®~er~ld i ne" ··hQ~-~h. B.S ~W

c CONCE RNS AND ClJRRICUl.oA

,.'

RURAl. SOCIAl., WORK'IN CANADAAND THE UNITEDSTATES:

. . ' I

'~ /

.by

•

®~er~ld i ne" ··hQ~-~h. B.S ~W

^•

.>

A Thesis su bllli t.te d 'in par tiA L

,

fU,lf i U ..ent of. t.he ruq u f r eae nte f~r thedet:Jree~f

ete ete r of'S o ci alWo r k

sehed ofStich.l Wor k "

HO"" ' lD l'

unl~

of Ne. "'undl o nd February 2, 19lH

St.Joh n's Ne wf o u ndl a nd

f l •

"-The author (coPyr~9hto'oner)

has reserved ot h e r

publication rights . and ne i t h e r the thesis nor extensi ve extra c:ta .from may'be printed or athe la8 reproduced without hi /h e r

""ritten permission. '

,.'.

Perm!a'sion has been gran1;ed ,L'autoriaat;iona

ete

accord-eo

t.o the"National. Library'of , A..la Bibl1ot.heque,nationall!l

Canadai to mierofililf this ducanada" de mierofilmet t.h e s is and to.lend'or .811 cetts th~1e at de:priter.ou

~opie. of the film. de ve nd i' ede s.exemplaires du.

·,f Hm. . , .

L;aut.eu~

^{,'(ti tulair e'du}

'd;Oi~"

d'aut e ur) "e e reser ve le a

~ut res draitsde publ1c8t.i on J n1 la these n1 del longs

~~i;:n\t .

itdree

Ci~~l leTnb; ~~)

autremen\:.rep~oduit.8aana Bon • au t o r1 . a tio n ee r i t e . •

..

\

O-JlS-l698l-l

'r

~""

\....

Th h'thesishall a two-fold purpo .e. Firat • .extensive'rev i ew.ofthll!li t era t ur oal liedat. an analys iso.f' .eve ~ a.lpas tvand,c urren t r.ur a l -?C ialwo'lrk,the.~."·!he~e

" aubJe~tlli~<:lud8 1 (1) Pr o'bl e•• whlch Af f ecf'r ural, p e o p,l e

and

the~_r cOII\II~nit.te8::. :

^..

(.~) Thek~~l:~~~

^balle

nU·Ce8~a.r::y·

.fbI:~~r·lll.O~1a1.~W~~k~ rs , (~): SU99~. tO( ~u~ricuia·

al" lIed :

Sl:l.condly;:an 'explo r a tcu::ystudy Wll.~'under'tillk'~n:,which'

t ,. . ' , ' .' . ,

~re8ent~d'da t~rego.rd i!1i:lpr eaentrUlra!s~¢ialwo r k ...

~rograIllG ;

^{Thea tudy·samp le was}

COIllPe8~d·

, . ^of"

th l r tY:-' i ~·

.

socia l

w~rk · pr09rallla·:.~ha.t

.i de n t ified

, ~heIll7~lv:e,

:aahll.:Yinq.- a,rur~lfo.cu••, ,?ata.wa a coHe'ctedbylIeansof amailed,,_

'ae 1f-ad.in i ~Ut[ed qUl,lati o~nai~e

whic h

·i nCl~d~ ~th

clos. d

·andop~n~endedquo s t lons .

"l'hl!l'~PC!~iiiC, r~8e~rch

quest.lo"n.

~Ol!le~

^by··the

' ~~UdY

.

wo~e ~

^-."(1')

Wll~'

^rUU'I·

~Oe ialoWor~- '~~·C~~~ ~~d a.~ · ~.~ ng

^.

dlff~r;nt

^{f'ro Dl'}

ot ~;i forlll. ·O.~:' .~cia'l ~o:rk?

^(.;lJ.

~~.~.o . ··

wh~t.^{1011111.it I1\X)Utrur.alsoda l work}.tha~"co~s t i tuted^l.he., .d i[ferun c o ?

An~~Y8 1s.

^{of da tll'revoaJ.ed,that',}

r~,r:al ' ~o~:i~twC?rk- ,. w e.- '

tUC09n iltcd ,:a Od_thir t y - . l x undorrir~du~tQ'~lInd\9r~dlJAtO pr og r allls ir,lentlf1od

th811.~lves'

1lI8

of f~r1nq

^ill

ru~al '

focu8 ed

" .. : . ... , '" •...

;.'(.: •'.-j" ",.' '" .;" .

/

( .

~

^{. '!I' .}

progralll. The.lDajo~ltyofre~pol~dent8acknowledged U\.c,t:.

the i r·progralll

had.. ~ ~rt"

^{r a ebe r}

~han

^a'

,~whole" r,ur~l

fOC~8••Awide rang~~fec cte rwork cours.eswere t.aught withonly five percent.~haY i n-q·,.^t.bt.alrueei (o cus, anC onl ythree perc'e~t^{ha v i ngab()ut.}one - hal f'r \.lr« i £OCU8.

c;~~r~.rd'~Cdb'd4' ~4~ln9·.~ .t~td

^plu.·

on."h~l;

,<U<4 1'

t..'.

£OCU.8~lI~~,u~ed :.<lri~.Y dg~t. :pe~.c~nt r

^{te c h.l}

W.O~,k: . ~

. :~~.~r:e~<:. ,.ry~~.~e~,~.~d~nt8 ~ ~d~~4ted

" "

~u~a~. ,:~,ont.:e;~.,

^{.." '}

.t.ll,ught:t hr o ugho ut t he aocia.lwork'c u rr i c u l um ra:thert.hl:\n·

.-.: ' ': :

.",;. " ,,~" :" """ '."', " ' : : ' ..'.,:....:-;.-:

..in spee1ally.'d e ai 9ne~ 'rural,,co~~•.e~.,._.::Ru.::al'1I,?c1 al"work

prOgra~~" C~~~i

^..

te'ntl~:'d~~ended'

^{c'n'f h}I-d'place llent..

't~ :"

" ..' : ". '

..

~'..:

. :

^.~:.'

• . "

. '.' ":', , ' ' .." .

~rl?Yi de.t he.mai.n·c qlllpone llt.,of ~he,curr i culum.

\

v.

Ac k n ow l ed ge me n t.a ,

• ' ':'-J.

~^wiahto~eli:pr~~a^II)" ge~Uin84p~rechtion

" to' my

Ulesis,8up e rv nrore, ,"Dr. ViC::lor.Tho lilps o nGnd Or.•.Dale

Aib:r~

^fur, 't h e ir

·en~o~ age~nt. ditect1o~ and : g l.lici4:n~e

throug nout

tni.

prclJoct. .;-. , .'

,.>. ', .

;i'.. ~O'~llf nl'~o ' 11k'~ tO ~ Xpro88_ IIY9u t~:Ud~ .·~·e

. .

^{. .}

e·ncou'ra.gem~nt

^amI

li~te nirig '

^'bbi1

i~y ;

^Donna:,

,Sim'lIi. : ~ho pati~ritly ,

^{proo f;ead. ·}

~ffe~ed' ,'.up~rt :· ~n'd ·re~'~8~'~~nc'e';''':

~~r~ilin~

^Penn;y"

~ or

^.

generou~~:t ~o~ni

^09.

~c' he'~

'l'hesaur ":!8

~

For th e i r 8uppo r.t

.~nd

^help,-awculd

' ~l_~o

^{.H·k e}

\~.-

^{th a n k}

'- .'. ..'

..

, ,.; '_. .~

.

.Te rr y,Ur e ene and David Hughes .

~ . .'" ..,

.

"My .tLinc cr e·appreci a.tl on·tosneron Fa"c oy'·'wh O'80

w i:' :ii,;glY ': tYPOtl-: '~Y-

^{ti,cet'O W'il h. :}

^and 'p~e Ci8~~n .

, '' .

.

' ,"

.

) enCOU1'890 Ill(l n~,- sup p ort'llo!id'l o v etltl_1I,u~s l$_"WOUld,'I\o t h~'~o

L.Ul"

bu t'

'not'1~tUltj ^{th4 J:lkyo u,tolly},'chi'1dre n,·Lila

, " ,

. .

' ,- ' : " " " .

a~.d.DMi el; who-e neue e d IllylI.any dfid lou a~. .ncu, hO_1lI'o .T~4n kyou',:'11'.

·TABl. E OF CON'1'ENTS

rABSTRACT •• •••••.••••••~•••.•• •• •••••••••••••• • •;... ii

51

4.

44.

44. ,45

'45 Th~ ~ue.tlonnal r•.,••.-..; : •.•.••••••, . .'.

~~Oble~;' 'wh i'~h Aff'e~t Ruial ~~~pi~.a~d

Their CoilIlUnit'ies'.~•• ••"""'. '~ "" "" " " ""

The Kncwled98AreaaNeceBllary'f~r

aueeeserur.Pract.ice :.: ~ ~• • 22

Suqge81~d Curriculum for'a.Rural ..' . . 'Fo.c.u~.eT:,p rog r am:

->- >

~·

.••.

~

••••.- ••

~

.•..• •.•.. : .· .". .

33

:Rural.So'cial,Work'.: .' .

:':'uener rc vs ,Sp8c:.ial1i:.~tlon'•••• • .

i... .

³⁸

.

^'. . '

'Th eSetti~'q ^{••.•, : :•••.}~ ^:•••~ ^'••

::: _' :~::::u;:::~: : :: : : :: ::::: _{: ~::::::} : ' :::::: _{: :~} ,

RESUIoTS AND

~lSCU6 S1~~

^.:

~ '. ~

^••

"~~. ~

^••

~.-

^{•• • • •• •••}•• • • • • •'.

;;

i.1D~.t~~1~.n

^{•.•'••': :}

~'.~;~::~~ .',.~. ,', ~ ",

.,.. . . .. 63

~.collll.ndatlon '••••••~'•• •••_. : .:

'I >

I

,":...:l'able,of

con~~n.te,

(cont,d.)·

--...

^PAge

B.l.B~.RAPHY

^.:: "".""

