an evaluation of the reading-wiriting connection in the third year secondary school textbook"new prospects"

(1)

People’s

Ministry of H

Mohamed

Faculty of

Department

Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

Submitted by:

Amina YAHI Sara KAOULA

Board of Examiners

Supervisor: Dr.Mohammed BOUKEZ

Chairperson: Mrs. Loubna KOUIRA Mohamed Seddik Examiner: Mrs. Malika NOURI

An Evaluation of the Reading

Year Secondary

People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria

Higher Education and Scientific Research

medSeddikBen YahiaUniversity, Jijel

Faculty of Lettersand Languages

Department of Letters and English Language

Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillments of the Requirementsof Degreein language Sciences

Supervised by: Dr. Mohammed

: Dr.Mohammed BOUKEZZOULA Mohamed Seddik Ben Yahia Chairperson: Mrs. Loubna KOUIRA Mohamed Seddik Ben Yahia Malika NOURI Mohamed Seddik Ben Yahia

2016

n Evaluation of the Reading -Writing Connection in theThird

ear Secondary School Textbook“New Prospects

esearch

sof the Master

BOUKEZZOULA

ZOULA Mohamed Seddik Ben Yahia University Ben YahiaUniversity Mohamed Seddik Ben YahiaUniversity

onnection in theThird

(2)

Running head: EVALUATING THE READING –WRITING CONNECTION IN NEW PROSPECTS

An Evaluation of the Reading -Writing Connection in the Third Year Secondary School Textbook “New Prospects”

Amina Yahi Kaoula Sara

(3)

I

Dedication

We dedicate this humble work to;

our caring and devoted parents,

our wonderful brothers and sisters,

our families,

ouramiable friends,

and to anyone who hasprovided us with support and encouragement,

(4)

II

Acknowledgement

First and foremost, we would like to express our deepest and Sincere thankfulness and appreciation to our supervisor Mr. Mohammed Boukezzoula who provided us with judicious guidance and valuable advice throughout this research work .

We wish to address our thanks to Mrs. KouiraLoubna and Mrs Nouri Malika for their acceptance to examine this piece of research.

A particular gratitude is expressed to Mrs.TanouneNariman, the third yearsecondary school teacher, for her invaluable help and assistance.

We would like to extended our gratitude to all secondary school teachers who helped us in one way or another , especially those who accepted to fill in the questionnaire.

(5)

EVALUATING THE READING-WRITING CONNECTION IN NEWPROSPECTS

III

Abstract

The present piece of research aimed at examining the way reading and writing are taught in the Algerian secondary schools .Most particularly, it is concerned with the evaluation of theeffectiveness of Third year secondary school textbook “New Prospects” in articulating and promoting the relationship between reading and writing and the teachers’ perception and views towards this relation. In order to validate the results of this study, three research instruments were employed: Textbook evaluation of third year secondary school textbook “New Prospect”, a classroom observation of third year secondary school classes and a questionnaire which was administered to 20 secondary school teachers who taught third year classes. The evaluation of “New Prospect” revealed that reading and writing connection is not adequately introduced in the textbook .Moreover, the results of teachers’ questionnaire and the classroom observation showed that the majority of participants in our sampling are aware of the importance of connecting reading and writing and its role in developing students’ language proficiency. However, a tiny minority of them attempt to establish this connection in their classrooms.

(6)

IV

List of Abbreviations and Symbols

SKCP: Shared knowledge and Cognitive Process L1: First Language

L2: Second Language

EFL: English as a Foreign Language ELT: English Language Teaching Q: Question

(7)

V

List of Tables

Table 1: Themes and Unit’s Organization of New Prospects………...50

Table 2: The Reading and Writing tasks included in Unit One………....54

Table3: Teaching Experience at Secondary School……….71

Table4: Teacher’s Experience with Third Year Secondary School Classes……72

Table5: The Reading Level of Third Year Secondary School Students…….... 73

Table 6:Frequency of Reading Instruction……….….74

Table 7: The Textbook Effectiveness in Developing the Learners’ Reading Proficiency……….75

Table 8: The Objective of Teaching Reading………...…76

Table9: Teacher’s View on The Writing Level of Third Year Secondary School Students………..78

Table 10: Time Devoted to Writing Practice………...….79

Table 11: The Different Kinds of Writing………....80

Table 12: The Textbook Effectiveness in Developing the Learners’ Reading Proficiency……….81

Table 13: The Objective of Teaching Writing………..…....82

Table 14: Reasons behind Students’ Poor Writing………...…83

(8)

VI

Table 16: Ways of Responding to a Reading Text ………...…86

Table 17: The Use of Paragraph- Length Written Responses………...…87

Table 18: Frequency of the Use of Paragraph- Length Written Responses…….88

Table 19: The Classification of Language Aspects………...90

Table 20: The Basis for Writing Topics Selection………....91

Table 21: The Basis for Reading Topics Selection………...92

Table 22: Textbook Efficiency in articulating the reading –writing

connection………..93

(9)

VII

Table of Content Dedication………I Acknowledgements……….II Abstract………..III List of Abbreviations……….IV List of Tables………...V Table of Content………...VII General Introduction………1

1. Statement of the Problem………..1

2. Research Questions ………..1

3. Means of research……….2

4. Aims of the study………..2

5. Hypothesis……….2

6. Structure of the Study………3

Chapter one: Textbook Evaluation and The Algerian Educational

System

Introduction………..4

(10)

VIII

1.1.1. The Primary School………..4

1.1.2. The Middle School………...5

1.1.3. The Secondary School………..5

1.1.4. The Higher Education………...5

1.2. Definition of the Textbook………6

1.3. Types of Textbook Evaluation………..7

1.3.1. Pre-Use Evaluation………...7

1.3.2. Whilst – Use Evaluation………...8

1.3.3. Post-Use Evaluation……….9

1.4. The Importance of Textbook Evaluation………..9

1.5. Advantages and disadvantages of the textbook………9

1.5.1. Advantages………..11

1.5.2. Disadvantages……….11

1.6. Using a Couresbook Effectively……….12

1.7. How to Use a Couresbook Effectively ………...13

1.7.1. Selecting………...13

1.7.2. Adapting………...13

1.7.3. Supplementation ………..14

(11)

