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AnExaminatio n ofOcean PoUcyDn elopmentinCanada

by JosephM.TOlman

Athesis submitt ed totheSchoolofGrad uateStudiesIn parti al rulmmcntof thenquir-cme nuforthedegreeor Master of Marine StudiesinFisberies

Management

Fisheries ResourceManagemen t Mem orial Uaivcnity orNewfo undland

April1000

St.Jo hn's Newfoundland

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Abstract

Canada' s oceans offer important economic,socio-cul tura land recreati onal opportunities thathave sha pedthe country'shisto ry and identity.However.this growthisresultingin incre asedpressurethrough cong estion. environmentaldegradationandecosyst em im ba lances,which threatenthebasisfor futuresus tainable growth and inmany areas. the biodivers ityand ecologicalintegrityof marine ecosystems are being threatened. The increasedacti vityon,inand belowouroceansis alsomanifesting co nflic tingusage issues thatarenotonlysha pingpublicand.therefore policyagendasbutisalsoleadin g tocritical policypressuresthataredemandinginte gratio nandmulti-dim ens io nalratie nal iza ti ou,In Canada there is amultitude ofpolici e s,regula tionsandlegislatio n thatbearODthe managem ent and developmentof oceanresources.Thereare thosethat directand control fish eriesandother harvestingact ivities; policie sthat regulate marin e transportatio n;

policiesandregulations that directseabed andsubs urfa ce explorati o n;la wsand regul ationsfor recreationaluse andaplethoraofotherpoliciestha t impacton ourocean resources.Thispaper examines the evolutio nofoceanpolicyinCanada.anddescribes a mosai c of mostly vertically oriented policies thatisshared by other maritim e nationsand explo res recentdevelop mentsintheocean policyforum.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRO DUCTION Legislation Ocea nlnduslri es

PAGE

CANADIAN OCEAN POLlCY DE VE L OPM ENT:ANmSTORlCfL PERSPECTIVE 11 OCEANS POllCY DEVEL OPMENT IN OTHERMARJTL'dENATIONS 19

Australia 19

UnitedSia iesofAm erica 27

Jap an 31

POliCYDESIGNANDDE VEL O PM ENT 34

GoveramenlStructures andCoordinatio nof PolicyDevelop me nt 35

CANADA'SOC£A,NSACT 37

Part I·Canada's.Jurisd ict io n 39

Pa rtn·Oceans Man ag em ent Stra tegy(OMS) 41

PartOJ·ConsolidationorFede ralResp cn stbllitlesfor Cana da 's Oceans 43 PUBLIC PER CEPTI ONS OFCANADiAN COASTAL AND OCEAN MANAGEMENT

POLlCY 46

FUTUREDIRE CTI ONS 54

Fumr eDir ection s forCanada 55

REFERENCES S8

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Introduction

"He w inap propriate10 callthisplan etEarth.when clearlyitisOcean.w Arth~C.Clarke

Earthis a wate r planet.Theocean co versseventyonepercentoftheplanet 's surfaceand givenitsdepth,accounts for ove rnine ty five percent ofits life supp orting space . For Canada and manymaritime natio ns, the oceans,insomerespects, are ournext fro ntier.

Ac tivi ties impacting onouroceans have experienced unprec edentedgrowthinthepas125 yearsand they havethe capacityto exceed thegrowthofany other sector oftheCanadian economy.lbceconomic conlributionof the oceans sectorwas estimated tobeaminimwn of 1.4%of Canada's Gross Domestic Product(GDP) in 1996, withcontributionsto the regional econo myofCanada'scoastalareas rangin g ashighas10.9 % ofOD P(United Nati on s Commissio nonSustaina bleDeve lop ment, Mon ographNo.7,1999).These oceans offer importanteconomic,socio- cultural andrecreatio n al opportunitiesthathave shapedCanada's historyand identity.Howe ver, this growthisresultin ginincreased press ure through congestion,environmentaldegradationandecosystem imbalances, whichthreatenthe basis fO£future sustainable growthandin many areas,the biodiversity andecological integrityof marine ecosystemsare being threatened.The increased activity on,inand belowcuroceansis alsomanifes tin g conflicting usage issuesthat are not only sh ap ing publi c and therefo re policyagen das bUIis alsoleadingtocritical policypressures that aredemanding integration and multi-dimensionalrationalization.

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InCanadathereisa multitude of policies, regulations andlegis lationthatbear on ocean resources.There arethose thatdirectandcontrol fisheriesandotherharvesting activities;

policiesthatregulate marine transponation;polic ies andregu la tions thatdirectseabed andsubsurfaceexploration; lawsandregulation s fo rrecreational useanda plethora of other policiesthat impac t onourocean resources.As willbe outlinedinsubsequ ent chapters,thismosaic of mostlyverti call y oriented policiesis not unique to Canada.Most maritime nations,as a result of natural history and dependence on the

seas.

have developed a broad rangeofmarine use policies .

The expan dinguse of oceanresources and theconflict betweenmany oftheseuses has madeitincreasingly diffic ult to coordinateoceans-related activities andtoensure that policiesarc cohesive.Econo mic goalsin the pasthavebeen pursued, for example, without adequate consideration forthe broader ecological impactOf"the consequences for marine safety.The absence ofan integrated approachto using ashared resource has often caused conflict amongecono mic,environmentaland socialobjectives.Furth ermore,some stakeholders,particularlythose whowish to developtheoceans and theirresources, arc conce rned tha t thelargenumber ofgovernmen t departmen tsandagencieswithoceans- relatedmandatesand regulatoryregimes complicatesopportunitiesforinvestment and development.

Policy making has beendefined as the process oftransfonnation whichturnspolitical inputsinto political outp uts(Sch oettleinO'R..iordan 198L).The policyprocessis characte ristic allydescribedas alinearorcircu larprocess,consisting of problem de finition,assessment orevalua tion ofconstituen tfactors,identific ation ofresponse

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optionsmatched against setsofgeneral or specific objectiv es ,and implementation..

Polici esdonotdev elopina vacuum,Theyare political respo nses toperceiv edproblems (LamsonC.1994).Inthis conte xtitiseasytosa:why oceanspolicy issueshave become globalinscope.su ppo rtand attention.

Canadian oceanspolicymalringbas beenhighl y politicized, reacti veandsusceptibleto specia l interest group pressures.Many oceans- related policy,programandlegisl ative initiativeshave resultedfrom crisesand short-termissues foc us in g.As a result,programs and policies are sometimes established withoutdue regardfor longer-te rmimplications and cross-sectoralinfluences .For example,regulationsto protect fisheryresources, althoughscientifica llysupporta ble,may not have consideredsocio-ec onomicand cultural impactson fishersandcoas talcommunities.Somehold that theseregulationsshouldnot beinfluencedby suchfactors.This fallswithin therealm ofsocio-econo mic analysisand multi-objecti vemanagementpolic iesand warrants separateexamination beyondthe scope ofth.i.spaper.

lbe followin gchapterswillexamine oceans policy developmentinthe Canadiancontex t lbefirstthree chapters will setthestage and providesacontextualfoun da tionfor the paper includinganexami natio noftbc differen tocean sectorsinCanada,an historical perspective anda swnmary ofoceanpolicy develop me ntin othe r maritimenations.The remaining chapters will presentcurrentpolicy design and develop men tissues,asununary of Canada's Oceans Act andareview of public perceptionson oceanspolicyinCanada . Finall y,the pape rwillconcludewitha sect ionoutliningpossible futuredirec tio ns in oceanpolicy dev elopm ent

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The CanadianContext:The Oceans Sector

Canada isacoastal state,with vital sovereign interests in three borderingoceans:the Atlan tic, Arctic andPaci fic.Canada hasthe world'slongestcoastline and oneoftbe Iargc:stcontinental shelves .Its sea-surfacearea,out to thelimits oftheExclusive Economic Zone (EEZ),is equivalentto about 34percentof Canada's landmassor5 millionsquaremiles {(Op portunitiesfromourOceans1994).About23 percent of Canadiansliveincoastalcommuni ties that border oceanwaters,whereapproximately S135billionof econom ic activityoccurs GDP(UnitedNation s Commission on SustainableDevelopme nt,MonographNo.7,1999 ).

The oceanssecto rof the Cana dianeconomyis broadlydefinedasincluding fishing, shipping, boating,tourism,oilandgas explorationand developme nt,marine defense industries,andoceans-related manufacturingandservices,andis curre ntlyestimatedto accountforbetween3 to 6 percentof Canada' sGDP.Jurisd ictiona lly,eigh toften provincesandail territ ori esareborderedby ouroceans.Federally,23 departments and agencieshave oceans-relatedprogramsand 62of 295federal ridingsare bordered by marinewaters(DFO:The Role of theFederal Governmentinthe OceansSector1991).