~~

^•.'....]

^.v.. ~." ~ ^{... ;,'} 0,::" " ~ .v...::... ... . - ~6

'APP£N~ix A.•• ~ •• '~, •. ~ ••• ~ .: •.• •••••••••., •••. •., ;;••. :•• ~.

⁷³

'\

. [ .

..

,

'

.. . .

l\,

Table

"

,

':":< :"

Page SelectedD8scr'iptiYGCharact~ri8tics

ofP~09ra.ll8 ^{(n. ·}Jl).'~""~;"" "_"' ." "" '.' ^q.

51

",

.n-es cri p t iv e.FeaturesofRural Prog.Hlfl18

' ~:g:.:6~f' ~~~~; .~~:~:.;~'~ :~~; .: : i \ : :::: :::

concentra.tiqn'of_

~\J~~l Foc~a . .

^{._/ ' ,:.:}

!itt,soc~.a,T:.~~~k~.ou:tn~,: :{.~:-:,._·JO'),

'.1.:: : . ...•.

~

..

~.

~:~:~:f~:: _{-. :.} :_~: ~~:~;/*f~i:=_·:~~·~,t~~ ..' ..

', .

: '.-'. '

-, "~' ' , . ' .

NUlQber."ofHain,Telf.ts end Readings ..EllIplC?yed.i~":lural'Focusedccue aes.•••••• • ••."

Se1ec~ed-'.Ch&nc~·e'rf8tics

df

a

fU~" "~Og<am

C o ', . ,. , . ,,. , ,, :., . ,. .: , .

52 "

61

'/

Intl;o ducti o n

.T:h e

8u~ect

^of

rU~8'l{

^{aoclA,1wor,k"haa,hc:ld t h e}

at tent~Qn

^of,lIa'oy'

Bo~ial

^{wor k}

p~·act it iom;;r·. a~~ : ~duca'~oi~

•,Ii ,".,' ','1'... ,. ,• .', '~. .' .'. . ";' '_•• ~ I

~~n,~e^the.,.•~:1 ~.1900~,8 ~calll,~.b~ ll.'.~~O~.I.:,Ch1Jt~, 1911i. : .

,:Keleo

t.

~~.~l)•• rnee r e e e·1nth o,8ub.;te_c t Peak-e~.ln .t~ e

'193'0,.'0

w hen'

n\.lme ; OU!l...

",rf.i.c~e,e .~p~~ar~d·'i n ;,8.~~i·Ai ~~,~'k ., ~.,

^.

.lite'rat u r e (Brown.

' 19J~: -

^Bi'6wning,'J.':D&:{ hod e.-'1'938 )

~'_

^{. .}

:

.'

. ' . / .... . ' , ' . .

' " /

Ther e as.adeclih~~nt.he1~40'_~~a~d.by;19,50. ~l~~llt' . no t hi n g'<0.

bO":~

^{i i t t z . Intho} 19. 0'., " tenti,on'

wo.

agai n'.dtr·ectcd

~~/the

^'r,

r~'i,

^{sector and·ha,B}co'n.tin uud

'-to.

the preunt liDl/ .',(Gin&b~rg·. ^197&,-Ma r ti n ez-Br-aw l#j ,'

. . " .

.

19&0":Wober

~ ' l~: b) ~

,It

woul~_ app':~,r_

tti,at

.'~.~ ana~YBi

^{s has.} beendoneas to'wh yrur al focusdisapp e aredfortwo de ca d es

on'h

^{to re a ppea r r}e l ati v uly-rece ntl y ,' Nor has

nny~n.jLs~ .ono~,

why the ••jorIty of tod.Y: . writs,.

Jlegle; to uti li z e thee~rl YlIlat eri a 1(D~Vonport,tind Dav7~ort. 19U3). Ana'no.1Y8i 8errural so c1d wO,rk UJor aluro'de ar ly indicatas t.h at(SnUlllb ol:'of th~lIle'sr . w"i ChOlllor c,ied. ;

t~o" )'ear8'

^{-bo f or'e1950,.we r u}su b se q ue n t !'y .

fo1t1Jr·at.~d.'

^{" • , . . . . . .'}

/ It.'is int tir o sUn<j'toIlol,u tha-t.earl y'uuthOr a!lid,no t,

... 1-

^{cc neee n}

thullisolYI!~ ~~,t.h:O:xp'~ ~:i,'}i~'? 'Wh'llt>,~~Y

^meont,by:

! r u tli lo co nt elllp ou r y'wdte\jp-ori the, 'Othe r.,!\dnd.suaII'un~'bh,.

! ' _~o o.,~~u'-u ~ri,

^an,lic e-op teddllfi'niti0tl:; -To

' ~1(e 'jU.~ '

^IIloW:,

./ .

I

~.: "

I

".

"". '

.interpC~tat i~n·.1

• 7

.' It..._,_.

Gin.btt rq (l"!7«lJreitee on theUn ited

.'

.

^:

St.·a tusCen. u. flue-a u' . da fi n itionof r~;,!" ldwel le r . llB

:'. ~eop~e

who

do ~'no~

l.ivein_.?r.a s.oun d

c(d·~. ?~~ iO"oo~ o~

':.

,.·:.m6~c. ~r'

in

^places~f 2,500'01'.mor e. Weber (1976):Obj~ctB::

~~ 'rurlli

^{be i n 9}

·d~ ii.ned

ⁱⁿ

~~la-~i,o'n to.PU~Ul~~·io·n ·~i~e . ~nd ·

~Ug~eB,t~,.^i,t r.~ fe~~·^to BnvirO':l~en~rrOUnd inge"~- ^tho!

,.~.

~

. .

'

1 ./ ' .

In t.h~·po..rlOd^{.pa nni ng}. ^'1900to 19au~

.

^{aaeetve chango e}

.

~. ,

^havo

illp~cto<1:'

^{c'unl11fo " Tho}

d~vo~OPlllont ,

^of

hl9hw4Y~,

" 'lIon o1a.bocato~8anllof,t.r a n opo r tti t l o n,.lind"l ilp~ovo.1Il0n t 8.

.In""lIlodio'Dnd Jo.J:uniCllot,l'on·s)o'etolllll h4VO'GUPP08od l,Y'

ll\'l~'i~i'·i-.ed'

^rurai"hbiatlon.f''t ho

intruduct l~'n

^of'

c:on8olidl'tod schooh

'and

school'

4tt.e~dftnCe

laws pro'oUllllbIY.'

:' , . '

...

^{,', . , .}

.br.oU9ht~^{abo u t,} hpr~ve.u!~·t,. ^i.nthoedu c at ional .y~t,(JJl, ^.Tho'

"".,', ;' ' ' ''''''' ''.-r.~'. ::., '(:,'.;:.' '.

<."

^'or

:

~

.""

~.

, -:,,.<1,.

J.

1/ ·

. (

:."

t· , .

.. dist.ribut10n"0£'lIOn108 th~ O~~h'un !vuraAl g o.~etn';e n t IP~ogra.r:ri8:^wa,8.bC~ i eVtid.t~ -eq~iJ.l~,U^{th e}':8erY i;~B,:e.i.q~9

~un..l an? ur~a~ncO~lIIunitielJ. Howv 'f'u r . i t wOl,lldapp'e~r

t;ho.t. a;,8~.i

^te

:;,~.c.~~.! chango." '-OCi~ l wo~)(ore .~odAY.

^{,."11K 8}

their Qilo~-lY.cou.",terpai~.8,. 4i~,~t il.l.prl;'occuP~el;£'w~th \

• diaCrapanCie,..bot waen\rura'[)ljId.

ur~a.n

^U!.!" Ptogu, IllB.BOch .'

~

•ae OldAge Secur;".t.yanl.1 Cana d a Pe n sJ.? n }fillnin~nadaan d • :>oc;-ialSecurityin th e U. f",.o.~f.er~.nc.~~'{e.~U~ity· t()·'III;;8t..

<;"l~.er lY pc~plc , t~:I1I1l~lY

AI,lo waocos

'.i ~ Clui~da ·~u pp~elllim,t,.

fnc o me s to"h't>lp'i n' t he"r ais i nqofchlld'rcin.

An .i';b~(;nce

.,.

.

^{' - .}

betweenr~Jral~and'",rb an.s q l l continuest'oell.ist ., Des pi t e yt:arly.'allocadona

of.

DlOlJtJy, Rya'nt (l 9 711 ) lin dIieberO'976)

·c · . . . .. .. . ~.

,~l"" i~' : th~~::" t~~.y~

^Ii:,

alllal ~~qOllllllU~i,titlB',con~i nu~ t ~ ill~k ;~a

...."" " 8oCh, ,,,,,n~,_I~~""1 ~nC"'~(J of,)~viceo" ".dCll

availo,b le

n

t~Aercontt,lt:IJ. . .

..: •':au'[

i l'Oeu·lIl~,~'. COJllJi8~ '

^of

.(l.~ ' d~.spr,oport'ionate·

, .' , . " , . '..1

nUJlburof _they~un9;' elder lyandpoor (Wdber,.1976). ....

....•' COl}lloquont.l·ytho.lac k,Of,aeevrcce has aaig,f)'lf1 c a nt; 'ne ga ti vo

'.illlpa~t

O!l/,ur;i'COlllIllUI!it.,l e s.

~~r ~XIl~P.!!",

,e vo'n t,houljh .h~al th,~a ,t e;9 ifr:Y.ice~oilte,avollab l.e

to

all.,c a nad i a n..;

d~.8si~ 1ltl.r~ti e u ) n servico.,,co n ti n u e~to'OXill.t.,':Moll ica l -I., eee v r e e e.tn

.a"~1 :i.8oi.a~ed '

^{ru ra l'}

~'Olfl.lllUI~~ .

^of

N ~wi?und~and, .~ei, .