IX

1.8. The Need for Textbook Evaluation……….15

1.9. Approaches to Textbook Evaluation………...16

1.9.1. Impressionistic versus in-depth Evaluation……….17

1.9.2. For-Potential versus Suitability………...17

1.9.3. Predictive versus retrospective………...17

1.9.4. Checklist Approach………...18

Conclusion………..19

Chapter two: The Reading-Writing Connection in Syllabus Design and Evaluation Introduction………20

2.1. A Historical Perspective on the Development of Reading and Writing Pedagogy………20

2.1.1. An Overview on the Development of Reading Pedagogy………20

2.1.2. An Overview on the Development of Writing Pedagogy……….22

2.2. The Reading Writing Connection………...25

2.3. The Relationship between Reading and Writing………26

2.3.1. In First Language Acquisition……….26

(12)

X

2.3.1.2. nondirectional Hypothesis………...28

2.3.1.3. Bidirectional Hypothesis………...29

2.3.2. In Second Language Acquisition………31

2.3.2.1. Transfer of Literacy Skills from L1to L2………..31

2.3.2.2. Reading –Writing Relationship in Second Language…………...35

2.4. Approaches to Reading -Writing Connection Research……….36

2.4.1. The Rhetorical Relation Approach………..36

2.4.2. The Procedural Connections Approach………..37

2.4.3. The Shared Knowledge and Cognitive Processes Approach…………..39

2.5. The Importance of Reading Writing Connection………41

2.5.1. Writing Support Reading………...41

2.5.2. Reading Support Writing………...43

2.5.3. Reading and Writing Support Learning……….44

2.6. Strategies for the Implementation of the Reading -Writing Connection Pedagogy………44

2.6.1. Reading Difficulties………..…44

2.6.2 Writing Difficulties………..……..45

(13)

XI

Conclusion……….47

Chapter Three: Data Analysis and interpretations

In

troduction………...49

3.1. Textbook Evaluation...49

3.1.1. General Information about the textbook………..49

3.1.2. Presentation of “New Prospect” Textbook……….50

3.1.3. Textbook Evaluation Checklist………...52

3.1.4. Evaluating the Reading- Writing connection ……….……….53

3.2. Classroom Observation………...64

3.2.1. Classroom Observation Description………...64

3.2.1. Classroom Observation: Analysis of the results………..64

3.3. Teachers’ Questionnaire………..67

3.3.1. Administration of the Questionnaire………...68

3.3.2. Description of the questionnaire………..65

3.3.3. Presentation and Discussion of data……….70

3.3.4. Interpretation and Analysis ……….……….92

Conclusion………..97

(14)

XII

Pedagogical recommendations………..98

General conclusion………...100

References………103

Appendices

Appendix A: Teachers’ Questionnaire

Appendix B: Classroom Observation Grid

(15)

General introduction

1. Statement of the problem

2. Aims of the study

3. Hypothesis

4. Means of research

(16)

EVALUATING THE READING –WRITING CONNECTION IN NEW PROSPECTS 1

1.Statementof the Problem

For manyyears reading and writing were taught separately, educators rarely made explicit connections between the two for their students. However, over the last ten years research has shownthat reading and writing are moreinterdependent than we thought.

Reading affects writing and writing affects reading .Reading instruction is most effective when intertwined with writing instruction and vice versa; as stated by Tiereny and Shanahan (1991) “We believe strongly that , in our society, at this point in history, reading and writing , to be understood and appreciated fully , should viewed together, learned together, and used together.”(p. 275). Simply knowing that reading and writing are intimately connected processes is not enough, in order to help students develop these two essential skills; teachers need to implement an effective pedagogy geared towards the articulation of this connection.

This present study seeks to evaluate the extent to whichthe third year secondary school textbook “New prospect ” articulates the important connection between reading and writing . As well as, the extent to which teachers attempt to establish this connection in order to render the learning process more effective .

This study attemptsto answerthree major questions:

1. Do teachers attempt to implement pedagogy geared towards the articulation of reading -writing connections intheir classroom teaching practice?

2. Is reading writing connection sufficiently exploited bythe third year secondary school textbook “New prospects”?

(17)

3. Are teachers of English in the Algerian secondary schools aware of the importance of connecting reading and writing to develop their students language proficiency ?

2. Aims of the Study

This piece of research aims at:

1.Evaluating the use of reading writing connection to promote the learning of the two skills.

2. To highlight the importance of reading writing connection in the learning process

3. Hypothesis

Two hypotheses guided the design and interpretation of the results of this study: Hypothesis one:

We hypothesized that the third year secondary school textbook « New prospects » does not adequately articulate and promote the link between reading and writing Hypothesis Two:

We equally hypothesize that Algerian secondary teachers are not aware of the importance of connecting reading to writing .

4.Means of research

As far as the present study is concerned, three datacollection methods will be used. First an evaluation of the textbook « New prospects » to investigate the presence of reading- writing connection in the Algerian curriculum and to determine the effectiveness of reading and writing instruction from the perspective of reading-writing connection. Second, a classroom observation in order

(18)

to collect information about secondary school teachers’ classroom practices in relation to the issue under study .Third,a teacher’s questionnaire will be designed and implemented in order to investigate teachers’ perceptions and views on the textbook effectiveness with regard to reading and writing instruction in the Algerian secondary schools.

5. The structure of the study

This study consists of three main chapters. The first two chapters present the related literature while the Third chapter discusses the practical part of our study. The first chapter presents a brief description of the Algerian educational system,and discusses some general aspects of textbook evaluation . The second chapter deals with the reading -writing connection in first andsecond language. Moreover, this chapter presents theory and researchregardingreading -writing connection, and some ways inwhich reading and writing support eachother. Finally , it analyses some difficulties faced by readers and writers and some strategies to enhance learning and teaching through reading – writing connection .The third chapter presents the results and the interpretation of the data generated by the three research instruments used in our study . Moreover, in this chapter some pedagogical recommendations will be suggested on the basis of the findings of this present study.