With 23 federaldepartmen tsandagenciesbavin g interestsin the oceans sector,itisnot hardtocompre hendthevast number ofacts,regulationsand policiesthatcurre ntlyaffect management anduseoCouroceans.Attheend oCthelastsittingof Parliam eat,therewere approximately110 legislativeinstrumentsimpactingtheoceansinCanada.

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Legislation

Thechallen geofdevelopin ga horizontal, integratedoceans policycanbeillustrated by examiningalistofmajor pieces oflegis latioDthatimpac t ontheocean sector.The follo win glistisnot all-inclusiveandispresented fOTillustrativepurposes:

CanadaShippi ngAct:

Marin e navigation,marinesearchandrescue,pleasurecraftsafety,marineship- source pollution prevention andresponse,ligh tho uses , receiverof wrecks, support to other federal departmentsandagencies.

CoastalFisheriesProtecnonACl:

Monitorin g, contro landsurveillance.

FisheriesAct:

Conse rv atio n andmanag ement of fisheries and habitats ,licens ing, enforcement, internationalfisheriesagreements"

FisheriesDevelopmentACl:

Fisheriesenhancementand development,aquacultureand resource development research.

FishingandRecreat ionalHarboursAct:

Smallcraftharbo urs.

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Ca"adia"FoodInspecti on Act:

Promotesand supports the value, wholesomenessand marketability of fish productsproducedorsoldin Canada..

GovernmentOrganizationAct:

Assigns responsibilityfor physica l oceano graphy,chemicalocea nography,marine ecology,oceans policy developmen t.

Navigable Waters Protection Act:

Protects the public right ofnavigation by providing for removal of obstructions and provides an approvalmec hanism for planned obstructions.

Oceans Act :

Declares Canada's maritime zones in accordancewiththe provisions oftheUnited Natio nsConver.rionon theLaw o/the Sea;providesforthe devel opmentand imple me ntati onof anatio nal oceansmanage men tstra tegy,and providesfor the consolidationand clarificationof federal responsibilitiesforthe managementof Canada'soceans.

CoastingTrade Act:

Governs the grantingof authorityto foreignvessels wishing to conduct marine researchwithinCanada'sExclusiveEconomic Zones.

Foreign Affairsand Internat ionalTradeAct : Mari tim eboundary disputes ,LawofUte Sea.

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DepartmentofJw ticeAct:

Conduc toflitigation (incl udin g interna tional).

ArcticWatersPollution PreventionAct:

Regulations controllingwe depositof wastenorth of(j(J"latitude. Provisions coocem.ing natural resourcesin areasoCtheCanadian Arcticfo rwhich the Ministerhas administrativeresponsibility.

Canada PetroleumResou rces Act:

Regu latesinterestinpetrol eum in relationto frontier lands.

NunavutLand Claims AgreementAct:

Putsintc effect landclaimagre ement Nat ional Research Council Act:

Established NRC, which incl udes marine engineering, marine biology research.

Canada OilandGasOperations Act:

Regulation ofexplorationand exploitationof oil and gas.

NationalTransportationAct(1987:

Reviewof merg ers andacquisitio nsofmarine undertakings.Licensin g of northem marineresupply.Disput e resolution mechanismsfor shippers and carriers in the marinemode.

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Pilotage Act:

Marine pilotagein certainwatersof Canada.

PublicHarbours and Pore Facilities Act:

Provides forthe managemen tof public hatbours andportfaci lities.

St.LawrenceSeawayAuthority Act:

Seawayoperations . CanadaWildlifeAct:

Wildlifeconserv ation,resear chandinterpretation,especiallythroughpartners hips andestablishme ntofprotectedmarin e areas for wildlife.

Canadian Environmental AssessmentAct:

Integrationof environm entalfactors into federalplanninganddecision-making.

Canadian Environmenta lProtectionAct:

ProvidesfocestablishmentofMarin eEnvironmenta l QualityGuide lines; Ocean Disposal;andcontrol ofland-based sources of pollution, offsho re oiland gas,and toxicsubstances.

Migratory Birds ConventionAct,/994:

Migratorybirdconservation.

National Parks Act:

Providesforthe establishme nt of marineparks.

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OceanIndus tries

Also illustrative of the complexityofthe challengeinthedevelopment of integrated ocean policiesistheextentand scope ofthe numberofindustries supported by the oceans sectcr.Tbefollowingis a representativesample:

amarineconun ercial fish ery,which in 1994bad approxim ately$3.2billionin productionvalueandrankedfifthinthe worldin term sof fishexports.In 1994,the Atlanticfisheryhad atota l production of more thanS2.tbillionand provided employmen ttomorethan45,000activefisbersandanother61,500workers in process ing plants.ThePacific fishery accountedfor production of$900 million and employmen tof13,.500active fishers and 6,500plan tworkers (DFO:The Role of the Fed era l GovernmentintheOceansSector1997).

a marine aquacultureindustry, whichin1994badan outputof about $270million.

Approximately58percentofthatproduction wason thePacific coastand the remaining42 percenton the AUanticcoast(DFO:TheRole oftheFed eral Governme nt in the Oceans Sector 1997).

a tidal water sport fishery,whichgenerates$600millioninvalue-added economic activity and15,000 person-years of employment,resulting fromanglers' expenditures on goods and services.Onaverage,500,000anglers(Canadians andvisitors) sportfish intidalwaterseachyear(DFO:TheRole of theFederal.Government in the Oceans Sector199 7).

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an offshore oil andgas industry,whichis becomingincreasingl y importan tasa generatorof economic activity,particularly on theAtlan tic coast. The offshore regions are believedtocontain70 percentofCanada's unexploltedoil reservesand much ofits gas potential.

anoffshore miningindustry ,whic his still in its ear lyyears of de velopm ent,as the private sector has notyetshowngreat interest inexploring and developin goffshore mineral interests. Howe ve r, some forecast ersproj ectedthatbythe year 2000, revenues from offshoremining couldbe anywherefrom$25millio n to $400 million (DFO The Roleof theFede raJ Governmentinthe Oceans Sector1997).

an extensive marine shippingIndustry, which comprises international and Canadian vessels relyingheavily onCanadianports,container services,stevedori ng,etc.About one halfof Canada's exports arerelianton the shippingsector.

a shipbuilding and repair Industry ,which is spread across the country, with major coastalyards located inHa lifax,SaintJohn., andVancouve r, andsma lleryard sina num ber of othercoastalports.

an oceans manufacturing and:servicesindustry,comprisedofbundredsof firms across thecountry,whoseproducts range fromoceanographicand hydrographic instruments 10marine relatedremotesensingdevices, submersiblesand seabed systems.

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CanadianOcean PolleyDevelopment:An Histo ricalPerspective

The beginningofoceanpolicy developmen tisperhapsbestevidenced bythe establishmentofan oceansresearchcapacity whicbbeganwiththe Canadian Hydrogra phic Servi cein 1883.Tenyears later,in 1893, a specialist infish embryology, Dr.E.E.Price was appointed Canada'sCommissionerof Fisheriesand five yearslater, Parliam entestablished aBoardof Manageme nt withanappropriationof$ 15,000 fora marine scientificstation.Startinginthe early 1900'stheBoardassumed responsibilityfor anumberof research facilities including astationatGoHomeBay,GeorgianBay, Ontario,Sl Andrews,NewBruns wickand atNanaimo,B.C.

In19 12, theBoardbecame theBiological Board, operatingundera special Act of Parliament,The Board'smembership wasbroadenedin1924toinclude representativesof thefishingindustryand a wider spectrumof academic expertise.In1937, thenameofthe Boardwaschangedto the FisheriesResearchBoard ofCanada.Ucontinuedtomanage Canada'sfederalfisheri esresearc heffort until1973(Opportuni ties fromour Oceans 1994).

Onceaninfrastructurebegins totake fonn,thene xtnaturalprogress ionisthe developmen t ofa set ofpolicies to govern thearea ordisc:iplinebeingpursued.For Canada,it couldbearguedthatthe firstfonnaIevidenceoftheemergence ofanoceans policyplatformbegan withnational consi deration of a Canadianoceanspolic yemanating fromthe1957Interna tionalGeophysicalYear.Inthatyear 70countriesparticipated inan international study which includedlookingat thecoordinationofoceanscientific

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research.A5adirectresultof Canada 's participatio n inthat programmeandin theUnited Nations Conferenc e onthe OceansinNew Yorkin19 59,lbe Bedfordlnstituteof Oceanography wasestablis hedin Bedford, NovaScotia in 1962.Tenyearslater,the Centrefor Inlan dWate rs was opened inBurlington,Onta rio,andtheFisheriesand OceansFreshwaterInstitutewasopened at the Uni vers ity ofManiloba in 1973.Inthe sameyear,thelaboratoriesand personnelofthe Fisheri es ResearchBoard of Canadawere integra ted with the Department ofFisheri es, leavin gtheBoardanadvisoryrole.Bythe endofthedecade,theBoardhadbeen disbanded.The Northwes tAtlanticFisheri es CentreinSt.Jobn's,Newfoundlandwasofficiallyope nedin1979,theInstituteofOceans ScienceinPatrici a Bay,B.C. in1979 andthe Maurice LamontagneInstituteinSte-Plavie, (Rimo us ki),Quebecin1987.TheDepartmentofFisheriesandOceans wasestablished as a separatedepartm en tinL979.