~8

^{.•·090,do'}

n~t','~~~I~atQ

^{,With·t.h9 88.ot:furod in,}

~ar~er

'Newfound ~ andcitie·. and..towh ~ .:'Tho89'~ntu rn'c~~pa're

~n'fa~ourab'lY

^{'t o}

~e~~~i,ce. '~~a ilb~l~

^{. •}

' . /

,

urbanizedci.tio,such all l"lontn~alor 'rceo n t.o, Mental

\l o a l t h \ sorvi c:': .in ru r a l"areola la g

b~hind

^{tho se inthe}

C i~j,e&.

^Alcohol

an~drU9

ro ha bl 1U.ationpro gf ll.lll S . _ sl![yi,:es to thfJ'l!l der l ~',pro ~ c tl v eeervtccefor ch~~d renl

specialized ed u c ati o naleer v r ece and JllIny otherprcq eeae-

.

^.

lind eee vreeearbeitherunav ailabl e ornver rem e onlyon a parl.-tilll:!"basis in'r u r a l ar eas. The'lnst itutton,of Boeh l w~ltar~ . thcrofJro •.tends\0bopcf1ttUfaldwel1erll.leDs the,n.t,,!eit urban count(Jrp~rt8 .'.

A ch•.m9inlJ econulIli c fOC':'8was dnothcr significant infl uenc o on rural comlluniti es In thisei g h t y - y ea r tlJle

·~pa ~. At th eturn of this ce n uur y, tho,m<ljor'ityof p(!opl o in Canada and tho Unit.c·d SU l t Olilwere livingIn rural cOllllllu ni ti uDand llIado thair.IlVi l'l~ ^{off the lan d (McCruady,} 1'177 ). Duri ngthe noxt few ueceoue , the,p o p u l a tio n

"hift lHJljraduo l~y.trol:lrura l to urb"ncenter e.. .;hoIlojur- / ityuf rll81d o nl' who'co nti n utld rc live in rurll l cOJ:lllluni-

tiIJa war-vno 10l)ge rdire ctlycIlp19yod in 'a g ric ulture (DovonlJort.and nevenpcet , l'JUJ). Dy'19(,O , onl y 11 ~o['c;: enl

•Cit I.:a n o da' . l~bour fo rcowolleonljluJOG in"t h e cU l ~ I Vll l io~of :crop s (Hann•.1')7 0 ) and thoU. S. Oo p a t tl:lo n l of A9'tl ~tJIlU[O (.l~bl)·.t~ ~od lhQt~)n197')only len~c.r cont.o f t.helrruttal VOPUl~e l.~n~alJInYo l vod in farlli'ln!! . Thortuat wero olllpluyudin"

t,cl urn a.

oervico,jo b •• Illln1J~aClUrii'll}er"

Utall ttlld . In urbanoroo D, '1'"hh bupport.o thtt -i doa that

)

th e yareCOlulu tlnq t.oand from the i r pl ac esof elllp loy ~ent•

In,d u a t rla ll :r.at.i onhold an effect on chnng i n 'jth o ec cno e t c-'f o cusby cre4 tln <J numerou s,Job oppur t u niti es In 'u r b a ncllnto r s. The re s ult was.p co pltt'bcq an'r 'e ll vin g thu

i,uroleec t.or e toseek Dlor'l' proUt ....blo(orIiB.o'f lJJlplOylllJnt Ln thoC1t i ~B .

Au

late 4S'"tU7U, f9ur- ftfthu oftho popu la~iOIl ' Qt.Cilonlldll

ana

the UnitedStat e swor u ' l ivingin ruralcQlIll:luni tieli, in It!BI>than tifty years, .t huur ban

~~p~lati on

^{in bottlco un tri e s,h ad exceededthe r'brill}

pop' ul <ltl o n~We ber , 19u7). Th o trendcont inue d amI by 19(,0

. - -

approa illlatoly Bu t y - f lvc perccnt,of t.he tota l pOjl u~a t.1 on wa sliYHl<jInurban ce n\o r u. severaf projo c t

ion~

h.BY!!

ln dl c il tcdth<:1 t th i.s ou t lli ~ rll tiontour~ anarea swlii cc r.tjnuc lnJ o fin l t u l y (Wlfbs t eranuCbIlllJbol l , 1971}.

In IlUlllllAt i o n . inputof ecnte s,il chl\ llg i n tjecc no etc lo cu st1nd pppula tiun DlOYUlIle n t a-have llffcctlld rura l

. .

C:0 8\IlUn1ti el h cona equ onllY ; tho rur e Iot the 192U'~lIlay not,btl t.h~!tallle.,~t.herurol uf thol'JUO'B. Oc.piletht e ,. the lllsut!& rulatlhg to rurAl lito thbt eoctnt worko~lIhav e 1t1elltitietJsillcethe l';lUO'~rtul6in·ull clTnh'J. lld. Til'!y includol (1) ercut ee e which affect ru r A l pooploAnd th o ir COllllllullitiell l (4) Th" kn"wledgeb390neceuuy for ro rol liIoelal worku8: (J) A Bu9gelledcuUlcululI tor

,}

. ..

\ ,

v

ruralec cIeI work pro qrllol lB. Includ edalBo 18 the recc r r ene dobatewhich dOllu nal e B l:luch of the rural socia l work l1teratur e 011 who.ther or not rural socia l work r cqu r re e.0 qe n or1c:or bpuci llli :ted eppr occn, These la,8u es wlJ,,Lbeth~^{BUUJCc't of uheo}n s u i n q l1tcrilturcrev iew'.

I

'.

kuV HlWof the L.iterature

'rne litera ture revi~wfor thi . theaI. coul d ha ve.be e n llalted tothuyears19t.>Uto19tiU..hen lnt . r., .tin rural' ec cte r wor kresurfac e d. Ahislo rical r .. Yhw

o f

the l1 t Qraturli

'walri d~c lded

upon

~eCllU80··ana lYd .

cl o arl y lndi catvd thaltht! iS lluo& which'wuro.addrolf&ll!dby tho earlyauthors wert! Illerelyreit e r ated byconte lllporary wr H e ra .

t·~w n~w '~ea" a~'out'

^rural

·.~C{lIol' W~~k

^..

ere

prellentccJfroD 19b1Jto19t$O. The fact that co n,tolllpo ra ry 4ut hor tltar'oly,roterredto pri or writ e c .wa a al1jni Uc llo n t. Siml1 a -citill. In"ea r ly and curr e nt'wrl.t ln CjIl reinf or c ed th e:' -:

ill por t--'apc e~f incoc pou t 1 n9literalur~~aU91j e.u onB int o'

~t. hud(!velopllen lof ruul c~r r i cu14 . One~rpoae ot thia lll G.ia ..aatoanal y z e &"livers!.ai':ilar th .,au a -abou t. rur al .lU ewhich..ore ido nll Uod lly aulhora bl,l( ou: ond fo llow10')

1'J!lU(19 50IiIa8 choGeoOOca uI III 11 t t le'wa l wr1 t tern in'lt~e

t1f li ~B : ~Iu.eruua

^{art ic l e .}

~PPClolfll:d " bu fon' ~~

^{(Ol lo,winq "}

,th bt tiIlU).

To rGi~erllto^whatal reod y hOibeen .altJ..th 08Cl thtlllll,ll wi llbe ~H.clJ. .euun dur U-i.fhea d i nljCl I tll i'tobl o u wh i c h .Bf'~IIICl ~un l puop'lu and thu lr,C:OIIOlun it lull (:.0 Thl!!

knuwlodgobilGenvce.ouy fot r~r41.OC:ill~work ua : (Jl A MUIJ9ttat.edcuc rlcuI~f11 (or rural ao c i a l wo r ll VCOllrallla.

. . . ' .

Inc lu de dalatJ

1,

^{th o uc urre ntd'-bat. whi}ch t.Iuainatea _,:,Ch

/ . I

\

.. _{: "} . \ _:

^....•..

_{, y}

. ~

ofthe rural Boclal work lit.e~a tA.lre·on·whet.he rI?l: not __rura l 80cill 1 w~)f k requlre ~Igenerh:.or .pec illl1~~

approa ch. An analy st.of ellst. ingru ralloc4'al

w o,l

proqralllBlola. alill9..undor t a k.en.t.o detol"lrd nawhot her-tlleyha d. incorpo ra ted t.he IU':IIglltlt ionloffe red t.hrough out the ,.J.ttotalUr-.,fo rover''''e; gh t yyear ••

" : /

Pr oblems WInc h Eff e c t Ru r alPeopleand Thoi r Commu niti es Th e re'ha vebuun nUbero us

-~rObl~'IllB ' 'lden~ified

^by

rur~l

sucilil 'Workwrite r I' whichhllyeapocted rur a l people.and the'itcOllllunl t iyl thatwi llnot. ~especifica llyadd te so e d here. 1;,h e,:u Jthor is not att.e ll;lpti nvto 1l1nhdze then prObl etD8:however. giv e n th eli mi t ed sc o pe of-thispapor . a cert. ai n nUDberof tholll • •ha v e beonekc luded. To lIen t i o n .a.f...., (.ll l a.ckof ollpl a yllent (Chute. 1911; Ginsberg,_

191~) : a.~d (-2) pove rty tsvr oae,nlts: cix:h r a·n, 1976l .Webu, l'Hb ). Wh(I ., lack ofad-«;,quatv ru ourc.el (Gi nl ber9,·

1~ 76,-Harll~r andO'N ei ll, 1981, Hatt hqw I. 19 27 ,~4ndor8an, 19J1J' Stai nor.

19:n ~

Twe nte,1938 ,WagenUe l d ""nd'Robin, ( 1'J76"Weber. 197b) ha ve

ah~

^beon

vlo~Qd

^o.a

prOb~Clil,

^far

the purpoI" Of' thh popor, it,h'Zlo 8boon includedunderth o

hell~lnlJ

^"Tho

,K~~~t c~9 0

Da80 Noe e __ory for

Rur.~~ So~1al

worker."•

Th o (ollowln9.th_Iee. IlJ _ducat-I u"', 01 . igutlon,

. .

end (J)..iiol a t l on,.have.b. e.n cho ••nfo r

...,

...

· .

