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UNITED NATIONS

ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR AFRICA ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA

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E/ECA/ATRC\V/3.1(ii)/89

UNITED NATIONS

ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR AFRICA ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA

GUIDELINES FOR THE INCORPORATION OF WOMEN'S CONCERNS IN NATIONAL. DEVELOPMENT PLANS

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ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR AFRICA E/ECA/ATRCW/3.1(ii)/89

ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA

GUIDELINES FOR THE INCORPORATION OF WOMEN'S CONCERNS IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANS

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PREFACE

This paper was prepared as a follow-up to an Ad hoc Expert Group Meeting on Guidelines for the Incorporation of Women's concerns in National Development Plans. Organized by the African

Training and Research Centre for Women (ATRCW) of the United

Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) in November 1988, the meeting reviewed development planning both in economic and

equity matters and the extent to which women's concerns have been

taken into consideration in national development plans.

Accordingly, within the context of the United Nations

Programme of Action for African Economic Recovery and Development (UNPAAERD), the issue of incorporating women's concerns in national development plans was considered particularly urgent.

Given the importance of incorporating women's concerns in national development plans and with the input of the experts, a

paper on: "Guidelines for the Incorporation of Women's Concerns in

National Development Flans" was prepared and produced. The paper

whose content include, among others, "why and how to integrate women in development planning" was written by Mr. Abose Damaksa of

Ethiopia an economist and had worked with the Development Project

Studies Authority in Addis Ababa.

Commissioned by ATRCW, Mr. Abosse Damaksa who within the terms

of reference and objectives of the Guidelines for the Incorporation of Women's Concerns in National Development plans is responsible for the choice and presentation of the facts contained in this

paper.

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INTRODUCTORY NOTE

Chapter I:

Chapter

Chapter

Chapter

Chapter

II

III:

IV;

V:

Chapter

Annex

Annex

Annex

VI

I

II

III

DEVELOPMENT PLANNING ITS ROLE IN THE TRANSFORMATION OF AFRICAN SOCIETIES

WHY AND HOW TO INTEGRATE WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT PLANNING. SPECIAL SECTOR TO BE CONSIDERED

(a) Human resource development

(b) Agriculture

(c) Industry

(d) Environment

METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES

(a) Data Issue

(b) Development of Indicators (c) Economic Model

SELECTED PLANNING MODELS OF INTEGRATING WOMEN'S ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT PLANNING

INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS: THE ROLE OF NATIONAL MACHINERIES AND OTHER WID FOCAL POINTS IN DEVELOPMENT PLANNING

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

STATISTICAL TABLES ON WOMEN'S ROLE

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS SELECTED LIST OF BIBLOGRAPHY

Page 1

5

5

8

12

16

18

18

18

18

21

27

30

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INTRODUCTION

Human beings are basically the same in sharing benefits and in having equal opportunities of life. Discrimination against female sexes on both economic and social grounds tends to deny them the fundamental human rights and freedoms embodied in the Charter of the United Nations. Although women constitute almost half of the world's population and do most of the arduous works than their male partners, they have generally been neglected as equal partners in development process. Women■s share in the overall economic activities and family administration especially in the rural areas, represent substantial contributions to the economy of a society that should be taken into account in recognition of the high role played by women in development.

Ignoring effective utilization of women's role and the resources they represent in economic development implies economic loss to society. Government tend to overlook the important role women can play in their national development planning. In African societies women do more works than men by supplying larger amount of labour, ranging from 50% to 60% (1) of the total labour force, especially in the sphere of agriculture. Women undertake not only most of the food production subsistence items, but even the production of cash crops for export markets to provide foreign exchange earnings to the national economy. In the field of agriculture women participate in all farming process starting from production stage to consumption stage. They produce, harvest, store, market crops and prepare food for the family. Women's access to education and better working and living conditions is essential for the overall development. Women's equitable treatment in labour markets of both urban and rural nature and their participation in decision-making at all levels of administrative, economic and social machineries designate some of the important preconditions of the full integration of women in development.

Yet women are even denied access to modern technology to help them ease the burden of their work. Women are not also equal beneficiaries to modern social and technical education and training opportunities, so that such opportunities are provided in favour of men. The purpose of these guidelines is to provide suggestion to correct such gender injustice.

(1) Warren C. Baum, Stokes M. Tolbert, Investing in Development (Lessons of World Bank Experience), Washington, D.C., Oxford University Press, 1985, p 484.

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countries, especially to developing African societies. The

objective of the guidelines is to serve as a working tool for the

concerned governments for the incorporation of women's program in

their development plants and policies. With this in mind it is

believed that with the application of the guidelines the countries

concerned will be able to enhance their gender-responsive economic

and social developments.

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CHAPTER I

DEVELOPMENT PLANNING. ITS ROLE IN THE TRANSFORMATION OF AFRICAN SOCIETIES

Ambitions for achieving rapid national development have

necessitated the governments of developing societies - including African societies to assume the responsibilities of economic and

social management through the method of planning as opposed to market mechanism of economic development based on Laissez-Fair theory of economic policy which advocates non-interference by the

state in the affairs of the national economy. It is common understanding or common belief among the developing nations of Africa and that some degree of development planning based on African economic, social and cultural needs is the only rapid and

practical method of transforming African societies to modern stage

of development. Such belief may be evidenced in some attempts made to examine the development plans of some of the African states in reference to the issue of women in development. Their national development programmes more or less appear to pursue economic an

social policies based on planning, although types of such plans formulated may vary from one African state to another.

It may be quite true that in developed societies including Western Europe and America, which have achieved higher stage of

development, the allocation of both material and human resources to

the needed uses may be made through economic system that is based on market mechanism. However, in most countries of Africa,

material resources and the availabilities of infrastructure as the basis of further industrialization are on a very low level of development. In this respect, the application and pulling of such meagre resource together for the efficient and rapid transformation of African societies to modern stage of development requires the responsibilities of national governments. In this context the kind of planning undertaken by the national governments for economic and social transformation should be determined. There should be clear policy guidelines as to whether reliance should be placed upon market force to emphasize development investment or whether development decisions should be made by the national governments through the application of planning mechanisms on the basis of known economic facts. If the second alternative is to be preferred, the determination of the nature and size of government involvement in the national development for social and economic transformation of its society is important.