Historicallyspeaking,Federalinitiativesinoceanpolicyhavegenerally beeninrespo nse 10 international issues.Thediscovery of oil in Prudh oeBay,AlaskapromptedtheHwnble OilCom pany to make a test voyage(theS.s.Manhattan )throughthe NorthwestPassa ge, asa possiblefuture oil transportationroute,in September,1969 withoutfirstseeking approvalfromCanadianauthorities .Followingpublicoutra ge over the issue of sovere ign tyoftheArctic archipe lagoandthewatersof theNorthwes tPassa ge,the governmentquicklyenactedtheArcticWarenPollurionPreventionA.cr,(/ 970).Atthe same time ,evidence of substantial offshoreoilreservesandthe pote ntialdiscoveryof mineraldepositswereseen as a possiblesourceof econo micwealth that couldmitigat e theuncerta intycreated bythe first oilshocksofthe peri od.Botheventsprompted policy

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attention to focus on the "oceans"as a nationalterritoryandasanationalresourceChat needed tobemanaged andprotected.

In1969,inresponse:to theincreasingawarenessofChe importance of the oceans to Canada'seconomicpotentia l,the federallyconstituted Science CouncilofCanada commissioned two studies;SpecialStudy#16,Ad mare:CanadaLooksto the Seaand SpecialStudy#10,Canada, Science and theOceans.Thelatterofthetwo studies containeda series ofpolicystatements andrecommendationsinthe areaofocean science andtechnology.Reco mmenda tions included establishinganational research and developmentprogram -MajorProgram in MarineScience and Technology -which would focus on the Canadiancontinen tal shelves,theirsuperjacent waters,ice-cover and the ope n oceans in order to respond tothe newneeds in resourceexploitation, fisheries, transportatio n,recreation, anti-pollution and climatepredictio n.

In 1972theCanadian Federa l Cabinetapprovedaproposal by theministers of the Ministry of Statefor Science and Teclmology(MOSST) and Environment Canadato review Canada'socean policieswith particular emphasis on ocean science andtechnology and the developmentof an ocean industry.Cabinetrecognized that there were nopolicies or overall guidelines10 governtheactions of thefedera l departments andagencies with ocean interestsatatime whentheyneededguidance topromoteoceanindustrial developme nt,resource management andsovereignty.At thistime Canada was focused on theoceansasan unmanaged,under-exp loit edresource.Resultantly,aTask Force on Ocean Industry,Science andTechnology was establishedwithmembersfromthe federal

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departments and agencieswhichhad"ocean"respcnsfbilities. 1be objectives of tbe Task Force were:

1. To bring toCabinet's attention,the strategic significance to Canadaof the ocean and its resources.

2. To identify areas ofmarine scienceandtechnologywherefed eral policies are, or willbe,inadequat etomeet Canada 's increas ing responsibilities.commitments and opportunities.

3. Torecommend specificpolicies forocean science,techno logy , and industry whicb cou ldbeimpleme ntedimmediately.

4. To recommendstructuresand instruments forthe formulation,coordination and implementa tionofCanada's policiesfor marinescience and technology.

Thefinalreport, approvedbyCabinetinJuly,1973,recommended developingpolicy aimedatresource managementandexploitationthroughindusbi al stimulationand the acquisition ofscientificand engineeringexpe rtise.Shortlythereaft er,the Minister of Statefor Scienceand Technologyannounced a NationalOceansPolicy.Its objectives

I.Stimulatethedevelopment and mosteffectiveparticipation ofCanadian industry inthe elementsof industrialandtechno logicalcapability essential to the exp loi tatio nofCanada'soffshoreresources;

2. Reviewall Canadianlegislation relevantto offsbore resourcedevelopment,laking into accounttheexperienceof other countrie sin managingoffsboreresources;

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J.Affirmthe intentthatCanadadevelopwithin fiveyears.aninterna tional ly recognized excellence in operating onandbelow ice-co vered waters;

4.Adopt8policy that Canada developand maintainacurrent infonnationbas eon offshore resources that wou ld be equivalent orsuperio r tothat avai lable tolarg e multinati onal corporations and foreign governments;

5.Givespec ia l emphasis to marine science and technologyprograms;

6.ChargetheMinister of lndustry,TradeandCommercetocoordinateproposals fromalldepartmentsforthedeve lopm ent andsupportof Canadianocean ind ustry;

7.Charge the Can adianCom mittee on Ocean ographytocoo rdinate Canada's programs ofmarinescienceand techno logyandtoreport to Cabinet throu ghthe Minister of me Environment;

8.Charge me Minister ofStaleforScienceand Technology to continue the reviewof policyon oceanindus try,scienceandtechnology(Opportunitiesfrom ourOceans 1994).

The Natio nal OceansPolicy emphasizedthe multidiscip linary,multi-agenc ynature of ocean scienceand technologyandthe need for co-operationandco-ordination:

"Itrequiresmehighestlevelof cooperation within and betweengovernments,and betweengovernment and theether sectorsof lhenatio naleconomy.This typeof multipurpos euseand managem ent ofourrenewable and nonren ewab leocean resourceswill assuretheir develop me nt for themaximum ben efitto Canadians."

(Op portuni tiesfromourOceans1994).

IS

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lDdus trialpolicies for ocean resource managementandexploitationwerethe majorfocus, and enviro nmentalprotectionwassecoDdary.Science andtechnology developmen twas recognized asthedriverofeach.Altho ughthethemes ofcoordination andeffic iencywere issue sin the originalreport,therewasno attemptto addressthisinitsimplem entat ion . Both theMinister of Statefor Scienceand Techn ologyand the Ministerresponsiblefor the Environmentwere given reporting responsibilitiesforvarious ocean science issues.

The Department of National Defence was the lead departmentindevelopment of"below ice capab ilities"andthe Canadian Committeeon Oceanographywas givenad visory responsibilitieson the developmentof scienceand techn ology opponun ities. The Minister of Industry,Trade andCo mmerce wasgiven responsi bility toco-ordinate item6 -the de velopment andsupport ofCanadianocean industries.Itcan be concludedthatthis national policy bad inherenthorizontal managementchallengesandfailed to properly recognize the need for integration.

The issue of'tbe oceans' remained on thepubl ic policyagenda throughoutthe 1960's primaril ybecause ofnew andongo ing internatio nalevents. In1961,theUnited Nations had begundelibera tions to establi sh aConvent ion on theLaw of theSea.(UNCL OSIII).

Canadawasanactiveparticipan t inthisexercise,which produceda Conventio nsignedby 119 countries in1982.The 1982 Conventionestablisheda jurisdictional framework for internationalmanagement of ocean resources. A pillaroftbeframeworkwasthe recognitionthat a coastalstatehas exclusive righ ts overtheresourceswithina 2t>O-mile- wideband off its coastsdefined asan Exclusive Eco nomic Zone(EEZ ).Canadahad established a 200 nauti cal-mile"Zon e" toprotectfishin ginteres ts as early as 1917.

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However,thiswasnotadeclaration ofanall-inclusive EEZthatCanada can claimunder the tenns of Law ofmeSea,The resolutionoftbese major jurisdictional questions shifted the focus ofoceanspolicyfrom sovereigntyrigh ts todomesticregulations andcoastal stareoceans management.

Inrecognition oftheneedfora focused, federaljurisdiction encomp ass ingdomestic regulationand management ofoceanresources , theDepartm entofFisherie sand Oceans (OFO) was established in1979.Thelegislati on creating OFOnot only joinedthe government's fisheries and oceans mandates, which bad previouslybeen separate,but also articulated the Department's oceans mandate. The Government Organization Act1979, stipulates that the Minister of FisheriesandOceans has responsibility forMa ll matters over whichthe ParliamentofCanadabasjurisdiction, not bylaw assigned to any other department, board oragency,ofthe Governmen tofCanadarelating to sea coast and inland fisheries,fishing andrecreational harbours , hydrograp hy and marine science and the cc-crdtna nc n ofthe policiesandprogramsof me GovernmentofCanadarespecting oceans"(OFO:The Role of theFederalGo vernm entintheOceans Sector1997).

Thenext most significant developmenthappenedin1987 when Cabinet approved an oceans policy. based on extensivepublic consultation, that addressed economic development,science and technology,environment (managing the ocean resource),and sovereignty.Policy instruments forimplementation includeda public awareness oceans campaign, industrialdevelopment,contracti ng-o ut and procurem entpolicies, alegal frameworkfor thestrategy(theCanada Oceans Act ),and an emphasison enhancing science and technologyknowl edg eand capabilities. Conservation was address ed through

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the policygoalsof responsiblemanagementof riving resources,enviro nmentall y acceptabledevelopment ofoon-living resources andprotection oftbeocean environment.