1

discuss io nbecause the1Il .. )or i t.y of euenore befo re and aft er 195 0 con~i8t.eritJ.y id e nt i fi e d' theseas..focal eopf ce,

l::.du(atiolh As far back as 1913,.n ett s rec o gn ize d

th at the'educatio na l syltte1l'lW<l88 ,posedtoprep a re

ind iV i~ull 1 8 for futur e ro l e . in soc.itlty'.' It follows, t.h ~ro fO(Q . th at rU,ral cdu~aloi shouldbe ad a p t e d to ..(Hit th enoc d s of.rura l'pe o pl e . campbe ll:(1')09)'supp ortedlhi ,!

tdee wh e nhe's t a ted t~a,t rural 8chooll1sJ:loul d edu c ate yout h,~O'd'evelopreilourc~~.wi t h i n~h~irown cOlll~unity . Pr e8id ~MTh eodo re Roosevel t (l'JOlJ)"lIlaintained th at"tho 'Uni t e d st.atee ne e d e d a

nc w

^{ty p e ofsc h o ol,one that woul d}

prepercpe o pl e f~r ~oun t ryrat he r thancity li v i ng. Dy this, Roos ev e lt meant tha t[u ral.school pro gr allls sho u ld be de ve~opedby'rural.peopl e tolIleet the Lr need s. tndoI ng sothiswould'~rOVi d(l.onc o ur <1 g tllrlcnt fo.r,pccpLu torelbai n in rur'el! are<18 , in ord er to,d u v l1lop'rc &OU[ CI,I8"

i'c o nllequon t ly .discoura g i n<j~i9[ lI tiOli.intothu la.rgor

It IS ImPo rt a nt to Ce c og n.ir. t!'

th~t 1'1o~ou[

writ ors

Y .

~oro ~ohce~nCd withQ lackof curd fpcu a tn~ho l c ~~hOOl.

([lotts, 19lJ:Cftlllppu l L 190 9) wllor ciJ,.co nteJlpoco[YIaut,huce 'dOnot. DIHJci fi cl\ l'1yAddreanlhliil:r04. Ono

o,JtPln~~tion

^'

(0'[ thitdiffGr l!nc o1ll19h"tbo

~ tt.r l lJut~d

^to'.the

~fll.C l

^thot

(lAdy.writers were::l1ware.~hat illl1te~ jOb'OPp~~t,unlt1ea ,o x1&tud In rural afOBa. Thol" b.l1 " ve d that(ocu~1n9~n

- I

,: .:

,

-,

10

rural 1s 8 ue lin 8cho ols Illghtbe edet e r ren t e.o~he at.tr e-Clive all u reof olllplo ylltcn t.in ucbo'ln '=ent.ere. Whllc ... todll Y'8..au tho;s ala o rec Ognir.eune.ploYD:lcnt inrura l

areas,the:,'r~lll i ze t.hAt unleSl.In d uolr y can' be attra cted to el'lhllon ee8llploYlll8nt ~ 11119 C II,t 10n 1s'ln evita bl·e.

-.

'. . _ .-

' .

·con.lIQque~tlY!.a I:II'Oa1".(OCUli!int'ho'~hOO lawouldhave U~tl8"

.

i.ll.pll.ct .

.

<O~e'at h.s r-r:-e~ 8onwr h8rBof.thiseeceee

lir e;- 'n , ol

,~onc~cned~lt h.tilis·problemc:o ul.db o'because:l'he

1~~r,~.u~t~ol~ ~'f-- ~urr:~1.Ila i~ 9'overrw:d 'pred()~ina.ntlY ·

^bY'(

urball·expe~l .wh o

lit)

no t'al ways pro mot e.r~ral'attlt.ildol, va-lu uaa~d/orski ll s. ')ihll t I'llevid ent isth atbot,h groups a~r-t1utha t,i l Jl1ited opportu n i t lO11 ex il t"inru r a l,lIr e aal howevor~·thooar ly'

.

wr i to re dOOlllOd^o

.

it nec essery.to discour ag oIll1g r a.tion whilepreaent'day writtHOUvio,",thiB ph~ nolll8nona81.nev lt a b lo. Whllt.implic at io ndoea't.his..~a:-, e f.ocpre s e n t .day rur.al~duca t ion7 . Havescho ols bocolDGoven

~J:Jreurbl!!-niudov~r^thelixty-yo~'r^epanor,are edtic a to u .ut li id~9 t.ho8u9goatlon.~oft}IO ftr'twriters and

in c:or pcJia_t.l riq rural~lZIphui~tnrcthoir.educatio.nal ...pi Q9 . alla? It appollr. froll tho litoulurethat thor e 1, no

'''.~'.h·

^{doeeto ;}upportor. no, o t e thl. 'm .·.

t

The qU.lIl1t.yofedl.u:at.i*?n'i n r~rala.roll.whe ncomparod

- .

to u~blln.aru~hOB uaenII conceen of bothgroupe,of writen (DoUa. 191.31Weber. 1976). Ch a a o and Uako r 1n

' - . 1·

".

⁾

'.~;

II

\

1952sfcfteu thaton eway t:0enuurequality educationwas, bylllDploy ingqualifiedt eache re andyet.

8·e~t.

^(1.91]),

I

l

&.rown (I?H)...andWe b er (1976) clailDcdthu. teach,enin runi areas wert!ofte llle s l qualif.led.llIore in&xper ioncttd,; andpaid lowersatar10s ~h~n^theiru:r·b~n·.counurp.~~t~: ^In .P1ai,y'rU~al.e r eee;'ot.hor profoBBipllal$ luch"a8docton•.

theurbanla bor market,

The,rtc e reeur e indicates'tha tthephysical

' . ^{,' "}

. .

enVlrOn llll:nt inIch<:?o1&e

a

eci n f luoncedthe tYPIl,of .l.c<lrningoxperience'th~ t 'w.a sP~'OYldOd (e~a'telI.tld8aker.

1950) . sO,veralaut horsprolln'dpOit'1':150 ex,Pro.uod concernwith lhoPhyslca1 co,;d i tl ollof\ur. 1·ecticoreand

,' , . ,. ., . '., .. ~

sU990stodt~a~~hey wor~e often ~nad~~~~(~ette, J.lJ13;

nutt,ert'ill,l d~ 1\:113 : weber , 1976:.KC?tz.191:10)~ Ono.Ii

, '

strllck by U.'clIilll1~rlt'y ~f'COUlllontby,lIllthorllwri t i ng about t.hll 81'!111\0phunUlllOnon 8ovarat!Jdbyli7'yeAU,

B:ttorfiold(1';11.)1'stdt od.lthat tohoru",ero ru ra l 8chOois,o fhal tadozer\.pUpUI, haUled in an"