(19)

Chapter one

Textbook Evaluation and The Algerian Educational System

Introduction

1.1. The Algerian Educational System

1.1.1. The PrimarySchool 1.1.2. The Middle School 1.1.3. The Secondary School

1.1.4. The Higher Education

1.2. Definition ofthe Textbook 1.3. Types of Textbook Evaluation 1.3.1. Pre-Use Evaluation

1.3.2. Whilst – Use Evaluation 1.3.3. Post-Use Evaluation

1.4. The Importance ofTextbook Evaluation

1.5. The Advantages and Disadvantages of Textbook Evaluation 1.5.1. Advantages

1.5.2. Disadvantages

1.6. Using a Couresbook Effectively 1.7. How toUse a Couresbook Effectively 1.7.1. Selecting

1.7.2. Adapting

1.7.3. Supplementation 1.7.4. Evaluation

(20)

1.8. The Need forTextbook Evaluation 1.9. Approachesto Textbook Evaluation

1.9.1. Impressionistic Versus In-depth Evaluation 1.9.2. For-Potential versus Suitability

1.9.3. Predictive versus retrospective 1.9.4. Checklist approach

(21)

EVALUATING THE READING-WRITING CONNECTIONIN IN“NEW PROSPECTS”4

Introduction

It has been widely argued that a textbook is a crucial constituent of theEFL classroom.Thus, Textbook evaluation is of utmost importance to ensure the textbookpedagogical contributionto the teaching and learning processes. Thischapter dealswith a brief description of the Algerian educational system . Then ,it highlights some important issues related to textbook such as the definition of the textbook , its importance in EFL classrooms , its advantages and disadvantages . In addition, it presents somecriteria for anefficient useof thetextbook. Furthermore, the chapter in handdiscusses some issuesrelatedto textbook evaluation such as textbook evaluationtypes, and approaches.

1.1. The Algerian Educational System

After the independence in 1962 the Algerian educational system was highly exclusive and geared toward the training of French colonial elite. With the foundation of the Ministry of Education in 1963, the process of building an inclusive and open national educational system was set in motion. Officials charged with developing the educational system placed their focus on a number of goals, primary among which were the “Arabization” of curriculum and faculty, the upgrading of teaching skills at all levels, and the promotion of a skilled class of workers and technicians through the emphasis on technical and vocational education. The Educational system in Algeria is structured as follows:

1.1.1. The Pre-School and the Primary School

Primary school is free and by law compulsory for all children of school age (six and above).At the age of five years, the Algerian children enter the pre- school and spend there a whole yearbefore they are enrolled in the primary school .Once they are

(22)

At the first year of this stage there is a greatfocus on the teaching of Arabic and mathematic. Education in foreign language (French) begins in the third grade, whereas English language is not taught at all. Inthe fifth grade childrenundergo a national examination called “Primary school examination.” Those who pass the exam move to the middle school

1.1.2. The Middle School

Middle school period used to last three years prior to 2003, but now it is extended to four years as part of the government’s initiative to reform the educational system. At the age of eleven years old, the Algerian pupils begin their four year middle education. In fact English language is introduced in the first year continuing through the last three years. By the end of the fourth year pupils undergo a national examination which would allow them to progress to secondary school.

1.1.3. The Secondary School

Secondary education begins at the age of 15years old .It consists of a three-years cycle of study. And ends when students take the baccalaureate examination before they proceed to one of the universities, state technical institutes, or vocational training centers which fall under the responsibility of the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

1.1.4. The Higher Education

The Algerian Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research has implemented a new System the “L.M.D: License –Master –Doctorate” system. This system is set to introducea degree structure based on the new French model of Licence, Master and Doctorate degree.

(23)

M: Master is equivalent to two years after the License degree D: Doctorate is equivalent to three years after the Master degree

1.2. Definition of Textbook

A textbookor a couresbook is a manual of instruction in any branch of study. Textbooks are produced according tothe demands ofeducational institutions; they are meansof instructionthat are designed to be directly used in the classroom. Textbooks remain a staple within school curricula worldwide, presenting teachers and learnerswith official knowledge of school subjects as well as, the preferredvalues , attitudes , skills , and behaviors of experts in the field . Many researchers have givenseveral definitionsfor the concept ofthe textbook.For instance, Sheldon (1988) argued that the textbookrepresents the visible heart of any ELT program. According to Richards and Schmidt (2013) a textbook“ is a book on a specific subject used as a teaching- learning guide” ( p.550). Athird definitionwas given by Braym (2002) which states “textbooks are one particular resource amongstan increasingly wide and diverse range of teaching materials, designed for teaching and learning a particular subject and

following particular methodologicaland dialecticalprinciples”(p.626).. The term

“textbook” can also be used in its broad sense to refer to an organized and prepackage set of teaching/learning materials. It iscommonly referred to as couresbook, we shall usethe terms interchangeably.The Textbook provides the core materials for a course ,it is designed so as it can serve as the mainly used book thatthe learners necessarily use during a course .

1.3. Types of Textbook Evaluation

Most materials evaluation specialists agree on the importance of textbook evaluation but diverge quite importantly on when it is best to conduct one depending on early stated aims.Forexample, Cunnings worth (1995), Ellis (1997), Mc Grath(2002),

(24)

Tomlinson(2003), and Mukundan(2007) distinguish between three different types of evaluation depending on when it takes placeand what it aims to evaluate in a textbook. These evaluations are Pre-use evaluation, Whilst-useevaluation, and Post –use evaluation.

1.3.1.Pre-Use Evaluation

Pre-use evaluation is often impressionistic (Cunnings worth 1995) and ratherpredictiveaiming at establishing the future or potential performance of a newly designed textbook.It “involves making predictions about the potential value of materials for their users”(Tomlinson, 2003,p.23). This means, that pre –use evaluation attempts basicallyat measuring thevalue or potential performance of a set of learning materials, as well as making judgments about the effects those learning materials have on the people using them. Hence it is most of the time carried out byteacher’s syllabus and curriculum designers inorder for them to determine which materials are best suited to the target group of learners’ .In fact it can be of three types:

1) Context free, as in review of materials for a journal,

2) Context –influence, as in a review of draft materials for publisher with target users in mind or,

3) Context –dependent as when a teacher selects a couresbook for use in her/his particular class.