The OceansPolicyofl 987wasdesignedto build onthe residualpowers of DFOto create a"Cham pio nofOceansIssues"within theDepartment.Theunderlying ratio nalewasthat an amalgamation of oceans-relatedacts andregulations and a strengthenin g ofocean scienceand technologydevelopmentprogram sundertheauspices of onedepartment would prov idethebasisfor thecoordinationof afragmented andpiecemealsystem . This consolidationwouldproduce proactive oceans policy toreplacethe reactive policies which havecreated legislation and programsscatteredthroughoutmanydepartments (Opportuni tiesfromour Oceans 1994).

In May of 1994theCommittee on OceansandCoasts and the NationalAdvi so ryBoard on ScienceandTechnol ogy,prese ntedthePrimeMinister witha reportentitled

"Opportunitiesfrom our Oceans".Thereport, once again criticized the governm en t' s efforts inimplementing coordinatedandintegra tedoceans policiesandrecomm end ed a moreinnov ativeand proactive approa ch to managin g ourocean resourc es.Further and historica llymore important. the Commi tteerecomm ended the need foran oceans strategy buil t on a compre hensivelegalframework- an OceansAct.InJanuary of 1997 Canada's OceansAct receivedRoyal Assent and becamelaw,

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Oceans Policy Developmentin Other MaritimeNations

Many othermaritimeco untriesare currently examining theiroceanpolicies.Asisthe casewith mostnations, whodo nothaveclearl yarticulatedorlegislatedpolicy, governments arenowstartingto addresstheimportan ce ofanintegratedoceanspolicy.

Increas ed focus onocean s issuesbyinternat ional organiza tio ns like theUnitedNati ons andrecognitionthat theoceansmustbe understood and manage dina more glo balmanner hasalsoserved to advanceoceanmanagem entagendasaroundthewor ld. Scientific advancementsinthe undemanding of oceanbiol ogical, ecological and physical phenomena have identi fiedthe needfor:

I,greaterprotection ofthesevastresources and 2.enhanc edinternationalcooperationandcomm itment.

Aswillbesee ninthe following sections,nations are atvarying stagesofthedevelopment of integrated ocean polici es.The countries selectedforreviewpro videarecogni tio n of the differencesandcommonali tybetween countries.Gene rally, acommo nlheme throughou t willbetherecognitionthat"formost countries,there alreadyexists a multi tude ofverti call y-oriented,sectoralpolicies with linleintegrat ion. This sectionwill sununarize recentoceanpolicydevelopmentsof anwn ber of natioos.

Australia

TheAustralianOceanTerrit oryis16.1milli o n square kilometersincl ud inganExclusive Econ omic Zone (EEZ)of IImillionsquarekilomet ers{A ustral ianOceanPolicy:Issues

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PaperI 1998).Toachieve the goal ofdevelop inganationalpolicy the government set out to develop acomprehensiveandintegrat ed policyto provide astrategic framework.forthe plannin g. managemen tand ecologicallysustainable developmentof fisheries.,shipping, petroleum,gas andseabed resources.

Australia'sOceansPolicy waslaunchedon23December 1998.The policyoutlines a planning andmanagementsystem, which isintended torespond totheneedfor national coordina tio n andconsistencyof policy,whileallowing for regi onal diversity and continuedresponsibilitywithinthe wellestablishedindustrysectors (Austral ia'sOcean Policy(99 8).TheAustralian governme ntrecognized the absoluteparamountcyof developingan oceans policy with real inputfromand consultatio nwith, the manyand vari ed stakeholdersinvolved.

Earlyinthe exercise (1997)as partof theconsultationprocess,aMini sterial Advisory Groupon OceansPolicy was fonnedtoprovideanindependentsource of adv icetothe Governm ent on Oceans Policyissues ofparticularimportan ce to non-gove rnment organizations (NOO's).Thememberswere appointedon thebasis oftheir abilityto represe nt theviewsof NGOstakeholders withsignificant interestsinAustralia'smarine industries and environment,andbecause of theirpersonal expertiseon issues relevant to the Oceans Policy.Sectors representedby NGO members were:coastal planning;

conservation(natio nal);conservation(state);environmenta l management; commercial fish ing; recreational fishing;Indigeno us;landuse;legal;mining;oilandgas;science;

shipping; surveillance; and tourism.TheAdv isoryGroup meetingswerealsoattended by a senior officerfromtheDepartment ofthe Environment (repres en tingthe

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CommonwealthGovernment) , arepresentativefrom the Office of theCommonwealth EnvironmentMinisterand observersfrom the Commonwealth Departments ofPrimary IndustriesandEnergy (DPIE) and Industry,Scien ceand To urism(DISn. Australia 's OceansPolicy- anIssuesPaper,was released for public comm enton May 19,1998andstafffromtheOceansPolicysecretariatin the Mari neGroupof Environment Australi a,pro vided a series ofpresentationson develo pm en t of Australia's OceansPolicyinall Statesand theNorthernTerritory in the period 9Juneto4 July, 199 8.Presentations were made togovernm en t agenciesandnon-governmen t representa tives.,with asecondseries ofbroaderpublicmeeti ngsarrang edthroughthe Regio nalCoordinatorsof the Marine andCoastal Comm unity Netw ork(MC CN)in each centre.TheMarine and Coastal Community Networkregi onal coordina tors alsohelda seriesof otherdiscussions ineachregion.Fivebundred and thirty threesub missions on the issuespaperwerereceived.Thekeyissues raised wererelatedto instirutional arrangeme nts,coverage of the interes tof indigenouscomm uni ties,resourcing policy initiativesand implementationofa national policy.Inad di tio n, an Oceans Polic y ConsultationPaper wasde velopedto assistco ns ul ta tions with State.Territoryand locaI go vernm en ts,organiza tionsand the generalpubliconthebroad frameworkandassociated actio nsthatshouldunderlieanOceansPolicyforAusD'alia.

Austra lia 'sOceansPolicy intendsto setinplacethe framework forintegrate d and ecosystem-basedplanning andmanagementforallofAustralia' smarine jurisdictions.It includesa vision,a seriesofgoalsandprinci ple s and policyguidanceforanat ional Ocean s Policy.Buildin g onexisting sectora land jurisdictional mechanisms ,itpromotes

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ecologicallysustainabledev e lopm ent of ocean resources andthe encouragement of inlernati onally competitivemarine industries, whileensuringthe protection of marine biologi cal divers ity.Atthecoreof theOceans Polic yisthe dev el opm ent of Regional MarinePlans,based on larg emarine ecosystems,whic hwillbebindingonall Commo nwea hh.agencies.ThefirstRegionalMarin ePlanwillbedevelo pedfor-thesouth- easternregion ofAustralia's Excl usiv e Econom ic Zone. Broadly,this willincludewaters off Victoria, Tasmania,southernNewSouth WalesandeasternSouth Australia.

Australia'sOceansPolicyalso esta blished a seriesof arrangernents for implementation, incl uding:

a Natio na lOceansMin isterialBoard ofkey Com monwealth Ministers, chaire dbythe Ministerfor theEnvironmentand Heritage .TheBoardwillbe the decision-making body regardingRegi onalMarinePlans;

a National OceansAdvisory Gro upofind ustry,comm unity andgovernment stake ho ld ers;

Regional Marin ePlanSteeringCommittees, whichwillinclude regionalstakeh olders; and

aNationalOceansOffice, located in EnvironmentAustralia,whichwillpro vide secretariat and technicalsuppo rt and programmedeliveryforoceans policyinitiatives.

Specific secto ralmeasuresof the policydetailsthemajor challengesandtheproposed re sponses insometwenty areas of oceans planning andmanagement.Theserangefrom the conservationofmari n ebiol ogi caldivers ity,shipp ing, marin e pollution,flsberies and

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indigenousinterests,to understandingthe oceansandprotecti on ofthenationa l interest.

Animportantcompo nent isthe progressiveassessmentofthe effectivenessof tbe Oceans Policyanditsimplemen tatio n.

To illustrate its commitment,the Governmenthas commin edS50millio noverthreeyears for implementation of thePolicy.Specificactions on whicb commitm en ts have been madeinclude:

comme nce men tof Region al MarinePlanning.

improved understandingofthemarine enviro nme nt,includingenvironmental baseline surveys andsustainabilityindicato rs, mo nitorin g and improvedassessment of the impactsofcommercial and recreationalactivities-alltargetedtosupportRegional MarinePlans;

accelerateddevelopmentand improvedmanagemen t ofmarin e protectedareas;

supportfornatio nalmandatocystandards formarineandestuarinewaterquality;

supportforthe developmentofa singlenationalballast water manag em ent system; trialstotreatacidsulfatesoilproblem areas;

aNationalMoorin gs Programmeforsensitivemarine areas:and

supportforthe earlyphasedwithdra wal ofthe usecf'to xie,organo tin, and anti- foulingpaints.