un kellp t. boxof 4 build!n,:, . whU u

Kat.& (,19tJO)described'"'rural .c h ool aa i nbod

~~~'~:~~o~~'~~~d~~ln w~~~p~~.~;o~,~~~~~t ~~~

^lh

4

ceiling.

"

12

Su r pr i s i ng l y. the. l i te ratur eeU9ges ta th a t,r u r a l echools

-' ^,

have"illlprovedl i f thisi8 eo a qltCati o nwhich g0 8 s

"u nans wo .r:od

la .

why'c o ntemporar y.r ur al writer s ccnt rnueto

", .

.

- be~conc~rned ^{with th ese' i}n a deq u a ci es : 'Oneexpl ~nD tion might..-bl

t~'~,t'

,

W~~le

': .^the'·larger

rur~l

c_ "

_coiolll~ni t-i<i&

^{hav e,}. -•^seen' .

adVfl.nc~ite,ni:,8.'

"

~i'~llar , cori.dit 1 " pns ·

cont1 n\i,Q

to .eX l.8~ '

1a:

.IIIAlle~

...ore:

h~a~~

..rl,'lral"lI.reae.,' ·..A.nother.:

~XP1~na t~O?

.iDi9h~·:be

^{that while rur a}}

e'~ucat j~,'.' 'has. imp~o:Ye'd

^{.86 h ll.S.,...:}

>.I~~ba~ , ed~~at'~on l ~nd'. ~n"~

cont inuum.-r u r a l,

~duc'~tio,n

cont.lnu~~ .t~-.rat~.lower

I:'

aeverer outhors ha v o ide n~if.1 e dlackofva rie t y-in the rura l school,system(Be.ttl. 19.131Twe n t'e".~ 9iB, "'tiber,.

191b!i .og ._,tlP ecill li.z"e dteachers, oxtJ"acu rrlcula act..1v~t:- 1 oa,aa~a~ot.her·^area'w~ich'cOll1p a re lll'\oln'fa vo ra b l yto urbanat.andaidg.

-.' ",The..

effe~t. ' o,f 1ne~pori'enced .toll<:her~, ··i~OId "qUa ~ e

^{"_, :}

' ., .C'~f~~

.b uild·lng 8lUld

poor: ,eurr rCU~UII

1s"Oft e n.e e en 1n. : : : 9

:l o wlev e l iof,l!ducat.lo~.~hlChhave d18png\.liahed Ila,riy ,

'\~ Utlll.· P8~91.

froll't.hoir,ur b a n

counterpo. ~t8

^(Coward,

,De Wu'll v e r ,Schllidt.andJackso n,'1 9 lJ3 ). Onbalance, rural youth.t. e ndtOdropoutof' school' Gorlier-( ~'ur ch fna1, 19~:l1~ 'ina 19'15.'u r'vo}"c'onduct.:ed'bythe'

U .

S,. Departlllont

.,.~ .(-t/r~culturo, ^it'wa a f ou n d.tha t. rural.h!~.1.O.8' ,twClnt.Y- HY(l':~

.'and'.olde r,had.on averolje, cOl'ipl.iIt,odfewor·y e a r . of .

~otll~l'

_\ ^'-dueaticR'^t.han

't.~.1t ~rban~ CO\lnt.rJ>~rt..

; - - " ,

,.

. ::f1I

eL, 19 8 3 1. r'reece (1978) ind ica tedtha t people fromurban

"-

ar e-liswe~eallflos t twice as'1lik ely to,ha v e gra d ua ( e d fro m coll ·ge

• ' . .. . . ".. < > .

..~

. It,is:h.por t a n t:~opo intou t,thatthee~rlywi t.~r s

eIllP~~·.l%edJ t.~o ~r~~l~~ ar~'~4 ' i~, ~~1.it.,~6n"

^to

e~uc~ti :~.,

^..'

~ Whlc~:c~n~elilf,?r!lry, w~iter$ ,\do notl

^{til lackof}

~ur~i

" fO,~UB '

^in'

^:the' ~ur'~i,"~'~'~,OOl , ~\~~.~'e~~' ( th~'s ~~'s" be~!1 di,~C~'S'8:8d

^,

P.~oViOU~lY

^)I"

('~·f· 'l ~~kc;~:.-, m~'n,d~to~,y

^sChOO'£

a t~e'~d~~ce;

^l

'T~~' u~l v'ersa,'llY'

^accept!d

b~ii.ef ~n~

^the

v~lue . of 'a ~"

ecluca tt. on,c o mb i liCdwi

th

the:'1rit roductio n'of sc hoo l

.

.- , ' .- :"

'.: ', ^'

attendancelawsaccount s for th e lackof at te n t io n tothis

1 '. . " , .. ' "

a z ee bY'c on t (llllp?ra r,Y..au thora. Wh ileit'i s'tr u e th!lt th ese fa ctor s ha ve bee n"a defer rantto ch ild rendr o p ping'o u tof achopl at',a n'ear

l Y

ago , they,'ll~v,o cion~^{l,ittl'at,oenco urage} rural yo~thto'c omp l e te high:sc.hool~r,at ta ~ n-hi gh e r

le~U~d':lClltJ on.

^{, ,'-,}

~

l~',8umlll'a r y , ma nyprob l e ltJs as,Bo c ia,tedwithed uc a tio n .

. . ", - ., ' ", ,' . te ,'unqualifie d te a c he rs .,inadequate'achool bUild i ng sand

,~aCk:

^of,

d~VQrQ1t¥

^{inthe rural'aC:h oo i}c::urricUlu; hav e been

reC09'l'!~Ud andofco nc e r n toIl~thorabo fore .lindafter'i ~ 5 0 .

Mi9r~tiOJt.

^As

la~~' ~8

^1070,

fOlJr-fi '~,th8

^{of the,}

" ,: . \ "

.

~~PUlatio~-Of't~e Uniuf~~~ t Oll'll ndcana,da~oroliving ',n

rur~l

^{llroU. Th o}

lllQj~r ~ty'

^of

p~oph

^{woroGilploY4ld in,}

~tYI

eecncetc'ao,c'fon of

'" fll [1l1n9! ~QnCh i n9' ; lO~9il~g,

and t :•. ',. fishing. ';n,191 1. leu'than fif,ty' yeau,l~,tet~ t h,urban

::.,-; '. ::.;:

14

lIent.'

~t-te~tion

and input of

incrllllBO

rn

therunlPOPul~tlOnand. withthis,

govS:rn-

,

^{" ' ' .}

to i.neresndunellploYllent. Tho dopfll8Bionbrought.,a n POPUlo:i'on

nfJ~

United Stat. . exceededthe,

rU' , . ~l

population (We be r. 19-76). Ca n a d a WaS,.lllit.tleslower an d

,

d~d

^.,no.t

.,x·p'e.ri .'~ ,~ce' t~i8

^{d.eg r.ee0,,f}

.U'bon.~za~i O~

^{.un t i lth.,e.'I ,'}

'1 9 2 U' o(Da vis , 1911).' ,Mig r a t ion of'ruralpeoplehasbeen ,,'

,

. .

.

' . .

,r~b~~.ed"to in~~eastld e~p~oY_1I6n ~,oppor tuniti e.(Hann, 1970 1I:lc?relldY.'197.1 )wh~Ch.1ndu8uialhation,~"aught^to

' th~

^{ur'b a ri}

center'~ ' (Be41e.~~l ;}1BI_

w..A>er,

197'6)'~

' Hl:n~'

^ea;lY

~~~i~~·:.~O;k · ~d~'c'~~~r~ 'r~'~~gni ~ed tt\~ : l~ '

of.jo b

~p~r~~n1tt.~~ '~ ~.

^'ac:.au'all"t i v e fa'?t or

~9'·:lIligratiod.>

Theycre d it ed toe.lJ,lIli t.e ddema nd fora9ricui~ure^as:

, , ,c\\~'\ . ' ,

contributi ngto povertyin rural area s (EzeKiel, 1935:' Lo:t"go.•.1937)aride':lcoura g i n g peopleto se e kemp l oYlDe nt in

't h e citieB.~' Rura l,p e op l e wereJ.oavi ng t~eir cOJIIll!unitios / ' "

;' .

^{. .}

.

^"

oft.en.notbyc~Oi C: t1. butrath(Jr,becau~ethey could ':0 long or

.upport.'

thelll~elv~a'c r.their h'llliiieSI fina.nc.i ~ily",

they

~ere

,Illor e secure in

tp8

urt! a'n

ar~~~. " . ;..

^,.

The,thi r t ie s_eXPeJ:i en c e 4P,1 turnliro.und'tn,;,the ,

.lI'I i g ra t.ion

pa~ern. (

^{Due tQ,.t.he}

deprlll8i~n,

peopje be.gaoto

re.turnto the ru r.a ! aroas (McCr eady, 1977) bOCllU80 8~ C Ur1 t Y lily in.t h e land '48 woll as!a ml1 yroots. While , rur;alare~~,were'~UoctGd:^{by the}.d ep r o 8 8.i oll. they did not' ,

f!lXpe't1G~cv'

^{th odrll.tic:}

e~~~ie:ts

^{felt'by urban} centers dUo'

(

(

'\'