In addition to this, it is most of the time subjective leaving many aspects out while pointing others. Mukundan (2007) explains that this evaluation relies either on an implicit model basedon impressions and very much dependent on the evaluator’s intuitions or an explicit modelusing instruments such as checklists.

1.3.2. Whilst - Use Evaluation

Whilst –use evaluation also known as in- use evaluation (Cunnings worth, 1995) or Retrospective evaluation (Mukunan, 2007) is a long –term process which takes place

(25)

as long as the textbook is being used. It is done for many reasons the most important of which being:

The book that has been selected can be evaluated throughout the period itisused and re-evaluated to determine suitability. The results of the whilst – useevaluation can force it out of the classroom if it found to be unsuitable.

Teachers can use the results of while–use evaluation to make the book moreproductive and their teaching more effective by identifying parts of the textbook thatneedadaptation (Mukunan,2007, p.82).

In other words, whilst–use evaluation involves measuring the value of the textbook either by using it or by observing it being used. Compared to pre-use evaluation itis more objectiveandreliable as it relies on measurement tools such as checklists which measure what is observable.However, Tomlinson (2003) warns that “it… is very useful but dangerous too, as teachers andobservers can be misled by whether the activities seem to work ornot.”(Tomlinson, 2003,p.24).This is perhaps what explains that whilst use evaluation receives little attention in the literatureeven if some interesting examples are recorded (e.g. Jolly and Bolitho, 1998).

1.3.3. Post- Use Evaluation

Post use evaluation is perceived to be more valuable than pre-and whilst-use evaluations because it allows measuring the actual effects of a textbook on its users showing its intrinsic value. It further“provides retrospective assessment of a course book’s performance and can be useful foridentifying strengths and weaknesses which emerge over a period of continuous use “(Cunningsworth, 1995, p.14). In addition to this, it can highlight the short-term effects of the textbook as relates to motivation, impact, achievability, instant learning and many others aspects, as wellas the long term

as regards durable learning and application. In other words post-use

(26)

to adapt, replace, orcarry on using the material. The difficulty with this type of evaluation, however, is that it is timeconsuming and requires expertise.

1.4.The Importance of theTextbook in EFLClassroom:

A textbookplays a significant role in EFL teaching and learningprocess. It provides ready-made materialsfor both teachers andlearners. According to Sheldon(1988)“Couresbooksare perceivedby many to be the route map for any ELTprogram”(p.237).A couresbookprovides both teachers and learners with a structure of teaching and learning. Hence,most teachers consider coursebooks to be valuable aids thatoffer useful material and support, and guide learners towards the hard process of learning.According toCunnings worth (1995, p.7) the importance of a textbookin ELT classroom can be summarized insix main points:

A- A source of presentation of materials

B- A source of activities for learning practice andcommunicative interaction C-A referencesource for learners on grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation D- A syllabus (where they reflectthe learningof objectives that have already been determined)

E-A resource for self-directed learning or self- access work

F-A supportfor less- experienced teachers who have yetto gainconfidence.

Many teachers perceive coursebooks as a vital and inevitable tool for their courses and teaching purposes.“The textbook is an almost universal element of ELT teaching” (Torres, 1994, p.135).This entails that a textbook is an essential part of any ELT course. As it gives teachers a relief from the heavy loads of preparation, saves their times, and render to teaching and learning process easier,by reinforcing the teacher’s work and offering material for further learning and revision.

(27)

1.5.Advantages and disadvantages of the Textbook

Although the importance of the textbook was demonstrated by severalresearchers, opinions on whether textbooks can actuallyimprove orhinder theteaching andlearning processesseem topolarize. Eventually ,there has been a considerable debate on the role a textbook has in EFL classrooms by many researchers that can be summarized as follows :

1.5.1. Advantages

First of all, textbooks endow the teachers with ready – available sourceof ELT materials, which dispense them from wasting their energy and time inpreparing teachingmaterials (Edge,Wharton 1998). Moreover, the way in which the textbook chapters are designed and structured can provide a blue print ofhow the lesson shall be conducted (Hutchinson,Torres 1994). One ofthe majoradvantages in using textbooks in ELT environment is that textbook can serve as a good monitor for measuring progress ( McGrath 2002 , O’Neil 1982 , Ur 1996 ) .

From learner’s perspectivea textbookcan be very useful,for instance, it can act asa reference point for theirlearningprocess and keep track of theirdevelopment. As well as, it can serve as a tool for revision of previously taughtitems, andat the same time, familiarize themselves with the new items that will be taught soon,as stated by O’Neil ( 1982) “ the book made it possible for learners who , for various reasons, have missed lessons to catch up .it also made it possible for the class to prepare in advance for lessons ” (p.104) . According to Cunningsworth(1995) students can benefit a lot from a textbook,as it is anefficient collection of materialsfor self-access learning orknowledge consolidation , the thing that get them more focused. 1.5.2.Disadvantages

(28)

ELT, a number of researchers ,e.g. : Allwright 1981, Harwood 2005,swales 1980,have highlighted the different disadvantages regarding the use of textbooks. First of all, the textbook de-skill the teachers.The wide use of textbooks can beseen as an educational failure (swales 1980). That is tosay, using textbook tightly , turns teachers into a very controlled teaching process that deskill the teachers ( Richards,1993). If teachers depend largely on the textbook as the only source of materials , and if they follow pages and activities strictly in order , they turn themselves intoa “technicians”whose responsibility is to teach materials prepared by others . As stated by Allwright (1981) “ having been absolved by responsibilities , sit back and merely operate the system ”(p.8) .In addition the coursebook also causes boredom. Teachersregularly find themselves teaching the sametypes of activities andtasks following the same order, repeating themselves. This predictability will eventually, lead to the decrease of motivation and interest of learners as learners may dislike the topics covered by the textbook which leads to association with boredom .As well as, although textbooks can function as a frame for the learning and teaching processes for both teachers and students (O’Neil 1982 ) notextbook can effectively address individual learning styles, differences of learners ,and requirement of every classroom setting (Tomlinson 2003,Ur1996 , Williams 1983).Obviously this means thatno textbooksuccessed to cater for a particularclass orindividual differences between students. Furthermore, Allwright (1981) arguedthat textbooks, in some cases, may influence the student engagement in the language acquisition process. He claimed that pre-package textbooks areinadequate tosufficiently cater for the complex dynamics of the process of language acquisition .

