the quality of health care, and - Ensuring nuclear safety [16].

1.3.4. Services and information

Multiple services are provided by the IAEA to its Member States. These include the development of standards such as the Regulations [8], associated guidance documents, and other information products. All are provided through the IAEA’s Division of Public Information and the Division of Conference and Document Services, both of which are under the Department of Management. The IAEA is the world’s largest publisher of nuclear-related material. Not only does this include the aforementioned standards, but also many booklets, books, information circulars, fact sheets, periodicals, and proceedings as well as CD-ROMs, films and videos.

A large number of databases are maintained by the IAEA. Of particular note is the International Nuclear Information System (INIS), which contains well over two million bibliographic references to conventional and non-conventional nuclear literature, and offers various products and services.

In addition, the IAEA holds many dozens of meetings throughout the year as part of its mission regarding the dissemination of information. These vary from small consultants’

meetings to major international symposia.

With the advent of the World Wide Web (www), the IAEA has taken significant steps

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to enhance and streamline communications. Many web pages and databases are available, as well as direct electronic communications with IAEA staff members. The IAEA’s web pages are accessed tens of thousands of times monthly, and all IAEA programmes regularly publish information about their projects via the Internet. The IAEA’s web site URL is http://www.iaea.org [15]. It is the best, up-to-date, single source of information about all that the IAEA is and does.

1.4. Uses of radioactive material

At this point, it is worth providing a brief overview of some of the everyday uses of radioactive material for those who are a little less familiar with the subject. Radioactive material is used in many more ways than most people realize to improve the quality of life.

Whenever or wherever it is used, it is incumbent on qualified individuals and responsible organizations to ensure that the radioactive material is prepared, used, and disposed of in a safe manner. Each of these actions very frequently requires the transport of radioactive material. The following text and Fig. 1.2 provide a brief overview of some examples of these activities that require shipment of radioactive material or waste. Additional examples may be found in Reference [18].

N u c le a r E n e r g y N u c le a r E n e r g y I n d u s t r y &

I n d u s t r y &

A g r i c u l t u r e A g r i c u l t u r e

M e d ic i n e &

R e s e a r c h R e s e a r c h

FIG. 1.2. Some uses of radioactive material

1.4.1. Food irradiation

The use of gamma rays and electron beams in irradiating foods to control disease- causing micro-organisms and to extend shelf life of food products is growing throughout the world [20]. For example, recent steps are leading to the expanded use of meat irradiation in the United States [19]. Food sterilization has been approved by 40 countries and is encouraged by the World Health Organization [20]. Typical radiation sources include ⁶⁰Co and ¹³⁷Cs, both of which are likely to be produced at one facility and transported to another facility for irradiation of the meat. It is noted [19] that one company with offices in the United States, Canada, and Puerto Rico provides contract sterilization sources and microbiological reduction services to manufacturers of food products in eleven separate facilities.

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1.4.2. Health care product and consumer product irradiation

Gamma rays from sources such as ⁶⁰Co and ¹³⁷Cs are commonly used to irradiate health care and other consumer products. Such sterilization is focused on medical instruments, especially those that are likely to penetrate the protective skin barrier. The prevention of infection through this sterilisation technique complements the basic healing goal of medicine.

About 180 facilities located in 47 countries worldwide provide sterile medical devices using gamma irradiation techniques [21].

1.4.3. Insect control

Radioisotopes are assisting in enhancing animal and food production. One method is the control of insects, including the control of screwworms, fruit flies, and the Tsetse fly [16].

The IAEA has worked for years to develop a method for controlling the Tsetse fly in areas such as Zanzibar [22], Nigeria, and Burkina Faso [16]. An evaluation of this work in 1996 showed that the Tsetse fly is no longer a problem on Ungaja, the main island of Zanzibar, Tanzania. The Tsetse fly causes the transmission of a parasitic disease, trypanosomiasis, which slowly destroys livestock herds, in sub-Saharan Africa. It also causes the spread of the human form of the disease, known as sleeping sickness. By irradiating male Tsetse flies in a controlled gamma ray environment, the male flies are made sterile, and the Tsetse fly population can be reduced to insignificant levels. The low-level exposures to gamma rays are provided by ⁶⁰Co and ¹³⁷Cs sources. These sources are produced in a laboratory and transported to the sites where the flies are exposed. In just two years of effort (1994 to 1996), the number of flies on Ungaja was reduced by two orders of magnitude. It is noted that by early 1997, the incidence of trypanosomiasis among a control group of cattle on the island had dropped to less than 0.1 percent. Previous surveys had shown that on average, 17-25 percent of the animals were infected with trypanosomiasis [22].