The popular argument in favour of transforming developing societies including African societies from the present developing stage to developed stage is that the state action to change the structure of production and trade, as well as to reallocate

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modernization of the society. This argument has wide implication of administrative measure rather than of price mechanism which purely depends upon supply and demand principles, on the assumption that price mechanism is inadequate tool of resource allocation for

balanced development of the national economy.

Areas of development that strongly require government action and planning reflect public investments in such infrastructura1 sectors including transport and communication,, power, education, health, heavy industries, as well as essential consumers industries. Such areas of development may be under the responsibilities of the national governments and are not to be left to the private initiatives. The state allocation of resources in these areas of development should take account of gender-responsive planning and investment which should be undertaken on equity grounds reflecting both sexes.

Although many developing nations of Africa may attempt to devise their national plans for the purpose of rapid development and for rapid social transformation of their societies, certain degree of caution may be needed on the part of the policy makers.

Detailed and highly centralized development planning, especially in the area of economic sector, may create administrative bottlenecks or unmanageable proportions so that inadequate implementation of the plan may be responsible for the consequent failure to fulfil its objectives. This state of affairs has witnessed itself in some developing countries where national plans, because of poor implementation, did fail to attain national objectives (3). Some socialist oriented countries in Africa have tried development planning, but it may require careful attention and procedures so as not to be doctrinaires. National development plans should be formulated in the light of society's needs to respond to practical economic and social problems of that society; and not to be drawn for the sake of ideological satisfaction or interest.

Whether the plan drawn may reflect socialist or capitalist path of development, the effect and usefulness of market mechanism and the role it may play in the national economy cannot be ruled

out. Through effective development planning and through avoiding

unnecessary wastes by efficient allocation of their available resources, the African states can transform their societies to higher stage of development.

(2) Ibid. p. 19-21.

(3) Ibid,

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CHAPTER II

WHY AND HOW TO INTEGRATE WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT PLANNING

In the course of reviewing the development plans of some of the African countries, it was noted that per capita incomes and hence per capital production of many of these countries found to be on a very low level when compared with the developed societies.

Since most of women's activities are unquantified, the greater part of female contribution to the national development remains unknown.

Lack of sufficient facts and figures to quantify women's share in economic and social activities may be some of the reasons for the low level of their per capita production when compared with that of the male counterparts; while in actual fact women undertake more arduous work and contribute more to the national development. In general, low level of productivity of both sexes in development societies reflects low level of education and training, low level of capital investment and low level of infrastructural base as the

main causes of low level of development.

If one considers the size of the national work force, it is highly likely that the number of women may constitute greater number than that of the male sex. This may call for the necessity of paying special attention to the way of increasing the efficiency or productivity of the female sex to enhance their increased contribution to the national development. Society is unable to tackle the overall poetry and unemployment (4) characteristic of most of the present day developing economies unless adequate practical measures are to be taken to improve the status and conditions of women constituting the major segment of development

agent.

The following special sectors should be considered and addressed in greater details and emphasis:-

a) Human Resource Development

In economic terms human resource signifies one of the principal factors of production, the others being land, capital and entrepreneurship. Human resource includes total population and all forms of labour force ranging from unskilled or least skilled agricultural or factory workers to the very highly skilled professional or managers. Hence, in economics human resource as productive force is generally regarded as all forms of labour to include manual, professionals and others. At any given time the

(4) International Labour Office, Employment and Poverty inn a

Troubled World (Report of a Meeting of High-Level Experts

onn Employment), Geneva, Innterntaional Labour Organiztion

(ILO), 1985, pp. 44-47

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unlimited.

The development of human resource may depend upon several features of a given society. Such features may include the size and structure of population, the prevailing customs and le9al institutions regarding education, employment, etc. Yet the development of human capital as one of the factors of development may necessitate skills, capacities, abilities which are possessed by individual to assume a given economic and social activities.

The return on human capital invested implies the income derived by the individual from the application of such skills obtained through education and training. One may therefore consider the time or period required for either formal or informal training for the acquisition of necessary skill as a process of creating ^ human capital which may be similar to the construction or building of machinery for the creation of physical or material capital to provide better quality of productive services.

Since women constitute more than fifty percent of the global human race, they also form greater number of potential labour force. Despite this plain fact, on the whole, women are fond to be less educated and less trained than men; more opportunities of acquiring education at all levels of primary, secondary, colleges and universities are given to men than to women students. Customs and traditions prevailing in some African societies may account for such gender disparity in regard to education. Ignoring to give importance to female education as one aspect of developing human resource may be tantamount to wasting enormous resource in the field of social and economic development. Therefore, to provide women with equal opportunities of education and training for better quality of service in development, the following measures are

necessary: f . . .

1) Clear national policy guideline with a view to maintaining the

balance of public school enrolment between male and female students, reduce illiteracy of both sexes and to provide basic public education on the basis of equity.

2) School dropouts, especially at higher level of education, tend to prevail among female students than among their male counterparts(5) . The causes of such female dropouts should be examined or investigated and necessary corrective

measures be taken.

3) In areas where cultural constraints prevail for females to attend schools, incentives should be provided to girls and

women to increase their attendance.

(5) United Nations Development Programme, Women in

Development(Guidelines by Sector), UNDP, 23 June 1989, p.6

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4) There should be national educational policy in regard to equal

opportunity for women to participate in technical education

and in health service training should.

5) Early marriages of girls should be discouraged in favour of

continuing their advanced education. This may be achieved

through constant dissemination of official advices to the parents so that they should urge their female children toe continue their education of higher learning.

6) At present more urban female children attend schools of all levels than rural female children. In addition to the necessity of equity participation of both sexes, the wide disparity between urban and rural female education should be narrowed down and if possible be eliminated.

7) Equal chances to be accorded to women enabling them to secure fellowship studies provided by both national and international institutions.