(29)

1.6. Using a Couresbook Effectively

A considerable number of researchers and educators (O’Neal, 1982; Grant, 1987; Harmer, 1991; Tice, 1991; Richards, 1993; Nunan, 1998; Hedge, 2000; Graves, 2000; McGrath, 2002) havecalled for the need ofsupplementing thecouresbook withmaterial appropriate tocater for the needs ofparticular learners. Course books endow useful materials for both teachers andlearners. However, as statedby Cunningsworth ( 1995) “the role of the textbook is to serve and aid teachers , not to be their “ master” ( p. 7) . Rather, they are best viewed as one of many resourcesin fulfilling the objectives and targets that have been put with regard to the particular learners.McDonough andShaw (1993) pointed out that ability toevaluate and supplement teaching materials effectively isa crucialprofessional activity forEFL teachers and it needs to be under continuous development.

1.7. Howto Use a CouresbookEffectively

In order for a textbook to be used effectively, researchers have suggested some principles that are the following : Selecting , Adaptation , Supplimentation, Evaluation .

1.7.1. Selecting

Having in mind the objectives of the course, teachers should first critically consider the couresbook. As Gaves (2000) recommendedthey needto “get inside thecouresbook” (p. 174). Teachers Analyses the table of content, think over the topics and structures in order to know how these are constructed and why . Following thisoperation,teachers will be able to differentiate between those units that seem relevant and interesting to their students and can be used unchanged and those units that need adaption.

(30)

1.7.2. Adaptation

Onceteachers areaccustomed to the overall organization and content oftheir course book, and they have decided whichunits toreject and which to adapt; thenext step is toconsider how they can adapt each activity to increase itsappropriacy.By determining objectives foreach lesson theycan continue withthe changes they see necessary .The following guidelines for adaption proposed byMcGrath (2002) are useful to be kept in mind throughout the process :

A-Localisation:adapting the material to confine within our country

B-Personalisation:changing the material to satisfy our students’ needsand interests C-Individualisation: adapting the material in a way to address our studentslearningstyles.

d-Modernisation: bringing the material up to date

e- Simplification:making the texts or the tasks easier to do and understand (p.74) 1.7.3. Supplementation

All units that do not satisfy the students’ needs can be altered or substituted byother ready-made, devised or authentic materials .Tomlinson defines supplementary materials as “ materials designed to be used in addition to the core material of a course ”( p. xiii) .i.e. a teacher needs to use materials , other than the textbook to enrich and support the student ‘s learning of a course .Moreover, Ur stresses the importance ofadding other instructional materials to the textbook to enrich the curriculum and enhance students’ learning ( p. 189).Usingmaterials from another couresbookis the easiest way, but one shouldalways considercopyrightslegislation.Writing materials forstudents is certainly more demanding , but on the other hand , this could satisfy the student’s needs . Collaboration and sharing among teachers could also provide a solution to theproblem. these are some of the ways that can be helpful in supplementing the

(31)

EVALUATING THE READING-WRITING CONNECTIONIN IN“NEW PROSPECTS”14 teaching materials.

1.7.4. Evaluation

At the end of every lesson the process of reflection andevaluation is compulsory. It would be very beneficial if teachers keep a record about the process of selection,adaptation, supplementation and their rationale. They can also make briefnotes aboutwhat has worked well , what did not work well , and why and how they believe the same lesson should be reorganized for the next class . But first of all teachers should always consider their students’ reactions and comments on the experience with the course book and supplementary materials (Breen and Candlin1987). With their students’ assistance they can form the criteria for selection, adaptation and design of the material. This can easily be done if they provide their students with a questionnaire where they can freely express their opinions and comments (McGrath, 2002, p.184).

1.8. The Need for Textbook Evaluation

The ever increasing number of textbooks on the market make it so hard formulate the right choice in textbooks ( Cunnings worth 1995 , Green 1926 ) Textbook selection can havea hugeinfluence on theteaching and learning process. As teachers would make references to textbooks (Cunnings worth 1995, Harmer 1991, McGrath ) or even design the whole EFL syllabus around it ( Grainger 2002 , Harmer 1991) . In that sense, the quality of a textbook might be crucial that it can determine the success or failure of an ELT course ( Green 1926 , Mukundan 2007 ) .However, textbooks are often bought without careful analysis (Green 1926, McGrath 2002).

Frequently, when selecting a textbook, educators do not take into considerationthe intrinsic pedagogical value of textbooks ; rather they consider the

(32)

perceived prestige of the author or publisher ( Green 1926, McGrath 2002) or good marketing publishers ( McGrath 2002 ) .Preference is given to bookspublished in attractive covers or that teachers would blindly select the best-sellingtextbook which are used in many other places ( Green 1926, McGrath 2002, Tomlinson , 2010). A number of studies have suggested that most current ELT textbooks are produced for commercial purposes, and are not based on principles of language acquisition as stated by Dendrinos (1992 ) “ textbooks , like any other book that is a publisher print , are pieces of merchandise; the ultimate objective of their production is commercial success ” ( p. 35).

According to Tomlinson (2008), there are two reasons behind failure of the learning process.First, publishers who are driven by the needfor commercial successwould have to producetextbooks according to the public demands. Moreover, teachers tend toopt for textbooks that are designed in a way to minimize the preparation for their classes .The second reason of failure according to him is that instead of focusing on how learners could actually benefit from using the textbook , textbooks’ writers relies on their institution and produce materials according to what they think would work best for their intended users (p.7) . i.e. they are inclined toperceive the needs of the learners , ratherthan taking their real needs into account .