Australia ,withitsrecentreleaseofthe policy,with clearl ydefinedsho rt and longterm objectives and witha $50millioninvestme nt,hasemergedintheforefrontofocean

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policydes ignand implementation.Althoughthen: will be manycbaIle ngesforthis country,theybave atleas t risco tothe cbaI leng ebytakingthe necessaryfirststep in the developmentof a comprehensive national oceans policy.

India

Indiahas a longmaritim e history.The peninsulais surro unded bytheArabianSea, Bay ofBengalandlodian Ocean.Thecoastlineofthe mainlan dandislands isabout7,500 kms.including1.256 islandsandanExclusive EconomicZone (EEZ)of2.02million sq.

km,The coastal andoffshoreenvironmentsuppo rta widevariety ofmarin eecosystems rich inspec ies diversity and multifari o us eco nomi cdevelop mentactiviti es .The sea also has tremen dous influen ceon thephysi calandmeteorologic alconditions of the country.

Appreciatingthe impo rtanc eofthe subj ect,theGo vernm ent ofIndiaestablish ed the Depanment of Qcean Development in198 1 withanaimofcreatingadeeper unders tandingofthe oceanic regimeofthe north ern and central IndianOcean and also de vel opmentof technolcgyand technological aids for harnessing of resourcesand understandingofvariousphys ical.chemicalandbiologicalprocesses.TheOceanPo licy wasenunciatedin1982(Governmentof India, Department of OceanDeve lop ment (DOD)InternetSite,bttp:l/www.nic.inldodIw eid odhttn)

For success in oceande ve lopm ent,... . .the entire nationsho uldbe permea tedbythe spirit of enterprise andthedes ire to explo rethefrontiersofknowledge:'(Government ofIndia, Departmentof Ocean Developme nt (DOD) Internet Site,

bUp·Uwww DjCjDldodfwcldQdhnn)

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TheOceanPolicythatwas enunc iatedin1982 was infacta listof IS policy statements:

L. Theadoptionofthe Conven tionof theUN Conference ontheLawofthe Seas and recognitionofan EEZ.

2.Collecting basiclrnowledge and information abouttheseaandtheseabed andin surveyin g,cbarti ngandexploitingit.Construction and developmentofoffshore

3. Acoordinated,centralized and highly sophisticateddevelo pmentresponse.This shou ldbe based on adequate knowledgeofmarine space(sea-bed,waterandair columns includ ed) as a fundamental prerequisitetothe contro l,managementand utilizationof theocean resources.

4.Maplivingreso urces,prepareaninvento ryof commercia llyexp loitable fauna and tomap andassess theavailability ofminerals from thedeep seatoensure maximumexploitatio nofwcalth.

S.Optimalutilizatio nofliving resources like fish and sea weeds,exploitationof non-living resourcessuch as hydrocarbons andheavyplacer deposits,bamessing ofrmcwableresources ofocean energyfromwaves,temperaturedifferences in the watercolwnn,tidalheights,salinitygradientsandthecollection and proces sing of polymeta llicnodules fromthe deep sea.

6.Develop basicmarinescience andtechnology, i.e.technology fo r marine environment,technologica ladvances ha vetobegeare dtotheutilization and preservation of themarineenvironment.

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7. Inthc deepsea,detailedsurv ey and samplingin thc regionsof EEZ and the adj acen t oceanwillbe necessary to locateandevaluate therichandeconomica lly via blc deposi ts ofpo lymctallic nodules.,heavymetals.,fossi lplacersand phosphoritedeposits.

8.Developm ent of indigeno us technology forthe exploitatio noffish from deeper

9.Animportan t componentof the developmentprogramm e should be acqui sition of technology.

10.Infras truc tura lsupportforms an essentia l prerequ isite forocean developme nt.This requires abroadening and strengthening ofavailab leinfrastructural facilities.

II.Surveillance andconservatio n of themarine environme nt and an integratedlegal framework.

12.A databaseto coordinaleefforts made bydifferen t agencies.

13.Thetraining ofskilled manpowe ristobeadeq uatelyplanned.

14.Existing agenci eswillhave tobeappropriately strengthened tomeetthedemands ofthisgrowing challengc.

The abovestatements indicate thattheformulation of India' soceanpolicyisfocused on furtherdevelopm entand exploitationof ocean resourc es.This isnotswp rising giventhe formidablesocial andeconomiccha lle nges facingthe country.

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UniledStal esofAmeri c.

The United States (US) has more than 95,000milesof coastline arid more than 3.4 million square miles of ocean withinits territorialsea.The US coasts arc amongthe most densel y populatedareasinthe worldwith75% of its 250 millioncitizens residing onor nearthe coast(Our Ocean Future 1998).

IntheUS,theinitiation ofan oceans policy canbe easily tracedtothelate1950' sand early1960 's.Its very beginnin gs werespawnedfroma renewedfocus onscie nce and technologyand a recognition thatthe existing educationalsystemwasDotasprogressive asitshould be.Knecht et.a1.1988,postulated this awakening was broughtaboutasa result oftbeUSSR winning the beginning oftbespac e race with thelaunc h of theSputrrilc satellite in 1957 (Knecht, Cicin-Sain and Archer 1988).This enabled science education to bebroughttothe'nationalpolicy agenda'.During this periodthe principalissuein the oceanpolicyrealmwas thequestion ofowners hipof offshoreoilandgas resources. This led to the USparti cipating intherust UnitedNations Confe renceonLawof the Sea (UNCLOS)in 1958witha goalof stabilizinginternatio nalocean law in a fonnconsiste nt withits desires on maintaining controlof resources adjacentto continental shelves while recognizing the necessity oftcnitorial seas to protect naval mobility.

Thefirstmajor policy paper on oceans waspresen ted by theNational Academy of Sciencesin1959, whichfocused on ocean sciencesandoutlineda blueprintfora major increaseinfederal suppo rt.

The first majorpieceof ocean legislation passed in theUSwastheMarineResources and Engineerin gAct of1966.That legislationwe ntbeyond ocean science and for thefirst

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time spokeof issues relatedto organizationof the national oceanprogramand improved COOI"dination of federal ocean activities.Shortly thereafter.in1967,probabl ythe most significant eventinUS oceans policydevelopment occurred:the creationof a Marine Sciences Council and aConun ission onMari ne Sciences.EngineeringandResources (COMSER),chairedbytheformer Presiden tof theMassachusettsInstituteof Technology,JuliusStratton.This commission,whichultimatel ybecameknownasthe Stratt on Commission,issuedin1969 a compre hensiveandforward lookin g report entitled

"OurNationandtheSea".This reportpresented forthe first time,elements ofa national ocean policyand was to guide manyoceans policyissuesintheyearstocome.The report emphasizedthreeissues:

I.1be idea thattheoceanwas a frontier for resource development;

2.Emergingthreatstothecoastalenvironment,and

3.Theneed toreorgani ze andunite federalocean andcoastalprograms.

TheCommission also setforth 120 recommendationsandoneof thefirst acteduponwas the creation ofanew federaloceans agencyin1970:theNationalOceanicand AtmosphericAdministratio n(NOAA).

Duringthe late 60' sand early70'sthemomentum,gainedwithoutputsfrom theStratton Commission,continuedwitha seriesofoceanIenvironmentallegislation:

1969 NationalBnvtrc nmentalPolicy Act 1972 FederalWaterPollution ControlAct 1972 MarineManunalProtection Actof1972 1972 Marine Protection,ResearchandSanctuariesActof1972

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19n Coastal ZoneManagementActof19n

19n EndangeredSpeciesActof1973.(Knech t,Cincin-Sain.,Archer1988) These Acts,althoughpioneeringinnature,were weak and difficulttoenforce.Regardl ess of therelative 'stre ngth'of theseActs ,theysigni fican tly increased thescopeof governmentalactivity vis-a-visthe oceans.

Ocean policy de velopm ent inthe 70'sand80's was onceaga in tied tosignificantsocial events,namely,the'energycrisis'.Araboilembargoesfocusedattentiontooffshore resources and among manyother measurestheUS governmentdrafted aCoastalEnergy ImpactProgram, amended the Outer Contin ental Shelf Lands Actand investedinareas suchas oceanthermalenergy conversion.Oneclear impactthe energycrisisbadon ocean policy,from ascience perspective,was that it'blunted'the environmental focus attained intheprevious decadebyputtin genergyneeds aheadofscien ce and conservation (Knech t, Cincin -Sa in,Archer1988).The other significan t influence in the70'swas the decl arat io nof aZOO-milefisheryconse rvatio nzone.

The80 's can probably be summarized as aperiodofsurvi valina timeoffiscalrestraint and program reductions.Sectoral ocean policyinitiativ esdidnotexpand orevolve but focusedon maintainingaprese nceon policyagendas.The emergingcycleis aboutto returntoatimeof increasedawareness andattenti ontoconservatio nof ocean resources andtheUS iscurrentlytryingto rationalizeand initiateanothermajorpolicyreview (sometimesreferredtoas StrattonIl).