8) Women should also be provided with special training for positions at policy making and managerial levels in the national development planning.

9) The national planners should take into consideration the importance of women in development, as constituting essential part of human resource in manpower planning.

10) Female experts and technicians should be given equal chances or opportunities to participate in the national development plans.

Another feature affecting human resource development signifies health and nutritional conditions of the population. The development of human beings from infancy to maturity may require the availability of balanced food of better nutrition and healthful living conditions. Developing societies including Africa face increasing population pressure (6) implying that their governments, given the low level of economic development and hence the low level of per capita income, are not in a position to provide the growing population with adequate food and health services. This state of affairs has led to the policy of reducing the rate of population growth in favour of improving the female health status, where women could be able to control their

(6) D. Horlacher, and Others, Population and Socio-economic development, Mosco, Progress Publishers, 1986, p.25.

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reproductive functions. Many women in developing societies fall to unhealthful conditions as the result of malnutrition, infections and parasitic diseases. Yet human resources development would be meaningless without adequate provision of food and health care with both sexes as equally beneficiaries. Apart from the general inadequacies of availabilities of health and nutritional food supply, there is also a frequent failure of health facilities to reach the majority of the population living in remote rural areas.

This may call for some social measures which deal with health, nutrition and hygienic care in favour of rural population of both

sexes. Moreover, the importance of participation of women in

health policy and planning to meet specific needs of women should be clearly addressed. Intentional bodies, like the World Health Organization (WHO) recommend that each country should, at least, be

able to give high priority to provide its population with a basic or primary health care. However, such suggestion has been given

less attention in the formulation of national plans and in their implementation.

fc>) Agriculture

The traditional occupation of women, as food providers, refers to their primary responsibilities to feed and to care for the family. Besides their family responsibilities women also do the greater part of agricultural activities, producing food crops and breeding animals. In any cases, women's contribution in the field

of food production remains unrecorded and their efforts in agricultural development frequently becomes unrecognized (7) .

Yet women represent important strategic factors in the greater part

of food production and ignoring women as development agents in this

area would be tantamount inviting negative consequences on development projects in relation to agricultural sector. In rural agriculture women carry considerable disadvantage faced by rural population as well as overburdened with considerable amount of workloads, Women act as mothers, cultivators, food providers, water fetching, etc. In many cases, women are landless. Because of frequent excessive workload, women lack opportunity of full participation in social gatherings that are mostly dominated by male househeads. As a consequence, women are exposed to unfair exploitation which reflects long hours of work with extremely low level of income, if any.

In many instances, women are also denied command over resources (8) to improve themselves and their working conditions.

In some countries of developing societies, because of customs and

(7) ILO, Op.Cit. pp. 44-477

(8) Warren C. Baum Stokes M. Tolbert, Op.Cit. p.486

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traditions, women may not use meagre incomes they earn from employment without specific consents of the male heads of the family. In the majority of cases, women do not have access to credit facilities and may not be able to apply to credit institution for loan advances because of lack of pledgable assets.

Thus, women face unjust prohibition to own title deed to land by legal and customary restrictions, which have therefore placed women economically dependent on the male heads of the family.

In designing projects of agricultural nature, the incorporation of women into the project is an important consideration. Any development project reflecting agriculture should involve women as one of the major forces of development; and specific policy action must be taken to ensure their full participation in such a project. Such policy action may call for

the following measures:-

1) An attempt was made to review and examine how far ^ African countries have taken incorporation of women's concerns in their development plans; and indication was that, with regard to women s share in the national development, the existence of acute scarcity of data is widespread, suggesting that little action has been taken to incorporate women in development plans. Since most of women s activities, especially in reference to household works have never been well classified and quantified, there are not statistical records indicating full participation of women in African development projects. It was also jointed out that another reason behind the paucity of data on women's development activities is that in general women's education has constantly remained on a very low level. consequently, women could not be employed in modern development organizations, nor could they keep records of their self-employed works due to lack of even the basic elementary education because of widespread illiteracy, especially among women.

The practical solution to this problem may suggest that African development planners should take practical steps to formulate policies for the inclusion of complete and systematic statistical records in their development plans in order to provide adequate measurement of womenf s contribution to the nationf s agricultural development. Such data collection in reference to women in agricultural activities may necessitate the obligatory co operation of the national statistical office for the incorporation of womenfs activities as integral part of the national statistical

records. This in turn, may also necessitate compulsory _ co

operation of the various administrative machineries at various

levels of the government to supply all the necessary basic data on women in agricultural sector, including, of course, their field

works and household duties.

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2. Sufficient data on women in agriculture could be incorporated in the system of national statistics as to reflect who does what by each sex. This mode of data reporting in the national statistics should of course involve all the agricultural activities carried

out by women-including their unpaid works of household.

3. Statistical quantification of women's agricultural activities should be translated into monetary units to provide the necessary economic measurements reflecting the contribution of women to the

national incomes or the gross national product.

4. For efficient collection of information on women farmers and for the formulation of policy in respect of the position of women in development, efficient system of communication should b e

established to reach peasant farmers at lower level.

5. It was indicated in the foregoing discussion that women do not have command over their resources and cannot dispose of them without the consent of the male head of the family._ Such restriction on resources also include restrictions on the rights of women's personal income earned from employments, whether agricultural or otherwise (9). Consequently, in order^ to make use of their personal incomes women require specific permission^of the male househeads. National development policy should examine this aspect of women condition and see to it that women have freedom of using and deciding on their personal properties

including income from employments.

6. Until now, national development plans and hence development projects (whether of agriculture or other sectors) have, in plan or proj ect preparation, overlooked the importance of women in development. Project formulation must take account of women's needs in respect of their activities. Project design must ensure that women be provided with such technical skills and training relevant to their areas of activities that may include agriculture,

animal husbandry, fishery or forestry.