It is therefore very important to conduct an EFL textbook evaluation so as to guarantee that ELT textbooks can effectively promote the achievement of our teaching objectives, and at the same time be economically feasible to both teachersand students .1.9. Approaches to Textbook Evaluation

There are several approaches that underpin textbook evaluation , that are discussed in what follows :

(33)

1.9.1. Impressionistic Versus In-depth Evaluation

Impressionistic approach to textbook evaluation refers to evaluation where an evaluatoris satisfied with taking an overall idea of a coursebook. Just by having a look throughout it to get an overview of its potentials and its strengthsand weakness .As Cunningsworth ( 1995) pointed out “ we can form a general impression of a coursebook fairly quickly , just by looking throughout it, getting an overview of its possibilities and its strengths and weaknesses ” (p.1). i.e. This approach only highlights the key elements of the coursebook without giving much attention to smaller details .Such kind ofevaluation can be veryhelpful in providing a general overview to the materials being evaluated .More precisely, it is appropriatewhen shifting through a lot of coursebooks before making a shortlist for more detailed analysis (Cunningsworth1995).However, unlike impressionisticapproach , In-depth approach to textbook evaluation allows for more in-depth and detailed evaluation tothe coursebook as it considers the kind of language and principles on which the materials selected are based ,especially,those materials that concern learners’ needs. Moreover, it provide enough details to examine to what extent there is a balancebetween what the coursebook consist of and requirement of the learning / teaching situation .

1.9.2. For-potential versus for suitability Evaluation

For- potential approach to textbook evaluation revolves aroundevaluating a couresbook beforeit is actually being used. Hence, the evaluation here is carried out without being linked to any learners or classroom setting i.e. the evaluation is conducted to have a preset use in mind .however , For-suitability approach to textbook evaluation cater for the evaluation of materials in the coursebook when it is actually put into practice , or in other words , in its real use . such an

(34)

approach considers the learners’ objective , background , as well as , the topic and the general content

1.9.3. predictive versus retrospective evaluation

According to Ellis (1997) there are two types of textbook evaluation , predictive and retrospective evaluations . To start with the predictive evaluation , is done for the purpose of the selection of a book .It is designed to make decisions regarding what materials to use . This kind of evaluation relies heavily on teachers’ intuitions regarding materials to be chosen .retrospective, evaluation, on the other hand , involves an ongoing evaluation of the textbook after it is selected and while it is used . Retrospective or as it also knownin-use evaluation of books is done for several reasons some of the important have been mentioned previously :

A- The textbook that have been selected can be evaluated throughout the period Within which it is used to determine its suitability.

B-Teachers can use the results of while-use evaluation to make the book more productive and their teaching more effective by identifying parts of textbook that need adaption

1.9.4. Checklist approach:

Textbook evaluation appear to be an under researched area in ELT with limited supply of relevant literature.A large number of textbookevaluations framework researchers such as Byrd (2001) , Cunningsworth ( 1997 , 1984 & 1995 ), Daoud&Celce-Murcia (1979 ), Ellis (1997) , Harmer (1991,2001) , McDonough & Shaw (2003) , Sheldon (1988), Skiero (1991), Tomlison (2003, 2008) , Ur (1996) , William(1983),have employedthe checklist-based approach to aid teachersevaluate ELTtextbooks . Such an approach suggests a very economic and systematic

(35)

way to ensure that all items are catered for ( cunningsworth 1995, McGath 2002 ) .

A well designedchecklist must encompass evaluation measures that areclear and concise. Evaluation items can also be adapted according to one’s needs soas to provideflexibility during the evaluation process (Mukundan&Ahour 2010).Researcherssuch as Sheldon(1988), Harmer (1991),and Skierso (1991) .Cunningsworth (1995) have proposed the incorporation of checklist as evaluation forms to see how the textbook materials can match up with student’s needs . Harmer (1991) suggests that the use of evaluation forms would be useful to see whether it is appropriate for students .

the checklist is a good channel to make different opinionsof evaluators explicit.Opinions are explicitly shown on the checklist , it can provide for easy comparison between different sets of textbook materials , and thereby facilitate decision making . (McGrath2002, p.7).While most checklists cater to pre-use evaluation ( Ellis 1997 , Mukundan 2007) , the same checklist can actually be used for post-use evaluation to measure the actual outcome of the use of textbooks , which would help to arrive at a more reliable and comprehensive evaluation results .

In conclusion , the checklist is a very economical method for evaluation , it can provide a systematic way to guarantee that all relevant items are taken into account. As well as , it is a convenient way and flexible evaluation tool as evaluators have the total freedom toadapt different evaluation measures dependingon the individual and situational needs .

Conclusion

(36)

learning by providing useful material to both teachers and learners. This chapter dealt with the issues concerning textbook evaluation, and the Algerian educational system . In addition to a definition of the textbook, followed by an explanation of its important role in EFL classrooms . As well as,it discussed its advantages and disadvantages. Moreover,this chapter highlights some guidelines for the correct use of atextbook. Furthermore,it justifies the need for a textbook evaluation. At theend this chapter presents the different types and approaches of textbookevaluation.

(37)

Chapter two

The Reading-Writing Connection in Syllabus Design and Evaluation Introduction

2.1. A Historical Perspective on the Development of Reading and Writing Pedagogy 2.1.1. An Overview on the Development of Reading Pedagogy

2.1.2. An Overview on the Development of Writing Pedagogy 2.2. The Reading Writing Connection

2.3. The Relationship between Reading and Writing 2.3.1. In First Language Acquisition

2.3.1.1. Directional Hypothesis 2.3.1.2. nondirectional Hypothesis 2.3.1.3. Bidirectional Hypothesis 2.3.2. In Second Language Acquisition

2.3.2.1. Transfer of Literacy Skills from L1to L2

2.3.2.2. Reading –Writing Relationship in Second Language 2.4. Approaches to Reading -Writing Connection Research

2.4.1. The Rhetorical Relation Approach 2.4.2. The Procedural Connections Approach

2.4.3. The Shared Knowledge and Cognitive Processes Approach 2.5. The Importance of Reading Writing Connection

2.5.1. Writing Support Reading 2.5.2. Reading Support Writing

2.5.3. Reading and Writing Support Learning

2.6. Strategies for the Implementation of the Reading -Writing Connection Pedagogy 2.6.1. Difficulties in Reading

(38)