Giventhe above history,onecould still ask thequestion:Does theUShave anational oceanpolicy?Whilethen: isno tangibleevidence likeasingle law or document, one

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couldargue thepolicyconsistsof a dynamicmosai c oflaws.,treaties,Presidential statementsand proclamations (Sullivan1985). Sullivansummarizedthe USOceanPolicy assuch:

"It is the policy of theUS topursueallour nnge ofinterestsin the ocean,

inc luding security, resources,the environm ent, commerce and navigation, and science, and toseek the mostequita bleaccommodationwhen thereis conflict betwee n those interests." (Sullivan1985)

Uis his contention thatthere exists alreadyapolicy butthe specificactions to implemen t thepolicy01'"procedures are missing.

The US, like many maritime nations,declared1998 as theYeac of theOceanand anemptedto establish a Dew commissionon the oceans.Thelegislationpassedinboth the Ho use andthe Senate but bas notyet receivedfinal passage. NOAA,inMay of1998 organize d a roundtabl emeeting offederal andstalerepresen tatives, industryand academia todebateanddiscusslessonslearnedfrom thefirstStranonCommiss ion,the 1998 policy context and possibleoptions forane w commission.

The US and its marine environment are experiencing the same types ofissues that all maritime nations are facing: encroachmen tofhwnans on the coast, thedep letion of marinespecies and habitats, changing governance regimes etc. The US'nationa l ocean policy' isatbesta sectoral, verticallyoriented mosaic.Future developm e nts in its policy will hingeuponthe ne xtmajor reviewor StrattonU.

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Japan

The importanceof theseatoJapan iswenknownaround the world. Thenation's post- wareconomicsurvivalandprosperi tyhavedependedhea vily on the international seaborne tradecarryingits industrialproductstothe restof thewo rld andoil.food and otherprimarygoods toJapan.

Japan' snational ocean policyin thedecadessince World War

n

has beenshapedby several factors:

Thenation'sheavydependenceonoceanspace and resources;

Thehis torical contextofthe nation's post warpol itical arena;

The needto balancedomesticandinternationalpolic yneeds; Coordinatingdevelopm entaland environmentalneeds ; Polic ymaking structure and processes.

Japanese portsandharbours annuallyhandle2.85 bil(jonIOns of goodsand thecountry has thelargestmm:han tfleet inthe world(approxima te ly 10,000 vessels) (AkahaT...

1995).With respect 10 fisheries,Japan hasalways beenone of thetopfts hin g countries in theworld, butwithvast reductionsinthecatch ofdistantwaterfleetsafter19n ,the countryhasbad10increase importssubstantially(3.8milliontonn es in1991) (Akaha 1995).There arealso14 nation aland47 prefecturalaquaticcultivationcenters not including privateandlocal government facilities.In1991estimated production from aquacu lturewas 1.36 milliontonnes.Withsuchadependenceontheocean,Japan's natio nal oceanpolicieswillalwayshavefisheries, shipb uildingandshippingasits cornerstones.

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Followin g the SecondWorldWar andAllied occupationittookmanyyears forJapan to reintegrate intotheinternationalfishety regime.For manyyearsJapan was unableto exerciseits sovere ign tyandits economic activities ,includingfishingandshipp ing,were underAllied control. However, overtimeand withthe coope rationoflhe US,Japan was ableto rebui lditsinternationalfisheriesandshipping presence.

Japan,likemanycountries,oftenisrequired tobalan cedo mes tic andforeign policy. In the establishm en t of a12mileterritorial sea,Japanhadto cons iderits 3non-nuclear principles -notto produce.nottopossessand nottointroduce ,which,aspanofdomesti c laws and policy ,wouldextendtothe territorialsea.Thiswould prohibitnavigationof nuclear powered/armed warshipsinthisarea-a prospect that would surely have been chal leng ed byboth theUSand the USSR.Intheend exem pti ons were employedto allow anacceptablecompro mise solution.

Japanesefisherman havehistoricallyfishedextensivelywithin the coastal zone ofSouth Ko reaandChina andifJapan declareda200 milelim it,itfeared thosetwocountries,asa protectionistmeasure,woulddeclaretheir own 200milelimit.Againina compromise , JapanexemptedSouth Korea andChinafromprohibitionsofthe 2QO..mile limit and maintained the 12·mile limi tinsomeareas.

Japan has also seenthe environmentaleffectsof rapidindustrialgrowthand population increases.Bythe mid70'sonly40% ofthecoast remained unaltered because of land reclama tio nandthe coastal zonewasbeingseverelyimpac ted by industrialpoUutan ts and other toxic substances.Aswithmanyother coun triesdevelopingoceanpolicy,crises oftenprovidethe neededcatalyst.In1970Japanesta blished itsfirst nationallegislative

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framework-MaritimePoUution ControlLaw andthe WaterPo llution ControlLawand alsoestablished itsfirstEnvironmentalAgency.Inspiteofthcsemoves.there were893 confinnedcasesof marine pollutionincoastalwatersin199Lwith59%beingoil related (AbbaL995).Landreclamationhasmade availableabout75 ,000 additiona l hec tares of space for residentialandindustria l usage. About 1,270,000 hectares of coastalareas serve as fishing grounds and3000 fishing ponsclaim about 200,000 hectares ofcoastalwaters.

Giventhis impo rtan ceand degree ofusag e, oceanman agementhas becomea very sensitiveand critical issu e forJapan.

Japan doesDOlhave an integrated ocean policy atthe nationallev el. Instead, there are many ocean policies for many functionalareas.including shipping, shipbuilding,fishing, maritimesafetyetc.Mul tipl e use problems.aswithother countries,are growing;

however,inthe absence of a coordinated, integrat ed policy,Japanhas instituteda mechanism, the Co uncilonOceanDevelopm ent (COD) toattemptto coordina te the manyinteres tsinvolvedinocean developmen tand manag ement.The Counc il is composedof govemm entofficials, majorocean industry represen tatives,academiaand scientificpersonnelAltho ugh itis not a policy coordinationbodyandmayhavea bias toward developmentrather thanconserv atio n, theCODdoes articulatein its annual reportsthe nation'snumerous ocean interests and serves to focus policydebatesand attention on currentocean issues .

Horizo ntal coordinatio nis clearly needed.Japanbas developeda fragmented national policythatbasbeenbuilt increm entall yusuallyin reactiontosomenationalor internationaldevelop ment, e.g.UNCLO g and the 2oo-mile zone.Thisdoesno t implythat

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somepolicieshaveDOtbeeneffective. Ahighlycentralized politicalstructure and a highly capable public servicehave allowedfor effective implementationof many policies, usuallyinthename of deveiopmenL

Itcanbeconcludedthatthere exis tsanot surprisingcommonal ityof oceans issues amongstmaritime nations whic hisnot surprising.Integration,enforcement,research, coordina tion are allcommon them esandchallenges.The Can adianexperiencehas been similar inits challengesho wever,differentpoliticalstruc tures, for exam ple state/provincialvs.federalpowers willgiverisetodifferent approaches tonationalpolicy developmentand implementation.Inaddition temporaldifferen ces mustbeconsidered, Nationsdonot'de ve lop' atthe samerate and therefore one wouldexpectsomenationsto be currentlyat different stages ofoceanpolicy developmentandimplementation.

PolleyDesignand Development

Mostarticleswritten aboutocea ns policyinvariableusethe tennsintegration, comp rehens iveness, rationality and meaningful engagement.Caution must be exercisedin using andtrying toincorpora tethese elementsintoa policy design.Thetechnicaland politicalchallengesofhorizontal policy design is particularlypro minentinoceans policy.

Integra tio nisprobablythe most often used phraseinoceans policy literature butsome would arguea perfectly integratedoceanspolicy that is ratio nal fromallperspectives doesnot andcannot exist(Levy 1993).Levy explains thisby contendi ng that duetothe complexityofthepolicyprocess andtheinfluenceofinterna l andexternalfactorsat differe ntstages offonnulationandimplementation, a truly integrated policy is

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unattainable.Thisisnotdifficult toacceptgiven themultitudeofuses,users, enviro nmentalfactors,political influencesandthe sbeer magnitudeandsize ofour oceans andits resources.

Theintegrati on of oceans policy requires a sound understandingof the different biologi cal andenvirorunental phenomena takingplace inthemarine environment,the interests of various marine sectors andultimately theimpactsof man'sinteractionwith the ocean. Thefocus on oceans policy development overthepasttwo decades.

simplisticallystated,can betracedtoaconvergenceof anumber offorcesand issues:

Oceanresourceusageand thecloseimerdependenceof economic andsocial development;

Preservationoftheenvironment;

Conflicting resourceusage;

Globalawakening to the importanceof earth'soceans;

International conventionsandorganizations.