7 . In item 6 above mention was made to the effect that women lack command over resources even to the extent to which they have _ no control over their own personal properties. In the preceding discussion mention was also made that women lack opportunities to have access to credit facilities because of the existing legal framework and customary traditions. It is important that this point should also come to the attention of national policy and law makers where women should be provided with equal opportunities to secure credit facilities for purchases of agricultural implements

(9) Ibid. p.486

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and other inputs of their own. Within the framework of national development plan, agricultural project design can also take account of women's needs with regard to market facilities including courses in accounting and market management. This procedure may represent a good practical usefulness whereby women may be able to record, measure and evaluate their own works and contributions in the

national development.

8. In the foregoing discussion it was also pointed out that women

lack land rights and land ownership as the result of legal and customary restrictions. Although this may pose some difficulty to overcome such traditional restrictions overnight, efforts may be necessary on the part of national legislative bodies and national policy makers to seek solution to the problem whereby certain revisions in the existing laws may be made as to enable women to own land. Creating economic institution where women can access to personal land rights may enhance and accelerate development.

9. Arguments have frequently been made that women, in spite of their excessive workloads, both as agricultural and as household workers, have not been provided with opportunities to take advantage of modern technologies to facilitate their arduous works.

Such argument goes on to state that as the result of this situation, women are considered less efficient in their work performance than their male counterparts. It is therefore important that women be provided with equal chance to apply modern or appropriate technology in order to increase their work

efficiency so as to make it possible to reduce the number of women

employed in agriculture in favour of shifting them to agroindustrial or both other industrial and commercial activities.

10. In the sector of human resources development, mention was made regarding education and training for women. In general, women lag behind in education and training. In formulating sectoral plans, the national development plan should see to it that the plan

contain policies concerning women's equal participation in agricultural or farm management education and training. Such education and training in agricultural sector must also include

animal husbandry where they are able to learn modern techniques to manage and preserve pastoral lands to feed animals.

11. Women are very close to forestry than men in that they carry the greater part of energy supplies and firewoods to the family.

Yet women are not involved in forestry or afforestation or deforestation policies. Women are not given training in forestry education, if any, it must be on a very low level. It would be in national development interest if women are provided with

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enough chance of forestry education and equal participation in national policy regarding forestry, including nursery, seedling and plantation.

These points (1 - 11) may be used as preliminary steps to incorporate women in agricultural development planning. As repeatedly pointed out before, the majority of women in developing societies are involved in agricultural and household activities, and improving women's contribution in this area, with due account that women form greater part of national work force, would represent the backbone of national development of African societies.

c) Industry

In the sector (b) of agriculture, detailed account was given to the role of women in agricultural development because of its relevance to the national economies of developing societies and because of its dominant position to provide employment to the majority of the national population. In the present-day developing nations, like Africa, agricultural sector accounts for around 85%

of gross national product and its importance as the basis for further industrialization has been given top priority in the national development policies of developing countries.

Consequently, the majority of women's occupations in current development of developing societies are to be found in this area rather than in the industrial sector, although there is growing tendency of more labour force (including women) to drift to industries.

Although in many developing societies of today the economic position of industrialization may tend to show a very low level in relation to agriculture, accounting only for about 15% of gross national product, its potential increase in terms of future growth in the economy cannot be discounted. With increasing mechanization of agriculture, the size of agricultural work force will be gradually reduced, requiring less and less work force in favour of more and more work force in the industrial sector of the national economy.

In theoretical and practical terms, an industry may be defined as consisting of group of industrial and commercial enterprises or firms having common objectives to produce industrial goods or services to supply given market needs (10). It may be common practice to classify the various groups of industrial and commercial enterprises according to their production objectives.

(10). Goeffrey Whitehead, Economies made Simple, London, W.H.

Allen & Co., Ltd., 1973, p.46.

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Thus, we may have food industries, coal industries, iron and steel industries, textile industries, textile industries, power industries, oil industries, mining industries, etc. National industries may also be broken down into heavy and light industries.

In many of the developing counties, including Africa, the major segment of industrial establishments constitute light industries which are essentially consumers' manufacturing industries,

importing most of the raw materials from abroad.

There are also small scale and cottage industries playing

important role in the process of industrialization of developing societies. Small scale industrial enterprises contribute a class of industry providing considerable amount of local employment,

especially for women; while cottage industry refers to home

industry where manufacturers or the owners of cottage industries work in their homes. Cottage industry generally represent simple

industrial enterprise where less capital investment is required.

The majority of manufacturers or owners of cottage industry are

women.

Economists often suggests that justification of an industrial projects reflects the project's viability and success in terms of size and degree of complexity involved. Such suggestion goes on to

stress that, according to stepping stone theory(11), it would be possible that industrial sector of a given society may progress from small scale industrial undertaking to a large scale industry.

In the process of operating small scale industries there would be

a great advantage of acquiring skills, capital and experience- At initial stage in Africa and in other developing societies, small

scale industrial projects should first be given particular consideration to provide industrial background as preparatory stage for large scale industrialization.

In developing societies the majority of women in industrial

activities tend to be employed in increasing numbers in small scale industries including food processing, textile and other fibre factories, etc. Women also engage themselves in cottage industries, such as making clothes or garments, sweaters and other materials. In spite of their proportionate increase in modern industries, women in developing countries including Africa tend to

lack formal industrial skills which seem to remain very far behind

skills acquired by their male counterparts. As a consequence, women find themselves not entitled to equal pay for equal performance. Because of the low level of their industrial training, women have less opportunities for financial and social

(11) Murray D. Bryee, Industrial Development (A Guide for Accelerating Economic Growth), Tokyo, Kogakusha Company, Ltd., 1960 p.26

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3. At all 1evels of industrial development projects, women should have access to credit -facilities of industrial nature, and al 1 pol icy considerations in respect o-f preparing industrial projects must make such credit -facil ities -for women as integral part o-f the project.

4. Women shoul d be represented at various 1 evel s o-f industrial management and policy making bodies- Women should be given the chance to assume entrepreneurial responsibilities and policy making positions. Such managerial and policy integration of women is an important consideration of the ace el erat ion o-f industrial development a-f developing societies.