'5

~~~_War.1 1 res cu e d th e economy. but th is didnot

last :

a~ '19se!

^{'wi.th the}rev i ved eecnoetee of!::ur opJl and'theintrod~ct l t.lnofthe Eu rop e ancce e on HarkH. tho

dellan~

^foragric u'lturl1 4'Jllln

d~c~'aellll

(ticCr e a d )' .·i97-7) •.

'~The ~e cli~e, ~n

^{rura l}

PO~18ti ~nB re~.uced

^and

.~any cur~~:~.t ,

autho r sbe1.icved..tha't thi sOut~i9ra tlon^{wl:!ul d'co ntin u e.}

(M~Cr,~a_dy_. ~911; ', "eb8ter i1~d, .. '

^.

c~~pb:ellIHI77'1

^{' ,.}

w~~~rl ' i9161'~'

":"fI, Wh~'i e-bqth"9~ oiip8 of~rit eu.rec?9n l %e~

indus tr1a l i z.8tion as.a contri~utt"n9'fac,t o r

'0 ' ,

^lll.i gfllti 9 n.

today'8writets v lewthephenomenonIlolriewhat.diHere n t ly

, ;

than t.hoir early·.,sounterpa rts . When lII11.n yofthe e-arly .ard.cl~ilc c.n cernfnq rura l,'h s u ellwere ....ritl~~. 1l1~ta tion

frOIll the ruralare asWas"a.rela tive l Y'ne.w"ph~ n QII (mo n_

wri t er sof thoday"probably did'not:

c'on~eho'

^{th a t}t.he"

----

^{, , ' "}

;

out.llIi gr ati o nwoul dcOJ:l1;..inuo . Pro Bo ntd,IlYa~th~ r ion",thO.

~~iler"^{lul,; d ".s"u {ami"lJa r wit h-t lle.}nUUlb~[ ^{o.tpeo p itt}~ho^.•

. ,

\

"

.

MTIlJD.i ly leaYo the'"r ur al cenue re, WhU& bOt.h"grou ps;"

re~09n ir.l!d th at peopl,c wore le llvl n g b~caUfl"\l

o f

Inc:r"i,~e~d

ollp~oY lllont·oppor tunlt1 ea,bet-t.et .oct a~"se r vi c e pro9 r~1Il',.

llnptoYed 11: 1119cond i tiouBwhi choX iBt~d ^Int.rll!urbllon' "

"c on\e r ••

~l)e 'Ollr lY

^{writ.ors:.oIlw}

"igra~lon

^Ala

con;-"~u~'cel

^"

~9~ ~.~~01-'lU

^{wor ohaVi n g}

bo.~au.o

^of

~p~~rlI,~le co~~1t,ion~

t.Me.;x1at O(1Intherura!cO~lDunltiel. Con t oDpota,ty

~lIthor .

^{U!O.1Il1CJra t iu n}

a .'~n ·o.ce8Pt-e'~IICt. '

^{O.g . lOgie}

tMe a torutur n

to

^{tho i r,fallilyorigi n•• ""'}"illll1 a r

T

.

,

".

'\

.... .

,~.

1 .

dlCt at"l. thl t people wo uld ,~eave rural are a" ce ce uee of

·the lid tedre 1l'Ourt::e a-1rtrtC'hed It·there•

..

"lt~O~9~

^.

~elt

^'by

't~e :

^{rural.ee ••}

~~1tiu

^{in the'20' I}

' . . ' .

. ... .

^{' . .}

.

and JO',. the effe c t . of . ig ration donot ap p e ar to

R ev.

~.~~.~ ~~~re~.ed:~Y. t~ .· ~o~.i~ I' ^{'W O rk:} .au·~~~~iti.:., O,f".,~h~·

^{... ;}

.In cont.ras t.con tolll-'ora rylocial work

~hln'or.

^arc'•

·.6·, c6~~·etn~~

^{Wi t h:}

t~~

^{raPid9r:wlhof'}

~r'~an '~'entor" '~i~h~~

-.

,d~;..,-ctl' ·i~'qhl~tlYe

^attention

t~ t~~ :~rban c; r i~il" .

, . . '

.~e.ry

^{"young.dd e rl y and}

unde,r-e~uC:4ted l ncrea8~a'

^theroby

.int.e~.if y in~th o,hea v yb~rd eno~.th ound.orf;ina nced.ru ral . environllen t (Cowar d

. ot'

^{al. 19tH )• .},In"contra8^. t'~^adaptation

to"th eur banen vi ron mentwas- tre••ul to 10llle'(Winsto n .

•Sta n ton.-

.

Tuckdr

a~~

^.

Dent~~ .· l ~uih ^..

^{J nd tM I,'stto n}

caua~~ ~ .

^{'. \.}

)

^'

·

.

.

^{. '} . '

.

o~cu runc~wu'oxpor i~llcod'in Nowto und.landwhen'..rolDi~r.J•. '

R.S~a l1wood'

_. introdu ct"od

~he

<::onc o pt_' of_.

r~iiot t hllont

_,.. ^. '(Gwyn,196UI.· ,:,anyou'tport.poopl~woru'oncou rag od

and ">:

i

HnarichllY,GIl!.~ .~'Il~ toUloca~Q tola .t,go r- collmun.iti e .

·~h. r .~hgy .u ld'bon e fH i",OYeta l l,~ i fe . t Y lo.~ ,Lit't. le thought'II • •g~,~gn^topaych'olQqlc ll 1 luue . Gnd co,n.equ~~_tly:.

iOlu r n'ed'

~C;:", thB1 r or 19 1 na;~ ho.· ••. .

It·appear ".

~h~t

^"

:.~, .\ .'.:

"..~

.

'- "

17

ther eare

' ^..

ar eas. One9roup'1e'avee'volUntarily'forfl~~nc:la'l 9a1n

\, ::J O::: ::::l::~ l.~ .;;:~o.t' bY+~"O~b:~ ^{eec..., than:'.}

·lso~·a t i on. The'concep tof is.cilae i on·wiU·b•

.

~'.: ::

" .

", . -'

','

..' ..

" ..

.

,-.-

.'. ~

.

:.d,.i a c u 8.e ed.in re l a ti o n to ruralcO IllDoun i-t i ll '.~~~_.~ la o.In'

re'ferenceto rur al sodal

w orkers. _ .. . . ,

.

Wh~at ·.eU~~I~ ,· ~ ~ ~~~'nt b/'i~~lat~oi1 ': l~ ,the)B·~i.Il~io n

' ~

^of',

·rur~·l·:·~OIll.D1un~ ti~ ~ wlll~~'.-'wa:~"_d i8C~S·&t1~

^{,lire'1950 silllH ar.':.}

.·~o^{pree e rrt,da'y di}s c us81ons,ofl'sol a ti o n7.·To ca rr~ ^ti118' furth er. ai e:efle lIaJori tY'ofco'neeJiPo cary writer s refe rrfngto ~hesa me condi tion'Whe~.-.theyd.iScu;. thll

~ . ^{_ n~~p.t .} ? W'b~:~".

^{N, ..}

wor .~d,, _~iC;lo~a.~~

^..(198.•.

i .;e.t:.~ne ^{. •}

i olotion as 00",por~Qnot' gr9up.eeeapar ~~. (p.748) . '.

ral.communitie.arebel l ev~d t,O~s'e t. apartfr o ID.",,"ch.

~

^hotand.

~;'Olil '~ re

^.

~rba~i ~ed .co~lIlunt

^{t.i. .}

~.

^{". :" ..}

.:Dis cullt:dellr l i erwer.~i.pr o v"J1en ts,:1~e . J1-o~ e^>-;' 80Ph'1e t1 cated',1lI0IlnSoft'ran~pOrt ation,; Ispr o ,edh,~9!,,,ay^{e ,}

" . .

\ .

^{" .}

,4 d v Anc.ellle n h- in·.ed 1l1o_4~.cO~. U-,?i cAt lon.y. t ... wJ:11c=h·. .'

Cl '... ·· ' , ~ff'ec.~e<;1 Q.~d

^{uholild ha.V•}

.J,:c~~D.8ed ~,UC~'

^of

~hO h~lllltlon

,ex pe r i e n cedby rural:1.lIl(,lphtland ye t. pre. ent.wr.tt ers continue'to o.ddru'. :t.hh

'~8~UO

^'0&

ll . ·conc:e~n. ~he .

lUl1dlUile n t, al'nns wor would,appao·r,tobe-in the defini tion,o f

-, ;ura~" .

^Whilll

r\lra'~ 'c~'IlIlUn 1th~ ^'w.. r~' aUect~~·

^by'

1.~lIt\on

';

. l~

^",,'U',and

lO ~~.

^,ho

a'u~i~ r. Olth~ ~OY :dld ~~Oi( ·

"'"

.. ..

':'; .

••J

,.

atl ~mp t to defanewha t. they lIIeilnt byrura L. ConlclIlpO tc ry

BlIell

to"expc r iC~-

^nueer oue dla6q rcClllcnl8 and greatprob lollllil .,ith tho.de fini t ionand ro:ly primollrllyon pupu li!lt.loneiJ:...as B gauge for wh ethe r (J[ not acOlllllluni ty .i .[ural. Thi s bei ng thtl case, man ycceaurutre e very

diff e r e n t from",a'ehothe r 1n un'lIIsof isolat ionwo u l d be d.'1tinc dUti~u[a l. An oxo,lIlpleof this in Nc wfou nd lll nd wo u l d be Clark.:!'s' Deach .whi c hisa ruralct.lllllllun i t y in cl0 86pro xhlt ty loa"la rc;j or citY.ll.ud ro go lsl&:nd . wh i ch i t la irl:,' 1so1 ~t e d frolllothe r c01lUllunl t J.cs . It is illpor t a ntto noc e tha.twh il e rur a l 01 the t.hirti es,18 not nc'c cs saril yrura l of the eigh ties", o,pu"althoughdegrees of isulationhave been.:-iden t,1fiec.l. both'groups of authors olCpr"~Bsi milarcon e,er ne wh cHl discussing th i a "t eeuc•

.

..

suemer (19 21 ) suygosle d that ur bande v e l o p o d uocfe l wor k.pru gr a ztne g 1 Clc t topr ep a r e 80c14 1 war k o rs. [or the problb lll8oxvo r le n cuddue to Cai1lDlUn~ t)' il:l ol a ti o ~ . Ily thi8 heWela'rofo rti nlJ t.o th e

dis:ttl.nc~

^{uec veenclien tll and}

caiuDunl t i o 8 and ind l'VidU(II1"iB t i c at t i t udu 8which de vu l oped . Vailo (.l9;J.J)and ·urown (1933 ).atto ~t ed to cO.lI11un it.y 1-aola t i o n whanth oy wr~Qthat individ uo.la wor o 111108 frt:'lD thdl r f\en r ual noi9hbo'ur . IHo c k e y (1935)i1nd aro wni n g>"( 1 9 JtI ) cOllllllon tod tha t dlet4nco9eIsc lllo,1do'it dif( icu J.l for rura l POOll lo lo'104YOthu l r unvtr cnecn t. e, t;1Ir.l y.'a Ot ha r ll •••11toha v e conc o n t r a ted

on

IllIy . lent

. .

',r

uisrenceebe tween r nd tv touets,

.

UOC<lUti

.

~of th ra, the y c q rueu thut.ru r a l ci.tizens devtd opoda l'hiloBol'hy of hantJliny their own·pro b l e IllB. fc,",L'on fi d c nC:ca we r o6hal ~d.

llnd J:lln i lllUlll adviceWllSsought (BI"c ke y , 19)~ : Drown, 19Jtl : Vaile.. 1'J))j.

I:.:a r l ywri t er s also!illWa relat.lonshipbetween

iU~lntion

^{and the}

11 1r1 ~tcd

^{ServiceswhicheJl10tcd}