1.4.4. Nuclear applications in medicine

There are many applications of nuclear technology in the medical field, ranging from diagnostics, to treatment, to disease management [21]. Many of these use radionuclides produced from either reactors or cyclotrons. Examples include: ¹²³I for thyroid studies; ¹¹¹In for brain studies; ⁶⁷Ga for tumour studies; ^99mTc for heart studies; ²⁰¹Tl for myocardial studies;

11C for brain imaging; ^81mKr for lung studies; ¹³N for heart function studies; ¹⁵O for oxygen studies; and ¹⁸F for epilepsy. The safe transport of the radionuclides from the production sites to the hospitals, eventually followed by the safe transport of their residues and related wastes to disposal facilities, is vital to the success of nuclear medicine.

1.4.4.1. Diagnostic techniques

There are two distinct methods used in diagnostics [18, 21]. The first is to use the isotope as an in vivo tracer. Here, a carefully chosen radionuclide (commonly known as a radiopharmaceutical) is administered to a patient through inhalation, injection, or ingestion, to trace a specific physiological phenomenon. Detection is accomplished with special detectors such as a gamma camera placed outside the body. The radiopharmaceutical can be selected to seek out only desired tissues or organs. There are hundreds of radiopharmaceuticals used in this way. As an example, recurrent prostate cancer is identified by using an ¹¹¹In labelled antibody [23].

The second method is to use an in vitro technique. For example, blood can be taken from the body and studied using nuclear methods to assess exposures to infection by

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evaluating antibodies. It can also be used to provide detection of tumours by studying some two dozen tumour markers.

1.4.4.2. Treatment of disease

Radiation is widely used for the treatment of diseases such as hypothyroidism and cancer. The radiation is used to destroy the cancerous cells. A typical radionuclide used for this is ⁶⁰Co. In addition to teletherapy, where the radiation source has no physical contact with the tumour, the radiation source may be placed in immediate contact with the tumour, as in brachytherapy. Radiolabelled monoclonal antibodies may also be used to attach themselves to the specific tissue or cancer cell requiring treatment [18,21].

1.4.4.3. Disease management

In addition to the sterilisation of medical equipment discussed earlier, nuclear medicine is also being used to reduce pain [21]. Radiotherapy is administered to patients to palliate the pain, thus replacing pain-killing drugs, which eventually lose their effectiveness. For example, physicians can administer a bone-seeking compound labelled with a high-LET radiation emitter, and the level of pain can be quickly lowered or totally eliminated [21]. A new method involves ¹⁵³Sm lexidronam, which is a therapeutic radiopharmaceutical used for the relief of pain in patients with confirmed osteoblastic metastatic skeletal lesions [24].

1.4.5. Nuclear applications in industry

Radioisotopes are used in a wide range of industrial applications [16]. One method includes using radioisotope thickness gauges in the manufacture of products such as steel and paper. In another application tracer experiments provide exact information on the condition of expensive processing equipment. Radioisotope sources are used for defining the exact position of tubes in manufacturing facilities. Gamma radiography is used on structures, castings, or welds where the use of X-rays is not feasible. Radioisotopic sources are also used as level indicators for feedstock supply hoppers. Moisture and density gauges use radioactive sources for analysis of soil water content and compaction. Radioisotopes are employed in smoke detectors, and as lasting, fail-safe light sources for emergency signs in aircraft and public buildings. Clearly, the variety of applications is enormous and growing annually.

1.4.6. Nuclear reactors

One of the major uses of radioactive material is in the generation of electricity in nuclear power reactors. By generating electricity with nuclear fission, the quality of life in many countries can be enhanced, the dependence on fossil fuels can be reduced, and the production of greenhouse gases can be reduced. Worldwide, nuclear power is contributing 17% of the world’s supply of electricity, while 63% comes from the burning of fossil fuels [25]. Some countries have over 70% of their electricity generated from nuclear power plants.

The nuclear fuel cycle which supports this generation requires the transport of radioactive material in many forms, including ores, uranium hexafluoride, fresh nuclear fuel, irradiated (or spent) nuclear fuel, and wastes.

Nuclear research reactors do not usually generate electricity, but are used for a variety of purposes including isotope production and teaching. They are also useful for a large variety of analytical methods including neutron activation analysis, neutron diffraction, neutron radiography, argon/argon geochronology, fission track geochronology, and boron neutron capture therapy.