5. Women should also have access to community social services where they could present themselves as ful1 participant in respect of market location, transportation and in-frastructural f acil ities. Great deal of work can al so be done by women more usefully in this field, if more attention is given to it by the authorities both in urban and rural areas - Incl uded in this -f iei d

^re such social activities related to Health care, Maternity or Obsteric services, Kindergarten, etc. Family guidance and Birth Control Services can al so be included in this field.

6. Official encouragement of women to become owners of smal1 and 1arge seale business industries, either as single proprietorship or as a group of shareholders. There should be national policies encouraging women entrepreneurs to -form and operate both smal1 and 1arge industrial businesses. Women in industryshould also be encouraged to be active and full members of national and international trade unions.

7. Development policy should give attention to women in service business where large numbers of women are employed (or self-employed) in offices, commerce, distributive trades such as wholesale and retail businesses, transport, hotels and other related services. More accurate data must be available or

obtained in this category and the government should give special attention to this area. For example, tourist industry may be an important part to depict this category where women can play greater role in this business and where related training is

necessary precondition.

8. The nature of the existing national legislation should be examined to establish whether the existing laws take into account the interests of both men and women on equalitarian principles.

Such exmaination may be undertaken in reference to comparative

profiles for both male and female occupation where educational or

skill requirements, pay classifications, opportunities for better

prospect or advancement, working conditions, social protection,

etc.. should be addressed and investigated.

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9- As suggested in item 6 above, national development policy should also see to it that women in service sector are active participants in national and international trade unions where they could protect the rights of women in development, and such participation must be in proportion to the size of their work -force. Women must al so be given equal chances to benefit themselves -from diversified trainings and skill in service

sector.

10. In the -field cf public service, National law should

guarantee women's equal opportunity for public employment and equal treatment with respect to advancement, training and career development in public services.

11. There should also be stipulation in the national law

guaranteeing equal opportunities o-f employment and equal working conditions for women in the service sector as well. The law must

see to it that women eire not discriminated against on grounds of sex with respect to remuneration advancement and other working

conditions. National legislation should pay special attention to

the fact that employment policies of the private sector in the

service sector should observe that women be given equal

opportunities of pay, advancement and other working conditions in

their respective organizations.

The foregooing suggestions may help for policy considerations with regard to incorporating women in the structure of industrial development. Although at present agricultural sector tends to

occupy dominant position in the overall national development

strategy, the future strategy of developing nations is to expand large scale industrialisation with agricultural development as the basis of that future industrialization. Of course, as explained in sector (a) and elsewhere in these guidelines, human resoruce is the key factor in national development. Women work force accounts for more than 50'/ of the human resource and ignoring the opportunity rights and working conditions of women in industry would be tantamount to slowing down the needed

development.

d. Environment

Women ^re nearer to environment than men, and they are more affected by environmental issues. Women have important and strategic role to play in natural or ecological environment in terms of their agricultural activities, provision of energy by collecting fuel woods, fetching water for the family and providing sanitary facilities (12). any ecological imblances primarily affect women as victims of environmental disturbances. Hence, the loss of soil and destruction of forests creates scarcity of

(12) UNDP, Op.Cit. P.4

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energy and in this case directly affects women in development. To improve environmental conditions, the -following should be considered:

1) Any development policy regarding environmental., issues such

as -forestry, energy, water etc.. should take account o-f women participation in such a policy. Specially women should have a say in environmental plannings-

2) Women as principal providers o-f water -for -family households should have access to clean and safe water that

modern technology or modern science procides, in the case of rural area modern water well with pumps and pipes.

3) To relieve women from traditional tiresome collection of firewoods, there is a need for appropriate technology far

efficient full stoves and untensits

4) To relieve women from traditional method of grinding grains there is also a need for modern flour and oil mills.

5) Considerable amount of women's time, which otherwise could be used for other productive uses, is consumed for taking

care of children. To free women from this aspect of family

work, ther is a need to establish kindergarten both in

rural and urban areas.

6) Women deal with environmental surroundings more than men.

Hence women should be provided with special trainings in environmental management and with technological know-how to effectively utilize environmental components.

7) In as much as women ^re more closer to environment, they should be given priority of income to be accrued from environmental products such as forestry products, fruits, nuts, herbal mediciner, fibre materials etc.

8) Women should also have intensive training in the use of fertilizers, improved seeds and in the art of cultivating

crops.

9) It would 1ikewise be important that any 1egislative measures regarding environmental issue must also involve women both as primary users and as victims of environment.

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CHAPTER IXI

METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES a* Data Issue

The methods used in development planning reflect concrete realization of the principles and theories o-f planning which should be applied to all aspects or sections of development.

Since development planning cannot be performed from a thin air, pianning must imp!y an oderly arrangement of facts and figures which represent the essential prerequisite for the formulation of development strategy. Actual facts must be gathered and put together in a feasible and logical methods so as to produce desired results.

For a viable development pianning, reliable statistical data

^re vital. But in most African countries statistical data on women in particular &re very scarce (13). Therefore all possible

ways o-f collecting data is necessary. This could i be ! done at

national , regional and international level .

b) Devel opment of. Indicators

In development plans statistical paucity or scarcity regarding women is very acute, indeed, for the simple reason that women's activities mostly constitute hausehold works and are not quantified and well classified. Due to variety of reasons and religions beliefs there is lack of uniform patterns of employment records to provide factual information, and this situation signifies the paucity of records for women than for their male partners .

c) Economic Mpdeljs

Models in economics may signify the essential system of economic relationships which attempt to portray the basic economic elements in a real world situation (14). In general, a real world problem may include a large number of economic variables with large number of complex relationships involved between them. Because of such complex ity, in analyz ing any economic situation, it may be necessary to select the most essential elements that are relevant to the subject matter and leave the rest. A model may sometimes be unrealistic since it may lack complete description of the real world situation.

(13) See Some of African Development Plans.

<14) B. Bannock, R.E. Baxter and R. Rees, Dictionary gf_

Economics, Great Britain, Penguin Books Ltd. 1974. P.' 285.