Gove rnmentStructures and Coordination of PolicyDevelopment

Policymakingiscentral to whatgovernmentsan:aboutanditisthepuhlicpolicy developmentfunction of governmen t thatmost distinguis hesitfromprivatesector organiza tions.Insomeinstances.policydevelopmentisanorderlystep-by-stepprocess involving acycle ofanalysis. options development.selectionof apreferredoption and

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implem en tation.Vecyoften,however ,policydevelop mentis incremen tal.fragmented and not entirely predictab le.

Ocean responsibilities including policy design anddevelopmen t,fundamentally controlledand administered bythe state. areguidedbyadministrativestruc tures used10 implem entgovernmentactio ns.Asoceanusage grad ually increasedovertime,the Canadiangovernme nt,aswith mostmaritimestates,developeda fragmented and incre me ntal approachtomanagement ofoceanresources.The multiplicati on ofvarious respo nsibilitiesas a resultof thisincreased usage,inCanada'scase,bas resultedinover 20 fed era ldepartments andagencies withocean interests.Thistypeof governance structure. that relies on coordinated activitiesbetweenagencies. canonly addtothe challenge oftrue integration.

Organizationalfragmenta tion, policy complexity ,resourc e scarcity,sectoral interdepe ndence, conflictingvalues.compet ing interests,departmental rivalries, increasingspecializatio n,the sheer scopeandscale of governmentactivity,and theoverl oad of seniorpolicymakersall makethetaskofachievin gpolitical cohesion,polic y consistency andadministrative eobereoce avirtuallyimposs ible feat.(JonathanBoston:TheProblemsof Policy Coordination:1be NewZealand Experience,1992.)

The expan ding usc of ocean resourcesandthe conflict betweenmany oftheseuses has made it increas inglydifficulttocoordina teoceans-related activiti esandto ensurethat poli cies arecohesive.Economicgoalsinthepasthavebeenpursued,for exam ple, withoutenough consideratio n forthebroaderecologicalimpact or the consequences for

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marinesafety.Thelack.of anintegratedapproach to using asharedresourcebas often causedconflictamong economic.environmen talandsocialobjectives.Thisisperhapsa fundamenta lchallen ge of anypolicyinstrument.Furthermore,somestakebolde rs, particular lythosewho wish to develop the ocean sand theirresources,areconcernedthat thelargenumberofgove rnm entdepartmentsandagenci eswithoceans- related mandates and regulatoryregimes , com plica tesopportunitiesfor investmentand development.

Experiencehas shownthatifthereisno strategicmanagementframework, thepotential forworking atcrosspurposes isconsidera ble.

Can ada has pas sedfederal legislation,theOceansActand hasconsolida ted.some respo ns ibili ties underone departm ent - Fisherie sand Oceans.TheOceans Act will be presentedinthe followi n g chapter.

Canada'sOceansAct

The OceansActof1997positionedCanadaintheforefrontofall nations in establishinga sing le pieceoflegislatio n to addressthe horizontal challengeof articulating an oceans strategy.The preambletothelegislationpro videsagoodsummary of the intentof the legislationandisparaphrasedasfollows:

Canadarecognizesthat the three oceans, theArctic,thePacific andthe Atlantic,arethe commonheritage ofallCanadians;

Parliament wishestoreaffinnCanada's roleas a world leaderinoceans and marine resourcemanagement;

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Parliament wishes toaffirminCanadian domestic law Canada's sovereign rights, jurisdiction and responsibilities in the exclusive economic zone of Canada;

Canadawishes to promote the understanding of oceans, ocean processes, marine resources and marine ecosystems to foster the sustainable dev elopmentof theoceans and their resources;

Canada holds that conservation, based on an ecosystem approach, is of fundamental importance to maintaining biological diversity and productivityinthe marine environment;

Canadapromotes the wide application of the precautionaryapproach to the conservation, management and exploitation of marine resourcesinorder 10 protect these resources and preserve the marine environment;

Canada recognizes that the oceans and their resources offer significant opportunities for economic diversification and the generation ofwealth for the benefit of all Canadians, andinparticular for coastal communities;

Canada promotes the integrated management of oceans and marine resources;

The Minister ofFisheries and Oceans, in collaborationwithother ministers, boards and agencies ofthe Government of Canada, with provincial and territorial governments and with affected aboriginal organizations, coastal communities and other personsand bodies, including those bodies established under land claims agreements, is encouraging the development and implementation of a national strategy for the management of estuarine,coastal and marineecosystems (Oceans Act 1997).

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1be following sectio n will provideanoverview thethree pansof thele gis latio n.

PartI

The first partof the Act fonnally establishesCanada'sj urisdictionasacoastalstateover itsocean areasandthe irresources.It defines nationalmaritimezonesasconsis tin gof Canada'sInternal Waters.TerritorialSea. ContiguousZone,ExclusiveEconomic Zone andthe Co ntinentalShelf (OceansAct1997) .

The Act grantsCanadapowers thatgo wellbeyondthepowersthecountryassertedinthe past.

n

putsinplacea cleardefinition of jurisdiction thatis fullysuppo rtedbyglobal agreem en t.

Canada'sTerritorial Sea (TS) extends fromCanada'sbaseline(lowwatermarkalongthe coast) outto12 nauticalmiles.Within thiszone, Canada may exercisefuJIrightsand responsibiliti es.

The ContiguousZoneextends12 nauticalmiles from the outer edge oftheTerritorialSea.

Canada'srights and responsibilitiesin this zonepreventsthe commission of offenceson Canadian terri tory relating10 customs.sanitary.fiscalandimmigra tionlaws.

TheExclusiveEconomicZoneextends 200 nautical milesfrom the baseline.Canadamay exercise itsrights and responsibilitieswithrespectto theexplorationandexploitationof livingand non-Livingresources of waters, subso ilandseabed.The EEZalsoprovides Canada withtheresponsibilityandjurisdi ctio n to protectthe marine enviro nmen t,to regulate scien tific research and10 controloffshoreinstall ations andstru ctures.

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The Continental Shelf includes the seabed and subsoil fromthe outeredgeof the TerritorialSea totheouteredge of the Continental Margin of 200 nauticalmiles, ...hicbever is greater.Onthe Continenta lShelf,Canadamay exerciseitsrights and respon sibiliti es with respectto the exploration andexplo itationofmineral .non-living resources andlivin gresource s(sedentaryspeciesonly -.c.g. scallops).

Oiagum1:Contig uouszonesEstab lishedb~'theOcean sAct

MAR ITIME ZON ES

DRY :

~ ~

LA ND,3 9

200nm 350nm

Continental Shelf· 350nm maximum possiblelimit

¢

: : :Co nt inen talShe-If

Territoria lSea•12nm ContiguousZone- 12nm ExclusiveEcon om ic: Zone •200nm

I

nm-.. Mlli<>oo lmile-I

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Part ".OceansManagementStrategy(OMS)

TheOceansMana gemen t Strategy sectionofthe Oceans Act outlines a new approachto managing Canada'soceans and their resources.The concept is based onthe premise that Canada'soceans mustbe managed as a collaborativeeffo rtamong stakehol ders.This section of the Actcontainspro visions for theMinisterof FisheriesandOceanstolea dthe development andimplem enta tion of anati ona l strategyforocean manag ementbased on theprinciples of:

sus taina bledevelopment;

integratedmanagementof activi ties inestuaries,coas tal and mari newaters;

and

the precauti o nary approach(acommitme nttoerr onthe sideof caution) (OceansAct 1997).

Practically, the OMSis based on theintegrated management ofactivities occurring in or affecting oceans by developinga flexiblestrategythat canbeimplemen ted regionallyby stakeholders within their areas of responsibility.

The Actdirects theMini sterto involvestake holdersinthe develop mentof Canada's OceansStrategy andits implementation throughintegra ted mana gement plans . Invol vementofstakeholdersatalllevelsindevelopingpolicy and management plans will requiretheDFO tore-organi zeboth the struc turalcompositio nofthedepartmentas well as its internalinstitu tions, e.g.Stock Assessment processes .Toillustrat e, theDFO

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currently assesses and manages exploitedspecieson a stock-by-stockbasis.A true ecosystem approach wouldsurely challenge the current approac hand organization.

Thissectionofthe Actalso provid estheMinisterwithsome basic autho ritiesand management toolstobeused within thecontextof integratedmanagementplans.They include;

1.theestablishmentof Marine ProtectedAreas;

2.the estab lishmentand enforcemen tbyregulationofMarineEnvirorune ntal Qualityguidelines,criteriaandstan dards designed10 conserve and protect ecosystemhealth;and

3.the development of Man agementPlans,includ inginte grat ed coas ta lzone managementplans.

Theprecautionaryapproachprinci plebas gainedconsiderab leattention inmany arenas over the past few years and as noted aboveis oneof thekeyprinciplesofCanada'sOcean Act.