Htat; thewa. 19;;a7, Stoituir. l!.l27). Ioldtthuwo'(I'J:l1lbe\iuved thatthe co u n try wo rke r was"called uponto perform1Il1iny d~tie& not expe ctedof her urban-foun t ~! p<ll t. re, handling all typesof p~oblelRssuch as falllily problems, fina ncial problems,"<inuchildwtllf.lrc l\u u ca. 'rnelIontilllOnt.o of theseeerr y writer s eee a applicablet.o many exist.ing rur"l cC:)Jlllllunitlc s wh ore oneSOCial worker 19 cllpect.cd to delivc r eervrcce t.o fo ur or fi y!;!ljeOljrO~li.cae wel l <18 eer vace areas. In rural ar ee e thoCOllllllu nit y'rllthCf tllllnth e in d i v i d u ll i seems to beI:l rurill worker'scr renv, I{ a wor k e r in thecityaiulIlatu8a client. she ce n be ec c c e e e rur wi t h9U~OQquo lit ind!viduals. Ifa.[ural",o r k or (aile with an in d i v i d ua l or qr uup, ~hCcoe a u ntt.y lllay not

<Jiv~hor II eeconu cnence, ItWOUl d BO(llll.t h at f~"H u rowit h

"~ ruralclient hasyreator tOIl,ificatiotleth"ianfail ure with

l'lflurba ncLtc nt , Th i scould lndicato that epccrali zed trO-illin<jor knQwllo!d<Je i8 ro q u 1t ~ d for tho rural work e r. Thiswi l l ue d18cuUed lat e r •

20

one poeitrve e r rect, o~ ^{Is o lat i o n rdentrfLed by}'c a r l l' wr,llcrs WlI S the imporlanco oft.h e I.udlywh i c h IH !ClIlCdt.o di,llinloh inthl,l crtres,

To t1l,1lflmariz u. two ilf,porlantuffeclsofisolati on"

.1d e n ti fl c:dbyprel"'~Owrit e ra we r e, (1) the dtlv eloVlIl<Jnl of "a rur a lal t itude, and (2) t.h e lac k of eoch). eee vt cee,

Cont.ompo rary wrl t llraWi ll e t a, uceror and Cr ido r (19UO) 8uppo rl od th", uUPpoliition that ruralpa9plu ha d be~ndi sad v 4 n l D.9 0 dwit hro g a r d to.s erv rcea• They Also at.ttfbuteothis to scatt.ered,.iuola tedpopula tions.' lIo:" U[and O'Neil l(!'JIH) lIlaintained th Isby.a 'J r e e i n 9 that.' distancec ru In!1ucnco tho doliveryot ee r vt cus,

An awarenessdevelops that the'ma J o r i t y ofwritocB continuo to r efer togeoyrap~lC isolati.on inr0!:!J nctl rur al. 'ret. i fweconsider thccOlllrlu n itlce wh i chve r e .Juf1nudlI8fUrlll Ufty yea rsago. but to d a y bocauboof tho

~lIlpruY a llllmta. ar ono lon ger cl d s8 fft e d lUIec c n , wu rucu9nu;c thdt eucuof th u 90uql:ol-'hiC isolatIo nhas auc e ee ee c, Willet sct Bl (1 9 UO )aqree thBt t.his hqs occurre d . how cve r, t.he y be hove th nt paycho loqlco l and auc.l a l 11 0.1 Il,~i ono f rUUt l.co~lIu n it1 oa ccnetncee , Thoy i1u9gea t ~hat ~u ra l indi v iduals can contInueto aoloC,tlvu ly oltpooflu th e lll8ul v us only t.o at iJlul i which cor rospo nda with tholzvltlutl ng bel1~te,Iv a l u o 9 and ~Iltor~.ts~

Writers o t today agrcc with t!l c ee r Ly wrrtcr e that rc r c r peoplehav e' lI'laintai.ncd differentat.t.itudcs and;

bell~f5due totso retr on (Osgood. 19~ O: Wu~w r . l'Hb:

Willllt.S ct. 0.1, 191::10). ' CorrobQ ra tion for t.hi.s can be found in0. ru ra l .provinceHuc h'a & Nu wfou ndlollld.wh l.![ c impo r t.a ne"

h atlachc:d t.o fa lllil yre l a ti on sh l p 5.a~dene ~iCJ nlUcanC'tl

o f

D1llin~aininCJa dOllominationalechoql sy st.em du s l' it.Cl financ ial costa.

E4rly ",,'rite r s ident.ifiedcO~leaguoisolat.ion (Mat.the ws . 19 27) . hck bfexposu re t.o deVeiopmtlnts int.h e bold (T~ont.e , ^{lYJU). absenceof soci a l and/or cuit u r.al} et.1 l1lulali o n (lUackey. l~JS: ut-cv n , l~ J J ).as concerne ill rer e r ron towo r k e r ieore e ron, l'.rll!s e n t.wrtre r e agreeth4t 'colleGguo.cona u ltation, profcasi.onalevtecretronand

£....

o.upC[YiaiOno),r\l'la c k i n g (Oi n s b sr9 ' 19761• 80th 9rouIIs of writors 4grl.l0that pro f u8aioll nl

....

isola tion alld it a eonaequc nco e.e re 6 IIUlJo r concurn , aow e v ar,t hereStHIIll' to bea ccneeneue t.h., t wor k er iao la t iotldocalIoth6Vt/ to btl4'nu9 Do t lv u ollJlorienc l.!.

wor k lllr.cen u~etho opp~r t unit.yLo r.cr ; a liYi ty.luraw ~, .HI3J I . Do v 1 81. lY7(j-77 ). 1111awa rono••()f thl:!tiLly- yu li r

8pan inPlillbl1c al i o n.

'~a ko8

^{lho d}lDil.a ril yof c'1lcu rna ill ullation to iBal a t.iun in l er . llt inytonolo.

In liul'll'la l1o n, th efor 1l9 0 1119 parag r a p h . have dt. cuII. vd eev ereI Il[ o bl e lill iden t i f ied

.,.

by rur al aocia l workwrlt.er•

...

)

22"

whi.c hha v eaf f e c t e d rure I c0l!lluniticssince t.h e c-ar'ly 1900's. The kno wl e dge requi redby rural soci al ~orkersto hell'Dl n i. ~ l z eth e 8e pro bloll8 will now be dlacl,lSsoid.

The Knowled ge DaseHecoBa.at)'for hurdlSUC~41.Work e rs

'rhe socialwo r k lite.r atu r eof to d ay andyes t e rday indic4 t.e a t ha t specific'knowl e d9c

i n

rel a t i ontorura l lifl!l 18eBsen tia l toensuresuccessfulpract.ice. Tho ideas ex~tc8.cdli;onaia~tentlycanbe"9roupe~<be fOl:l,? W81 (1) kno w"I,edge-of ruralcoculIun l tie s . Il~d(2) knowledge of .rur a l peop le. Tho rep etitlo n of these thellesby past an d

. I

pre8e~t au thorsclearlyindicates tha t theywe r e thought to be r e Levent,,

Kn o wl odq c of [(urnlCOllllunit.ies. An unders t.anding of [u t a l COllllllun!t l UBW018adOllinant tue e e throughout the 1i to t"4t urti(Bl ac key. 1'US: Colo, 1949:.Coll ive r , 19 1 (,:

1roy~-lYtlO,H4r t,i ne z- 8 rawl e y, 1'18 3:Hat t h owa , 19 27 ), Tho author.8u~?e.tedthatitwas ilip ortAnt to ~ndorll tanda COllllu~i t y '.orgAni~~ tion, ^{includi ng i}t s poli ti c al luid eccre r str uctur e Ilre Y',19 UO,H4t t hows , 192 7), tobeaware o[ theCOlillu nity'1lboulldo rie., it lleconu Mi cand pol1t h:a 1

O~9AIl1&.Q l1on

^{(Asc cte rWork}

~ducat{on wor k .hOP~

^}976:

Har t inez-Drawle y, 19UJ, Vail o, 19 JJ ), land to po rce i v 8'thAt

~hl1etile IlAjOrity of rural.c:o llllllun1tle ll POllllulls ed

~Olllllonlll1t 1e

^e, the Y" wo r o IIll1 ult.,n tlOU8lyuni que tltIe b or .

..

· ,

~97u;Vaile, 19331. Pc e euaetcn of thIs kn o wl e dg e ..,'",8 2J

deemed e e e cntfe I to ~herur a lwo r k e r t norgan iz.ing rur al re eourcee atld perceiving that,t ~e IIlc t h,o d owh.i ch prod uc e d rueul ts In one cOllllllllni t y might net; be applicable to a.nother1Cql e. 194 1J, Vailo, l'JJJ I.. The I1t.eraturo su ggests t.hat gll.i ni ng IIknowled g e o~'[ura l eOllllllun i ti oe require s anundour.a n d incj of lci~1I.1g'ovornll ont, knowi ng ~ow to utili lte volun teers,'a nda~,aw.a r on eS4of power'.

.s~ruct urC8 . ,Whil e.t he Beare l.iuit ed1slillc tb~ie8of know led~e,they aplJuat to be 9iv~ 1lequal importa nce in rural so c ial workli t er at u r e .

Loc a l Gove rnmen t. Se veral author s lIug gea l ",d

a

kn ow hld gcof the poLi t ica lstructu ro butfai led-to elabo ratoon what thl. 8eneetrec!Goc tz. Meide r,

a~d

1'1uc kh alll , 19 76 ; JOh"1.." 1917i

~lnllZ'-DrilWlllY'

^19t1O:

HQ~ thoW 8'. 1927 ), It,~Illplhld th.l t rural90ve r nlll un tll di tfa rQ d'!rOllth,?ir utb" n cou n tll' rpa rts (Col o .,1949: J.oh nd' o n . 1977) lin dan IIW;1r en e ss of ttl is differ e nce' p~rlllit.~iU dtherural soc i a l wor k er,to

•

dCY910pIIrol eof c01flinu~d. ty or~4 nlzer (Cole, 19~'J :^Willet.et "'1, l'JllO). Auth orapH'.1!I~OlSndsUb s eq u e n t tothattille allUde 'to th oillp o rt on ceof.under. tend i ng lo cal gOYOrn llle nt and

thotole.it 18 pr o . ultludtoplay In rural cc ...un l t l o ., th"y hUed tolIlabor a te onwlult Oltll,c t.lyIt wa. tha t un~,hould I.e

be 8101111"0 of.

, ^..

"',

2.

VOlurite er ~ . Strode (l9)~)stated thatdue to t.he multipl1 cityandcOIllPl e x ~ t Y~~'!their duties, ruralsccte r workersClUSllear nt.o shareand de Leq ete th e ir .r u apon s l b l1 i t les. Matthews (1927' attcs t:dthat.whe r e

thereare inSUffiCient workers , a8 in a rural

8ett.i~9'

^to

. . ' " I

psrfo flll the duties expe ct ed,ofth C:II\~ en efficient aystem of

VOIUntoe~a

^is

~ 88~ntial.

^Brown

(~9J3) (lB8o~tB

^{"t h a t}

~hlle

^{yoiunteera".re.}op ti o n41I

i~

^{an'ur bllo n}

. &~tt.ing,. ~hO)'