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Economic model may refer to both macro - and micro economic models. Central or national economic planning usually refers to macraeconomic model since it embraces all the economic variables in integrated -form on national level rather than on individual level. Macroeconomic model deals with the relationship between broad economic aggregates, such as overall national production, national savings, the quantity of money, total national

investment, general employment, national taxation, etc.

In view of the complexity of economic variables it would be

necessary to devise sel ected economic model s -for the

incorporation of women to be further explained in Chapter IV.

Consequently, important thing to identify in the economic model may include types o-f entrprises, size of work force, types and grades of qualifications, capital to be invested total and per

capia production, rate of grwoth etc.

Returning to methodological issue to formulate economic models in reference to the incorporat ion of women in development planning, consideration of economic information based on gender 1 ines is important . As indicated in (a) and (b) above, in general, adequate information on women's economic performance is lacking, especially for women in the Third World countries; and existing statistical evidences contain little or no information regarding the role played by women in the national economic development. Practical observations and some recent studies (15) indicate that according to recent research, the major parts of economic activities, especial ly in rural agriculture, are undertaken by women. Since in the overall volume of the national economic performance there is no indication as to women's share embodied in gross national product, it may be difficult to secure specific share of female economic activities in development

process.

As indicated above, women have major1 achievements in the production of goods and services that constitute gross national product <GNP) . Yet such achievements have not been statistically recorded and categorized to reflect the extent of women's contribution to the national economy. Women undertake the entire unpaid household activities, in addition to their outside field works Women also do the major portion of gardening, growing vegetables and fruits, and their shares of performance ^ not statistically quantified.

Specific measures may be needed to create institutional framework for the flow of information concerning women's economic and social activities at all levels of development. Such

(15) ILO, Op.Cit. PP.44-47

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o -

in-formation should contain women as work force and as decision

making bodies in the process of their broad and complete

integration. Basic information regarding female economic

performance may reflect country - specific or region - specific condition to select its awn mode of activities that would be undertaken by women.

This would, of course, call for restructuring of the system of national statistical procedures to reflect gender - responsive recording in both economic and sacial f ields. Although the current tendency is against gender - specific treatment of women in fabour of their complete interation (Chapter IV), this in no way implies sex distinction between men and women. The objective of suggesting economic statistics based on gender line is merely to indicate the magnitude and importance of women's contribution to the national economy that'would justify their integration in the stream of economic development. Economic models to reflect women's issue cannot be ident if ied unless statistical 1y available .

On both economic end social grounds, it would be immoral and unjustified to overlook over 507. of the total work force working longer house and assuming greater parts of the activities at all 1evels of development sectors (Chapter IV). Each country may adopt measures to col 1 ect inf or mat. ion on day-to-day activities of women in both rural and urban t\reas, thereby identifying their day-to-day problems. In general, methodological considerations of economic models concerning women in the sphere of development should aim at gathering basic information that helps to identify the existing situation, general conditions and problems of women in view of finding practical solutions to the problems of their incorporation in development.

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CHAPTER IV

SELECTED PLANNING MODELS OF INTEGRATING WOMEN'S ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT PLANNING

Model pi arming of economic and social structures is dictated by objective conditions reflecting the needs of a given society, with the advance o-f science and technology of production and productive -forces, there has been a need for model development planning not only in socialist oriented economy but even the market economy as wel 1 . But pianning models in socialist economy differs from planning models of market economy in nature.

Although in both systems the language of planning may be used, there may be a wide gap between the two in a degree of intensity. In general, the expression of development planning model s may signify government direction of economic and social activities. Socialist aspect of planning models reflect the determination of total economic activities by the state as opposed to the mode of pi anning of private economy, which, however, may refer to some correct ive measures and control exercised by government in times of economic crisis.

Whether in socialist or capitalist way of planning, planning model s ref 1 ect ing the? integration of women's issue in devel opment process are either rare or non-existent- As the issue of women in development is of recent origin, no development pianning has taken account of gender responsive pianning. Investigations of selected African development pians indicate that no such pi ans contain planning models in reference to women's concern- The Democrat ic Repulbic of the Sudan may be cited as an exception, where one may find some attempts made to include women in economic and soc ial pianning. The 1977/78 - 1932/83 Sudanese development pi&n contains gender-specif ic that provides female participation in technical , managerial and other executive posts (Annex I Tables 3 and 4). The plan includes women managers, women engineer and women 1 abour force. However, this femal e inclusion in the country's development schemes does not depict suff icient pianning models to provide for al1 women integration as desired, because it does not encompass al1 parts piayed by women in development.

Simi1arly, statistical evidence on "Women in National development Plans, Uganda's Experience" (Annex I, Table 2) indicates in both absolute and relative figures the size of female participation in high level decision making and managerial posts. The statistical table contains women in national

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legislative body, women as cabinet ministers, women as ambassadors, women as permanent and under secretaries, women as high court judges and women in others commercial and academic posts. Although Uganda's experience may be taken as an

encouraging sign -for the beginning o-f gender integrative approach in the national development plans, one may not state with

absolute certainity that the country has achieved -full -female integration in development to be included into planning models.

However, observation o-f percentage o-f general statistical division o-f 1 abour force in African agricul tural activities

indicates that the numbers of men and women engaged in agricultural sector are not very apart (Annex I, Table i). In general, this statistical evidence appears to suggest that more African women than men ar^ involved in agriculture, although in few sectors, such as forest clearing, ploughing and hunting less women are engaged. The statistics also suggest that the majority of African female labour force are to be found more of in agricultural sector than in the other sectors of the economy.

This is quite understandable in view of the important position occupied by agriculture as a backbone of the national economy of

the present day developing countries.

Some arguments have been put forward against women-specific planning of economic and social development. Separate planning of the issue of women as opposed to their integrated planning has faced strong apposition in favour of full and complete integration in al1 aspects of the mainstream of national development (16). Cultural practices and prevailing traditional

attitudes may favour women-specific approach, but in the long-run

such cultural and traditional factors should be discouraged and,

give away to full integration. As a way of achieving women

integration in development, national laws and policies should avoid gendei—distinction. Since the integration of women's issue in the area of development may imply the transformation of a society, conducive conditions should be created for WID in

national planning. Such integrative approach could create conditions of equality between men and women, where both could,

equally participate in development process and could equal 1y enjoy the benefits of such development. In order to achieve this

goal , the ex isting development pianning and administrative structure should be reconsidered or re-examined for equal

inclusion of both sexes in all sectors of development.