Theprecautionary idealarisesfromrecognition thatscien tific understandingof ecosystemsiscomplicated bya host offactors,including complex andcascadingeffects of bum an activitiesanduncertainty introduced by naturally chao tic populationdynamics that currentscience struggles tounderstand.Preca ution can also serve as aprogressive:

policytool.By adoptingan overridingprincip le,policydevelop men twill tendtofollowa distinguis ha bletrend and directi o n.Theprecau tionary approachposes akeydilemma for environmental manage rs:ho w sho u ld policiesbedecided in theface ofscien tific uncertain ty?Therespon se fromscience istoengage in further rigor ousstudiesto better

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understand thehiddenwodiDgsof nature.Buta simi larresponseisnot availablewithin the cultureofpolicy;inasetting thatmust cope with demands forecono micgrowth,the press uresforresource extraction areimmense.Consequen tly,importan tpolicydecisions (includingcontinuing thesta tusquo) are made despite poorknowledgeoftheultimate effects of anthropogenicactivities.Vaguede fini tions of the precautionaryapproachare evolvingasitis increas inglyapplied.Initiallythe principlewasputforwardinan interna tion alsetting at theftrst ministerialconferenceon NonhSea pollutioninBremen in1984 ;it was strengthe ned at thesecond NorthSea conferencein1987(London)and furtherreinterpretedat thethirdconferencein1990(TheHague) (Dethlefse n, V.•Jac kson, T.&Taylo r,P.(1993».InCanada'sOceans Actitisdefinedrather sim p listicallyas 'a comminnenttoerr on the side ofcaution.' Considerabl edebatehasensuedaboutthe preci sede fini tion and interpreta tion of the intentof theprinciple.A princip leis often open toopera tional interpretation and ispresenting signi ficant implementationchallenges.

Part111·ConsolidationofFede'a l Responsib ili tiesfOl' Canada'sOceans

Theco nsolidat ion of most federaloceans responsibilitiesunderone organizationhas establisbedanidentifiableleadfederalagencyaccountablefor oceans mana gement.This Partoutl inestheresponsibilitiesof theMinist erwithrespect10coastguardservices,and speci fiesactivitiesthat may beundertakenrespectingmarinesciencesandbydrography.

Coast guardservices are aimedat supporting theprovisionof a safe,economicaland efficientmarinetransportation syste m... The Minister willensure that the following services are providedin a cost-effectivemanner:

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I. safenavigation(aidsto navigationsystems andservices.marinecommunicatioos and traffic managementservices,icebreakin gandicemanagementservicesand channelmaintenance}

2.the marine componentof thefed eral search and rescue program pleasure craft safety,including theregulationofthe construction. inspection,equipme ntand operationofplcasurc:craft pollutio n preventio nandresponse,andsupport 10Olb.er departments, boards and agencies oftbeGovernmentofCanada.

3.Canada'shydrographicservices includethe manda te to survey andchartthe navigablewaters ofCanada.Of primaryconcern isthe gatherin gand publishing of hydro graphicdata and marinenavigationinformatio n.Canada'simmense coastlineanditsextensivenavigable watersrequiresthat about1000 nautical chartsbepublishedandmaintained.Inthisservice.the MinisterofFisberiesand Oceansduties,powers and functions relate to:

settingstandards andestablishin g guidelinesfor uscbyhydrographersand othe rsin collecting data and preparin g charts;

conductingsurveys;

produ cin g,distributing andsellinghydrograp hicdocuments, andproviding hydrographicadvice,servicesand supportto otherpersonsand bodies (OceansAct1991).

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Marine Sciencesare crucialtodeveloping an undentandingof Canada'soceans.Through lhe Canada Oceans Act,the Ministermay, among other activities:

coUect data andcartyout investigations for thepurpose of understanding oceans and theirlivingresourcesandecosystems;

conduct hydrograph icand oceanographicsurveysof Canadian and other waters:

cond uctmarineseientific surveys relating tofisheriesresources and Iheir supporti ng habital andecosystems;

conduct research related tohydrography, oceanography and other marine sciences;

participatein ocean techn ologydevelopment, and

conductstudies10 obtain traditionalecologica lknowledge(OceansAct1997).

Aulhority is also includedtoallow theMinister to recover costs for services , facilities, products,righ ts,pri vileges,andregulatoryprocessesprovided undertheauthority of the Oceans ACLBefore rwngfees.theMinister is directedto consultwith persons orbodies lhatareinterestedinthe matter,andtocomplywith existingreviewprocesses. Partillalso allowstheMinister todesignate enforcement officerswithspecifiedpowers, andidentifiesoffen ces,finesandsentences.It alsoprovidesforareview afthe provisions and operationof the Act withinthree years ofitsenac tment.

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Public Perceptionsof CanadianCoastal and Ocean Management Policy

Thedevelop men t ofoceans policyis inextricablylinked topublic perception, political proc esses and hencethe politicalagenda. Thedevelop ment of any publicpolicy,through ourpoliticalsystems , shouldreflect publicopinionandgeneralcons ens us.Toprovide an analysisof Canadianpublic perceptionsonocean policy,thefindingsora research.

project conducted bytheCanadian OperationalCenterofthe Internatio nalOcean Insnrute (101) wiUbepresented.. Thestudyshould notbe considered the definitiveassessment of publicperception,but rather a representativesample.

On behalfof the Independent World Commissionon the Oceans (IWCO),101 in Halifax, Nova Scotiacoordinatedthe CanadianOcean Assessment (COA),a review of Canadian oceanmanagementpolicy and practice (Coffe n-Srnout, 1996).

The eOAis oneof fiveregional assessments on the interrelated problem s of oceanspace cond uc ted bytheIOl as part oftheworldwidepublicinputto theIWCO.The process implementedundertheCOA was essentially one ofinfonnationcollection,involvingthe solicitationof opinionand perceptionsftom.academics, governmen t departments,and to some degree,from the grass-rootsleveltoprovidea CutTCOtstatusassessmen tof tbe oceans andof oceans management policyandpractice.Four infonnation-collecti on compo nentswereused,includingthreepublic hearin gs,individual mailedsurve ys, subm itted briefs,and current organizatio n reports.Three public hearin gs heldduring March-April,1996,inVancouv er,Ottawa and Hali fax ,wereattendedby individ uals from

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various secrces,including governments.Ibe privatesector, academia. non-govemmental organizations. First Nations andInuit organizations. andcoastalcommunities.

The survey focused on four specific areas:(i)perceptions of marine pollutio nsourcesin Canada'soceans; (ii)principlesandvaluesinCanada'scoastalzone and oceanspolicy ; (iii) assessmentof currentCanadianpracti ces in suppo rtof sustainableocean developm ent; and (iv) analysis ofCan ada'soceanspolicycomm unityattributes. The sectio nsmostre levant to policydevelopmen t,principlesand valuesin Canada's coastal zoneand oceans policy and oceans policy community attributes.willbe presented here.

Oneof the majorachievements oftbe199 2 United Nations Conference on Environment and Developmentwas the international commitment by worldleaden and theglo bal conununity to adoptprinciples in decision-making related [0 naturalresource uses and allocatio ns.The princi plesinthe Rio Declara tio n onEnvironmentand Developmentand Agenda21emphasize theneedfordeci sion-makers tofollowkeyprincipl esin orderto ensure susta inableocean ecosystems and theintegrity ofthe globalenvironmenta l and developm e ntal system (United Nations. 199 2).TheRio Declaratio ncomprised27 principles. includingpublic participation. community-basedmanagement, polluter pays.

precaution. pollutionprevention. indigenous rights. and intergenenationaiequity.TbeRio Principlesprovided a usefulframework,as survey respondents were asked to consider principlesand valueswhichshouldbe includedin Ibe federalgovernment's current coastal zoneandocean policy.and rankthe exte ntto whichthe principle or value is found inCanadianpolicy.The responde ntsalso ranked theimpacts the presenceorabsence of principl esandvalues havehad onCana da 's ocean resour ces.

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Threecaveats ofthis approach are worthnotin g.First.present governmentpolicymay not necessari lybe responsiblefor the current impactsuponocean resources.Secondly,policy statements shouldbe distinguishedfrompolicypractices since statementsarenot necessarilyreflected orrealized intheirapplication throughpolicypractices.Thirdly,it wasassumed that thechosensurveypopulationhad some knowled geofwhat ispresent in Cana dian policy.

The re were six principleswhich a majority of respondents indicated were both presentin currentCanadian policyand havingbadanega tive impactonCanada'socean resources. These sixprincipleswere:

I.GovernmentSubsidiza tionof the Private Sector 2.The ProfitMotive

3.Reso urc e Utilization 4. Econom icCompetition 5. Conflict Avoidance 6.CommunityEconomic Development

Aboriginal Rights were regarded as beingprese nt bythree-quaners(74%)of respondents.

but 87 percentindicated that such rightshad eithe ranegative (43%)or neutral (44%) impacton resources.The onlyprinciplethatwas consideredpresent in policyand having a positiveimpacton resourceswas Environmenta lProtection. EnvironmentalProtection was considered tobeprese ntin policybymost (84% ), butonly halfof therespondents saidithad a positiveimpacton oceanresources.

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