2.6.2. Difficulties in Writing

2.6.3. Reading-Writing Connection in Conclusion

(39)

EVALUATING THE READING –WRITING CONNECTION IN “NEW PROSPECTS” 20

Introduction

Languagecurriculaare generally built on the assumption that good readers make good writers and goodwriters make good readers. Learning to read and learning to write are closelyinterrelated thatthe mastery of one skill leads to the mastery of the other. Reading and writing exist only in relation to each other .The two acts are one act, and what all teachers need to do is make use of this simple truth in developing simultaneously the skills of their students. This chapter provides an overview on the development of reading and writing, with a specific emphasis on the reading-writing connection pedagogy.

2.1.A Historical perspectiveontheDevelopment of Reading and Writing

History of reading and writing pedagogy has revealed that several theories have been employed to teach these two essential skills .

2.1.1. An Overview on the Development of Reading Pedagogy

Atthevery beginning, reading was perceivedas being a

consecutiveprocess,startingfrom identifying words to assembling words into bigger meaningful chunks(e.g. :phrases, clauses,sentencesetc.),to getting meaning from text (beck,1993).In order to explainthe reading process, threereading models were put forward :“bottom –up”, “top-down” and “Interactive model”.

To start with ,the two first models “bottom- up” and “top – down”were close in time .However, they are totally opposite to each other.In the“bottom –up ” model , the claim is that reading is a processwhere a reader take into account the syntactic and semantic meanings in order to shape his

(40)

understanding of the text being red. Hence , the reader depends more on graphic representation and hisgrapho-phonemic knowledge ,to decipher letters and words automatically i.e., readersfirst process and understand sounds in speech then move on to understand letters , words ,and finally longer sentences. Eventually,they build comprehension skills as they grow as readers.

On the other hand the top-down model regards reading as a “psycholinguistic

guessing game, which includes interactionbetween language and

thought(Goodman,1960,p127).In this model the reader does not start from the printed text , instead , he starts developing expectations about what he will read and then , he checkstheir correctness bygoing through the printed form . i.e.the reader here depends on the existing syntactic and semantic knowledge to shape his understanding with less effort and time .

In the late 70s,Rumelhartintroduced an interactive model that combines features of both bottom –up and top down models

Comprehensionis the result of simultaneous interactions of the following Knowledge sources for the reader: feature alknowledge, letter-level knowledge letter- cluster knowledge, lexical level knowledge, syntactic knowledge,

semantic knowledge and pragmatic

knowledge(Rumelhart,1977, p.573)

This model regards reading as both a perceptual and a cognitive process. Thus it emphasizes the role of graphic information and pre-existing knowledge in providing the reader with non-visual or implicit information in the text.In (1980) Stanovich came with a moreprecised conceptualization of the reading act than that presented by Rumelhartnamely the “Interactive compensatory model”. This modelemphasized the importanceof linking thenew andthe knownin orderto achieve comprehension. In other words , the reader needsto make

(41)

the link between the idea of a text and what is already known for him to achieve comprehension .

2.1.2.An Overview on the Development of WritingPedagogy

For a long time writing instruction was independent fromthe reading one. In reading instruction,writing was notcommonly used; similarly, in thewriting classreading was not also included. Since the emergence of EFL/ESL writing in 1980s as an independent area of scholarship , many theories have been developed to aid teachers to better understand L2 writing and learning .In most cases , each of those emerging theories , has been transformed into an appropriate methodology, and implemented indifferent classroom contexts . Moreover,each ofthese theoriescontributed to the enhancement of writing instruction in its own way.

The first theoryis product -oriented approach.This view appeared firstin the 1960s from the bond between structural linguistics and behavioral learning theories that was dominant thatperiod (Silva, 1991). In this theory writing was regarded as the product of the writer’s mastering of grammatical and lexical knowledge while writing development was perceived as no more than an imitation and manipulation of the models given by teachers . Hence, the product orientation overestimates the lexical and syntactic language forms , as it regards them as the basis of good writing. Howeverbecause languagestructures werenot sufficient to accomplish the writing task successfully.

Thesecond approach has focused on another namelylanguage functions. The functional approach emphasized the importance of language use as an

(42)

essential criteria for the design of writing teachingmaterials ( Hyland , 2003). This suggest that language structures fulfill certain communicative functions that can be taught so as to enable the learners following this approach to use those structures more effectively . The assumption underlying this view is that functions are the means for achieving the ends (orpurposes) ofwriting.

The third view of teaching writing considers the writer rather than the structure as the startingpoint. Influenced by L1 composition theorists such as Elbow (1998) and Murray (1985) , many teachers from liberal arts backgrounds began to view their classroom objectives as promoting L2 learners expressive abilities .Where ,writing is regarded as a manner of sharing personal meanings , and writing instruction, accordingly, is supposed to stress the power of the writer in constructing his/ her own views on a topic . In this theory which focuses on creative expression, writing is considered to be an act of discovering meaning where a willingness to engage with students assertions is crucial , and responding to those assertions is central to initiate and guide ideas ( e.g. , straub , 2000).

The process approach, which is one of the most important approaches in first and second language writing teaching focuses more on the writer .The idea underpinning this approach is that writingis not a linear process, but rather a reflective process .Accordingly , teachers following this approach were seeking to identify basic cognitive processes as central to writing activity and in stressing the need to develop learners’ abilities to plan,define a rhetorical problem , and propose and evaluate solutions ( Hyland , 2003) . According to( Zamel,1983,p77) ,“ writing is a non-linear , exploratory, and generative process whereby writers discover and reformulate their ideas as

(43)

they attempt to approximate meaning ”( i.e. writing is a reflective process which demands a text to be reviewed , evaluated , and revised before it is produced at all .