Strong official commitment on the part of planning authorities and other concerned political leaders to promote the

integration of women's concern in national development planning and to ensure its practical implementation is of paramount importance. Such commitment: must emphasize full participatory approach of women in all spheres of development where they could

(16) UNICEF, UNICES Programme. Guide! ines, (Women Programmes) ,

Volume 4, Hay 1909,

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Such involvement in the process of planning, implementing and evaluating development plans would provide women with more and more economical and soc ial -freedoms.

Against this background , pianning models may be used an an ex pi icit selection of some economic and social variabl es -for model--buil ding to depict women's integrative approach . Thus, spec i-fie areas of activities most common -for women's integration shoul d be ex pi ored and ident if ied . Sel ect ive identification o-f sectors having greater impact on women's concern in development is necessary. The best planning models that may concern women in stream o-f development may be re-fl ected in areas o-f activities, where women are most commonly engaged and are more productive.

These may include sectors such as (1) agriculture, <2) trade, (3) industry, (4) community services, (5) public services, (6) increasing women membership in various co-operative movements, and (7) equal employment .

The above sectoral identifications to be included in model - building for integrating women in development pianning may be elaborated as follows:

1- Agriculture. Women's participation in agricultural activities may be reflected in the productions o-f food and cash crops, as we! 1 as in gardening . Women pi ay strategic role in -food production to support the family, and un-f artunatel y their contributions to the economy in this important area has remained unrecorded and unrecognized , as it is traditional 1y considered as unpaid fami 1y 1abour .

Women also partic ipate in the production of cash crops for domestic and export markets , but they have 1ittle or no share in the proceeds from the sales of such products. Hence it is important that thxs ^r&s. should al so be identified and be included in development planning models.

Equally important is that women take active role in animal husbandry and in raising livestock and taking care of other domestic animals. This aspect of women activities would also provide important &r&& for the inclusion of women's issue in planning models.

2- Trade . Women frequently f ind themselves in such areas of commercial activities incl uding whol esale and retail

distributions, banking, insurance and tourism. Goods and services

commonly offered for sales in the market by women sellers hould

also be identified and assessed to be included in planning model

building .

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- 24 -

3. Industry,. Other common areas where women tend to engage themselves include such industrial sectors as handicraft and 1 ight industries i rival ving food , textile and beverage -factories;

chemical , pharmacentical , pulp and paper industries, as well as electronic and computer industries. These sectors of the economy likewise provide important ingredients -for model building to integrate women in development planning,

4. Community Service?. Women engage themselves in such areas of social activities, especially in health and educational activities. Women provide medical and sanitary services; they participate in teaching activities, especially children and sometimes adult groups. These areas involving women participation must also be identified and recognised to be included as part of planning models for women integration in development.

5. F'ubl ic Services. Women also assume clerical and secretarial activities in publ ic and private off ices . Although most of clerical and secretarial jab seem to be of law—paying nature, 1 arge number of women tend to participate in this area, which can also be of worthwhil e inclus ion into the pi anning models.

6. Increasing women membership in various co-operative movements must also be identified and encouraged as part of women's pianning models .

"? ■ Equal Empi oyment ■ Women should also be accorded equal empl oyment opportunities in al1 sectors of economic and social activities. Along with men, women should be employed in both skilled and unskilled labour, especially in agriculture, industry and soc ial services. Measures should be taken that women 1 ike men, be employed in industrial and agricultural productions as tractor and machine - operators, 1 ivestock farmers, car and 1orry drivers, repair workers, builder and other areas of employment opportunities available for men as well as for women (17).

To construct planning models regarding the integration of women in planning, profound research studies should be made and statistical facts and figures should be available. Adequate data collection need to be made in the above economic and social sectors.

There is al so a need to include women as equal partners in policy for decision-making process, as well as in managerial and 1eadership positions.

Sov i et Legisl at ion on Women ' s Rights, Moscow, Progress Publishers, 1978, P.94.

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Planning models shoul d also speci-fy technological investment needs for the integration of women's issue. Identification of areas of investment in th is respect is important . Some of the work burdens fal1 ing on women refer to the provision of food, water and energy suppl iss. Women carry water and col 1 ect -f irewoods sometimes from far away places. Women also use traditional methods of preparing food for the family. Recent survey idnciates that Ethiopian women, on average, work not 1 ess than 15 hours a day, working the whole day an farm, preparing food and doing other house works in the evening (18).

To relieve women from such workloads, national development plans should take account of the fact that these areas of women's workload be identified and necessary investment measures be made in appropriate techno!ogy. Most of the newly introduced technological know-hows tend to favour male workers than female partners (19), especially in the area of agriculture, industry and infrastructure. For example, applications of modern fertilizer (20) and improved seeds to better and tire!ess production of food and cash crops tend to favour men than women.

Ways of providing near water supply, flour mills and modern energy supply should also be recognised and necessary measures be taken to include them in planning schemes. The need for the reconstruction of rural roads has a.n important impact on the integration of women's issue in planning and hence the formulation of national development plans should also take account of this aspect of in-frastructural devel opment .

Another area of work 1oad that consumes women's time, which otherwise could be put to other productive uses, is the taking care of children up to maturity. To relieve women from such additional workload, measures should also be taken tc provide investment pianning in k idnergarten .

In dealing with such planning models the knowledge of population and labour statistics by sex is important to determine the relative size of women in both national population and in total labour foce. Such statistical knowledge would provide spec if ic nature of female 1abour force . In order to work out gender integration, understanding socio-economic situation and specific needs of both sexes, gendei—based statistics is extreme!y important ■ The availabil ity of such statistical data on gender lines Ar& conductive to better formulation of strategies for integrating women in development.

(18) Oral information obtained from Wome's Affair Office of the Minsitry of Agriculture during recent visit to Bahir Dar by the author.