aro,'eli ~en~ia l ina'r'\l r a l sott i ng. Brown.expandedby r

statingthlll.'city'·...ulunteors usually ·Obtain.mot.hod s~nd

.

. .

fa!=tuallIlat.er:l.a'labout. acaso frOIl eltht.!r a tr a i n e d voexer orth oca~e.wo r k e r . In th'ocountry, thoSaDIe worker 1I1ght fi nd thevo lun leo'c more'\:.:~=leab~o~ttho fami ly f{11etoryand present 81tuation than,/l n ycaee re co r d.

~lXton

^{'( 1;76')at ated}

^:htlt

tho.uti.l1zation of I

vo lunto ers1& illp e r at i v o1nthe rural cOlRllunity if ~ho wo r k e r,18tors c ru it 8ufficiont'helpto deal with the probl e'lls. Wylie (l 9 7b) projocted that~uralcomllunlties se ollodto be chara ct erizodby gtoupe of ind l v i d u a l a .

. .

ac c u sto ll:od tohelpi n g one lInot hor,lind thoru u l wo rkor sho ul d.nuthV8~t.ateto utilize th e 8e pucpte,

',Wh Uo th o put.and:pruon t author.119te oon tho h~~08a!.tyof ut11hin~voluntoor., bothgroup.caut iontho rurd wo r kel'. Hatt h GW A(1927) o.dv1aed that,u01n9-' . volu nt.o rawa s ndt alwayspool tive, Ill}felt frue

\

^discussionof clien ts wa sC:OIIIl~namo ng volunteers wh o e.ither did not re c o gnize the negillt i~ec1h,iceof suc h 11 prac tice, or the noveltyof wor1 1n9 qnp.nint e ~ ~"' tin9 Cll_SO eup p r ee eud the i rbotlQ C.jpdgc lllen t. AlbersandThomp eon (l9~O )citeotherd~nger8J ⁽¹⁾ theybc~iIev ed that re H a n,c o inc~c.? 8ed.tho.rial( of.the Bo_evccc euree beco llli'ng 1088natu~o1.i~~_~.r,bydimt"nia h i n g thei r e£fect. i.veri~881^{'0 :)} th e,da ng e r o t, percelv in9'in t ormal 8Y8 10111848,a 8ub 8t1tU ~O fortJ,ual i,ty eervrc e r';"nd(J")" ths'p~Obl e.IlI'of bi~8 ed info r lllll t iun.

It wo uld i)ppellYthat: vol un tee rsD.r~an integ.rtll eoeponen tof ru r al soc i al servicedeLf very , An llwa re nU8 8 of how.ec IIIdx il6i zl! voj.un e.e e er e whi l e atth osall e t ille real iz.i n g their IhliUst i on 8would&CC~eSBcmtial to the rur",l ac cie I wo r kcr, '1'0 Ai din tho recr uitlll Qn t of vc ru nve ure , ekno wledg e.of ,the in f l ue n t ial'a n d / ot'.aC'llV~

pe opl e"ta.e'aont ia.l (Brown, 19J3' M,e r llol8t.ei~andSun d o t.

191b) . Scan t ro(!r e n c e is lIlad e t.oknowl e dg e of ku ypeople or cOlllmu n i t ypowe r _tru c t ur cby eo.rl yAu th orswh o 8e ollle d toc:o nc c'ntr at. u1I0tc on th out i liu lo t ion u(I/o lu ntoors l ne v e ve r , th eyfoHodto'cxp and onwhethor . th'u vOlunteor.' wereYocruitod and tralno d by4g on c lo eor whether the y weUtpoopl o jus t wlIltJ nyo

t~

^bo

~( holt.

POwut IIitiucture ." 0118to be It terll'uecdhuqu ont.ly'b)' tho pr...~.n t w[1ttlra. Joa up h lp oStroo . (1930), OnGof lhe very (_...

- I

:26-_'.,

earlywriters 10'),0didal l u d e to power structure in'a rur al

. .. ^.

.c o aJllu n i t.y's ta tb ElI

A city worker Illay'go thr ough°l if e belieVi ng that leadershiproa t a with Certaintraditional-"key"

people, promin ent _b u a ine 8 8 li1 e nrnew,ap a pe r .

·phUantropiilt8.~. big' 'c on t r i but o r s , ac:i0f\&of..

"o l d, fa mi li e s" hi g h officials ll':ld 80On . In rural,part8l eadership'isne verstatic'. ,( p o343)

.

^{. ", . ' :.}

si:.r~e

hile"d'toex p a nd

~n'

^{'t h i s}

i~~ . "

.

^'..'..

'

^{',,'. .- :"' , ' .,}

FbIO'er aeruceuee ~<h.en.i ~

:a

contelllporollr y_~etlll

~:h i<:h·.'

^{seems tore te-r.ec}

.bo~h ',

^the,"{pr llal

(el~ct~d - ,

offi c i a l a hnd the InfoUlal(sJ."qnlUcant .be h i nd the

8~~ne8 ' c:fec~8io~'~kerB) natu~e,:of

^{power in an y}

cOlllll un i ty• Due tothe fact"that for lllalpowe r .tructuroa are easily discern ibl e , thi's thesis is moroeencernee wit.h the hiddenor in fo r lll~ 1pcw er

~tr,uct.uto s . 'iiuxton (l9lb) dofinespOwor etructorolUI a gr-ol.lp o't IG4dl!~8whot?perat oun off iciall ybUt whoha veqreat.erpowar than tho el e c te d officiah(p.32).

Johnson (1,917) euppoi"Ee th:L,8wh~nhoBtAt~s olec:t od ofticiah":ro not naco.eat-ilythe hportBnt.<lociaion .akan,ina ru r alcO_ I,m H y . Go rt r. at41(1916) bolieYed that knowledgo,of power et,r uctu ro s .r ncombinati on'w i ~hthe abilit.yt\O develop'infond

pa t.to~ n8 ~f

cC:lrlDlUniC4t.ion

. w ith

keyP80~le_WlUl e . .ontlal.to'lluc c e a 8 f u l run!practic.o.

collivei' (-19'16) adds't ha t.'t.h e Dore sen.itlYeworkar~6re

, .

.n

'.

1n

Ld~nti

^{f}lng the}

~wer ~~r~c.t.~re.

^the1I0ro ef·fee tlv.e th ey wi ll be.1n,1D,f.J.u e ncl n qcOlllllun1tyaffair e. 8~.IJ: ton·

(...197 6).poin t e ou t tflill hidde n poW1:l r struct u res are t~e

.• oa t

potent -\~d

^{diffic u l t}

tO~hCOYtrr ; h~wev~r.

^eU,cai

Bocia1~ork.r. ~Ullt ^{le!c n} h~W'^{to,ro.c 0 9'}ri1&0 and'util izethe

pow~r ~U!-.·P~OP1~.

^Hac

ti~ ei-B rawl'1. ( ~.!h:IJ ~

^..•

.u9~ea~. 'r~~'a~

^'.",

"so ci ol og y".wllh.lIpoe i H c'.e mph4 B l ~'o nr'unl COIllIIU",i't.y lJUwec'

8t~uc't~[e, be-;

studied'to'

e~ha.n6e

lhh ..

r.~C(l88 . ~'''J Ohn80n

'(19 BO)'b elievfJ8 tha t 80c i al korkers .houl d de velop

.

.. ^{' .,}

^{. ' ;. .}

^.

[.,la t,i on e hl llB wi th l~.adcr••

of

vu lo u s 8OC lorifoof th~.

cOllllllun ity: for ellalllplc . chu r c h1,)(-£1c 1a18,.-choat

. .

...Off.~ c i Il 1 8. £af" C;lJ:: 9anlzerB . 8lore.ololnera, e"tc~ i.norder

.] learn tho,~Olll';un ity·•.cu etoes, no r •••pat.ternsand ..

tradit.i on s• .Ile att C!8f!..th ht1I4tutalh'Ol p o r;8a~d in for~a1 .s t. ryc t uro BwH l ellergcan J aro tho ri'oaai,lY rec ognh.ed •.'

·b,u x't.on t.l~76)'.u9 90Ilt.1I t.hat.by refe r ring to·t.h e"forllsl lo a d ers.the l r de ch l uns...a.nd.t.he.- veoph..t.h eY,rlt f er-to'.ay give va luab lecluttll.tothowor ker of wherer~al.power U •••

• :l de n"t ify i ngtho,Itoydoc ifr ton·.a kors

i .' ,ilPo!t~nt

^end'

Il~Yhav erD\PltCQ t1o.n~·fur Buccauur(ciU ur ~of ~o¢i a l

'~o'rk prOj ~cta iJo~?8.on .

^{197 7); Dux to n'(1976)}co nfi nl!:

tha t w1t~OUt ^_thoaa nu.ti on'_~f ^tho hiflu.ol~ti al PO~Pl.O.~.h~·r in4ivldul111 inthea cOllllunlt y-llIa y.u je ctwh at h propo. ad_f

·Head ds th at'

~ithout t~uir

IIUP po; t .:

acc~IlPli~hIl.~U

'101.1, 14.

·

b._lIor~ ~d'ifi i cu lt. .

^{U not·h.pO. .}

~bi.

^to

~ctl l u

^...e, I

-r,

'~"~. .:.\

.(

;..-: .

."

r.->

~,,:,,, .,'

ae

In 8UllIllIllt i OI'l'f,t.hellIajority of'wri t.er s sugges t.a

, ,

co ebrnetLonof acad ellli ~and oxpe rien t. ial learnino;J ec ai d. t.he rurai sopia l .work er inidentify ing theinf o r lll4l power st.ruct.ures'wh ich ha ve beendee~ed.neC8 $s e.ryforaucc e u ful practiC:e.

La c k of socIal eervicea. In,r o f e'!enc e t.o lack,cr- ..•

ervi~e~·, Hat~he~s '(l9~7)

^{providesthe''f}'Ol i o Wi ng

.corniDentar yt' "

"a w:orks~'i nth~city goe8 about. herw~Z::kasa

SIll&11 partof a large soc ial,serviceeactu ee, A co un t.ry'w.o rk e r ,1&'l.IeuA'llythewhole Ila c hi ne ' heraelf. The,c ity workeri8eceeof a specialistwhilethecount.rywor ker 18a geh eral -pra ct.It ioner . She,com:espr('ltty near hav1.M to

c1o,;,verythl ng." (p', ~ ,: t:?". ..

St.rOOe (19Jtilcontinues this idea by at.at ing

~t ,~

ma'ny'cit y workers

conc:ent~~te' ~n ~ifhculti08

, '

.

.~ specHiceo their area of'Bpec:iali~ati 6nwhileth e rura~~orker's role elllcolllpaa s elJ'eore di v eraedut ies',

" ', '

Str?de elaborated by ~ug 9'es t ~ n9 that in urbanarea~

prob.lell~..o~ com~unity coo~e r a til' in~erpretat1o~ . po~icya,dllinhtration and procedur8s aee allocated to

"aupeil~,~,? 'while ••l'sponeibl.Ht y.f o r"the 88 task' in rural area-·11 e wHhthe work8<c. Gi.n.berg (1976)

~UU&'! di~,ferent.

t.en.i..nol09Y·

b~t '~XpreUf)d eilli.l ~r

coneer-ne ..whenhe ttated thAt rural Bocial "',orker.s r.quiClld apecHalhedd U b inworking with a

, I