The fifthapproach conceptualizes EFL/ESL writinginstruction in referenceto thecontent. This include writing about certain themes or topics of interest related to the course or that set out sequence of key areas of subject matter that students will undertake . Initially , learners need to accumulate a personal knowledge of those themes that will enable them later to write meaningfully about these themes . This theory was more ambitious as one of its main objectives is to endow the learners with the skills and confidence to read texts efficiently as a basis to write their own texts .thus ,this approach focuses on language composing skills , i.e. specific text conventions related with specific domain and its “content’ ’with the aim of enabling students to use their writing skills for various academic and professional purposes .In the last approach writing is viewed as a means of communication for a reader to achieve a purpose . In this orientation called the genre approach ,the writeris seen as having specific goals and intentions , specific relationship to his readers .this approach draws largely on the theory of systematic functional linguistics by M.K. Halliday where he argues that language is a system from which users select the appropriate function to express meaning . As we can notice each of the above mentioned approaches sheds light on a different aspect of the writing process.

(44)

2.2. The Reading- Writing Connection

As noted byTomkinson (2006), reading and writing weretraditionallythought of as separate acts andtaught separately. Up to 1983 unlike writing, reading was not felt as a composing act ,rather it was perceived as a passive act which is no more than decoding meaning and information in accordance with the intention of theauthor of a text “ readers decoded or deciphered language and writers encoded or produced language ‘’ ( p.46) . Afterwards, both teachers and researchers ( Calkins, 1994 ; Eckhoff, 1983 ; Haste, Shorte, & Burke , 1988 ; Lancia , Tierney& Pearson , 1983 ) have increasingly started to give more attention to reading - writing connection .

We believe that at the heart of understanding reading and writing connections one must begin essentially similar processes of meaningconstruction . Both are acts of composing (Tierney & Pearson 1983, p. 568)

Thus, reading and writing have begun to be considered from anew,different perspective. They are viewed as being both similar processes of composing. Petrosky (1982, p.20) noted that

Reading, responding, and composing are aspects of understanding, and theories that attempt to account for them outside of their interactions with each other run the serious risk of building reductive modules of human understanding.

This means that both reading and writing were perceived ascomplementary – processes of meaning – making involving the use of similar cognitive strategies.Calkin ( 1994) claims that reading- writing connections begin when teachersand caregivers get children to love reading poems , books , essays . He argues that when a book means something to a child , teachers can ask

(45)

“what did the author do to make us laugh? ” ; “what the author tend to do?”;“how theauthor creates theeffect?” ; or even “ how can I borrow any of these techniques in my own writing ?.However , the effect of one skill on the other is not a one-way process , because students also can employ their knowledge of convictions of writing to make better sense of their reading .Olsen ( 2007,p .14 ) stated “ Using writing as a learning tool in reading instruction lead to better reading achievements”. Hence, teachersand researchers were convinced ofthe importanceof establishing sucha connection. It was widely believed that one of the best ways to enhance writing is to enhance reading, and vice versa . For the first time a lesson about writing was seen as a lesson about reading , and vice versa . Moreover, in this field it was recommended toinclude discussion of reading in a writing class than to treat the two skills separately . Those convictions cover some of the core principles underlying the field of reading - writing connections. There are several available options for the conceptualization and investigation of how reading and writing interrelatewith one another.

2.3. The study of the Relationship between Reading and Writing

2.3.1. Reading and WritingConnectionIn First Language Acquisition

Researches on reading writing connection have cometo the conclusion that the relationship between reading and writing infirst language can be explained in terms of three main hypothesesor to use Kroll’s ( 1995) description“the models that reflect the direction in which input is understood as transferring from one modality (reading or writing ) to the other . ” (p .89) These models are the following:

(46)

2.3.1.1. Directional Hypothesis

This hypothesis suggests that reading and writing connection is directional,i.e., reading and written texts share similarities at the level of structure . That is, any structure that is learnt in one skill can be applied to the other as stated by Kroll (1995) “reading and writing share structural componentssuch that the structure of whatever is acquired in one modality can then be applied to the other ”( p.89) . For instance , being able to recognize a rhetorical pattern such as of an argumentation in a reading text will eventually lead to the successful reproduction of the same genre in writing . What features the directional model is that it is one - way process .In other words, the structural information canfulfill this condition in only one direction . The most known directional model is the reading - to - write model. The latter argues that a reader can exploit his / her knowledge of texts to enhance his / her writing capacity ,but not vice versa .

This model has received support from many researchers such as Taylor and Beach (1984) whowere studying the effects of instruction in using text structure to recall expository texts and instruction that emphasized writing expository texts and the result was that instruction in writing was influencing neither reading nor writing, however the reading instruction influenced both..The new contribution of the directional model was brought to light by a survey of research on reading and writing relationships conducted byStotsky ( 1983) who found that most of the reviewed research

(47)

claims that additional reading or extensive is more effective in enhancing writing than grammar exercises or extra writing practice .In the same vein , unlike the previously mentioned research ( Tylor and Beach ) she found that reading instruction is generally ineffective . then , Belanger ‘s (1987 ) review of reading writing connection researches came to the conclusion that reading instruction can be effective in developing the writing skill but only when it addresses the elements that are common between the two . Moreover he finds that thetransmission of the structuralinformation from one modality to theother does not occur automatically. One of the important finding he came upon also is that direct instruction in sentence ,paragraph , discourse structure for writing can result in significant improvements in writing . Furthermore in relation to reading - to - write directional model ,Stostsky found in a number of studiesthat there are some writing tasks that can be beneficial in promoting reading comprehension and information retention such as summarizing , paragraphing …etc. which is the same result reached also by Belanger .

2.3.1.2. Non Directional Hypothesis

In this new “nondirectional hypothesis” the connection between reading and writing is only seen in the cognitive process ofconstructing meaning .That is , bothskillsentails composing i.e. we need to reflect , reread to make the constructed meaning . Shanklin (1982) likens writing to a reading process of “ interactive and dynamic activation, instantiation and refinement of schemata” ( p. 89) .Shanahan (1984) also noted that “ if reading and writing involve analogous cognitive structures and processes, it is possible that instruction in one would lead to increase the ability in theother”(p..467).