(19) Warren C. Baum and Stokes M.Tolbert, Op. Cit. PP. 88-89.

(20) Ibid.

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- 26 -

of growth indicator, etc. constitute an important guidance?

The conclusive summary of this chapter should emphasize that well organized system of information about women in development in each country is necessary for concrete identification of economic areas suitable for the integration of women's issue in planning. To obtain such information gender-based commercial, industrial and social statistics should be constructed and made +"Y °rder tO ident"y enterprises and other areas of

opment where most female are likely to be employed. On the

basis of well-orgnized economic and social data, it would be

possible to prepare sound planning models concerning the

integration of women. Planning models based on reliable and sound

statistical methods can provide economic and social *rea<s or

sectors where they could make better contributions to the

national development and to the society as a whole

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CHAPTER V

INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS s THE ROLE OF NATIONAL MACHINERIES AND OTHER MID FOCAL POINJS IN DEVELOPMENT PLANNING

Any development programmes and sectors, whether pub!ic or private, cannot be isolated -from the action or policy influence of the state which maini-fests itself in legislative and regul atory government actions. In general , the separation of the government impact -from economic and social environment would be difficult to visualize; ^and any economic and social programmes of a given society shoul d -function within the general framework of public policies laid down by the govenrment of the society.

Economic and social policies should merit executive and legislative approvals and cannot be undertaken contrary to policy regulations o-f the state. Especially, political commitments and interest o-f government in power is essent ial for the intervention and practical implementation of a given development programme.

Thus, to implement the incorporation of women in development planning, the commitments of political leaders and policy makers are the essential prerequisite.

The responsibility and guidance of development planning must come from the top of the machinery of the state. In socialist - oriented countries, the political party gives directives to the state. In all cases it must start from the top. Such guidance is very important, because the al1ocation of human and material resources to the most needed uses is invol ved. Coordination of government departments in development planning is of paramount importance, and uniform guidance from the above to the concerned units is necessary. Nat ional 1 aws and pol icies may be laid down but may not be enough in themselves unless followed by practical and effective applciations to' meet the desired objectives.

African states have responded to international and regional pressures and mandates (21) to eliminate gendei—discrimination practices and to fully integrate women in develapment. To make such integration (22) pract ical realities, African governments have created, in accordance with the general frameworks of their individual political ^ economic and social systems, various national machineries within their ministries, commissions, public or parast^tal agencies. Yet, the implementation aspect is still in very slow as such machineries have yet to undertake the integration of women in development planning to the fullest

(21) Gloria Nikoi , Consultant', Women inEjeyel opment Unijfc^ African Development Bank group, F'ol icies and Machineries for Mainstreaming Women's Programmes and Projects into National Planning and Finance Priorities, May26, ?<27, 19B9, PP. 4-5.

(22)Ibid.

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extent possible. poi icy measures may be needed to ensure -full integration o-f women in sphere o-f development, both as workers

and as decision-makers.

Among the national administrative and - development institutions to be used as areas o-f intervention and -for establishment o-f women's units to monitor their integrative development include ministries of -food and agriculture, health (including -family planning and nutrition), education, industry (such as handicraft and 1ight industries) , social affairs, finance, planning, trade; and other financial and service

institutions such as banking, insurance and tourism.

Other infrastructural and cultural machineries having greater impact on WID and cal1 ing for women's representation may refer to appropriate technology, forestry and soil conservation, energy, water supply and sanitary services, rural roads and transport , as wel1 as mass med i a.

Non-government organization can also play significant role as implementing machineries in the integration of WID. In each A-frican country, there &re various international and multinational organisations which may also pi ay important part in the promotion of integrative approach of women's issue in development programmes. United Nations" agencies such as Economic Commission -for Africa (ECA), UNICEF, UNDP, FAO, WHO, UNESCO, and UIMHCR (United Nations High Commission for Refugees), as well as other specialised agencies such as the World Bank, International Monetary Fund and International Labour Organization, African Development Bank represent some of excellent institutional machineries to promote gender integration in cooperation with the national governments in which they function. Multi-national bodies including religious groups, business organizations, and international donors and aid givers such as technical assistance programmes can also be used as

helpful machineries to take part in the process of integrating WID, in conjunction with the national governments. These

international and multi-national bodies can establish women programmes with implementing and monitoring units in their respective organizations.

Co-operat ive soc i et ies such as serv ice and producers co operatives may also represent some of the important non governmental machineries for the incorporation of women in

development strategies. In country where there are women's

organizations such as Revolutionary Ethiopia Women Association

(REWA) in Ethiopia, there could also be excellent female

machineries, especial 1y for fol1ow-up and implementation

programmes for the inclusion of WID.

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Educational institutions a]so count as important machineries

■for the integration of women' s issue in the &r^GSi o-f devel opment . Incorporating more women in academic institutions, such as elementary and secondary schools, as well as colleges and universities, as teachers and as administrators represent some o-f the machineries to encourage the issue o-f women in development .

Any new programmes, whether public or private, need new f inane ial and material support to make such programmes effective.

As such , the imp!ementation of women's programme in development process requires extra budget - Consequent1y , to make the national machineries more effective, the national budgetary system shoul d introduce special budget items (23) to -finance women's mach ineries.

Parastatal and non-governmental agencies cited in the preceeding discussion should also create special budgetary provisions to run -female integration machineries. In the short and long-run, the integration process must be backed by strong

•financial and material support. Otherwise, more establ ishment o-f machineries to monitor, review and evaluate the implementation process o-f women integration woul cl be meaning! ess without adequate -financial backing.

In the implementat ion programme, periodic progress reports should be available to the concerned government organs and to the national legislative bodies on the progress made on the situation of WIB. The status of women's national machineries should also be clearly defined in terms of their working relationships with different government organs to achieve effective integration.

Such relationships must also be def ined with non-governmental agencies whose participation in women's programme must also be essential . There should be clear policy guidelines within which these agencies may carry out women's issue in pianning and programming towards their complete integration in- the national development.

(23) Ibid. P.9

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