Exploring the persuasive effects of a commercial
for a pharmaceutical product :
the elderly vs young adults
J. Perrien, J. Roy, D. Guiot et E. Bastin
Cahier n°254
Avril 1997
Jean Perrien
University of Quebec at Montreal And University of Paris Dauphine
DMSP Research Center E-mail: perrien.jean@uqam.ca
Jean Roy
University of Quebec at Chicoutimi E-mail: jroy@uqac.uquebec.ca Denis Guiot
University of paris Dauphine Research Center DMSP
Etienne Bastin University of Sherbrooke E-mail: ebastin@adm.usherb.ca
EXPLORING THE PERSUASIVE EFFECTS OF A COMMERCIAL FOR A PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCT: THE ELDERLY VSYOUNG ADULTS
ABSTRACT
This paper explores the persuasive effects of different commercials for an analgesic on members of different age groups. Commercial content was manipulated to be either of (a) factual or (b) evaluative. The impact of these two contents was assessed on members of two different age groups: young adults (i.e. people between 20 and 40 years old) and the elderly (i.e. people over 55 years old). Results show that unaided recall is lower amongst the elderly whereas commercials with largely evaluative content result in higher miscomprehension amongst them. As compared to young adults, seniors developed more positive attitudes towards the commercials and generated more positive affective responses towards the product regardless of the commercial content, though their overall attitudes tend to be consistently neutral. Involvement towards the product plays an important moderating role, to such an extent that it blurs the effect of age group on attitude towards the product.
Keywords: Persuasive effects, analgesic, elderly, factual content, evaluative content, attitude towards the ad, attitude towards the product, cognitive and affective responses, implication towards the product.
ÉTUDE EXPLORATOIRE DES EFFETS PERSUASIFS DE LA PUBLICITÉ POUR UN PRODUIT PHARMACEUTIQUE : UNE COMPARAISON ENTRE SENIORS ET JEUNES ADULTES
RESUME
Cette recherche présente les résultats dune étude expérimentale comparant les effets persuasifs de messages publicitaires télévisés pour un analgésique sur différentes tranches dâges. Le contenu du message a été manipulé pour être soit factuel soit évaluatif. Limpact de ces deux types de contenu a été évalué sur deux tranches dâge : les jeunes adultes (personnes âgées de 20 à 40 ans) et les seniors (personnes âgées de plus de 55 ans). Les résultats montrent que le souvenir spontané est plus faible chez les seniors tandis que le message à contenu évaluatif se traduit chez eux par une plus grande incompréhension. En comparaison avec les jeunes adultes, les seniors développent une attitude plus positive face au message et davantage de réponses affectives à légard du produit indépendamment du contenu, bien que leur attitude générale tende vers une forme de neutralité. Limplication envers le produit joue un rôle modérateur important au point de rendre confus leffet de lâge sur lattitude face au produit. Mots clés : Effets persuasifs, analgésique, message publicitaire télévisé, senior, contenu factuel, contenu
évaluatif, attitude face à la publicité, attitude face au produit, réponses cognitives et affectives, implication envers le produit.
When a segment is expanding, it attracts the attention of many marketers. Such is the case of the elderly. It has been documented that the elderly population, as a demographic segment, is expanding twice as fast as the rest of the American population (Gorn and al., 1991). Furthermore, when one looks at current levels of education, disposable income and health, some well established myths about the elderly (e.g. that they are marginal individuals with low disposable incomes in poor health) have to be debunked (Burnett, 1991; Stone and Fletcher, 1986). But this does not mean that this segment is without problems. For example, the over-consumption of pharmaceutical products by the elderly remains a serious issue.
Several consumer behaviour studies have been conducted on the elderly. A significant body of research has focused on the persuasive effects of advertising on this group (e.g. Smith and Moschis, 1984; Burnett, 1991; Johnson and Cobb-Walgren, 1994). This paper fits into this stream of research. Specifically, we investigate the differences between the elderly and young adults in their persuasive reactions to commercials for an analgesic.
BEHAVIOUR OF THE ELDERLY: SOME CONTRIBUTIONS
Several conceptual frameworks from biology, psychology and sociology have been suggested to model the behaviour of the elderly (Moschis, 1992). Despite their differences, each of these emphasizes mass media behavior as a way to counter their social disengagement. In gerontology, the literature stresses the impact of cognitive aging on the processing of advertising stimuli. An important consideration, memory deficits have an impact on the information retrieval process and the elderly experience some difficulty in linking a new piece of information to what has been stocked in memory (John and Cole, 1986; Light, 1991; Hess and Tate, 1991). This difficulty increases with age. To counter these effects of aging, Cole and Gaeth (1990) suggest the provision of individuals with instructions that facilitate the linking of new information with that in memory.
Cognitive aging also affects encoding processes, comparisons and reactions to new stimuli (John and Cole, 1986; Cole and Houston, 1987; Salthouse, 1991). Specifically, information processing is affected by a lower level of selective attention resulting from aging. The elderly demonstrate a lower capacity to extract salient attributes when relevant and irrelevant stimuli are similar or when explicit information is hard to understand (Phillips and Sternthal, 1977; Cole and Gaeth, 1990; Gorn and al., 1991; Boujon, 1992; Henderson, 1995). Finally, we wish to emphasize that the elderly are more likely to be distracted when exposed to a stimuli and that such a situation has a negative impact on their information processing (Schonfeld, 1974; Gorn and al., 1991; Henderson, 1995).
These observation raise questions about the persuasive effects of advertising content, which may be either factual or evaluative. Factual content has been defined as "logical, objectively verifiable descriptions of tangible product features", while evaluative content has been defined as "emotional, subjective impressions of intangible aspects of the product" (Holbrook, 1978, p. 547). This dichotomy has been frequently used in both the advertising and the consumer behavior literature (e.g. Shimp and Preston, 1981; Perrien, Paul and Dussart, 1985; Venkatreman and al., 1990). As far as the elderly as a specific segment is concerned, understanding of the persuasive effects of these different types of advertising content is low and raises the following questions: how do they react to different advertising content, and are their reactions different from those of younger adults? Knowing that some researchers have pointed out that the elderly tend to generate fewer counter-arguments when exposed to persuasive stimuli, we may also question their capacity to discriminate between factual and evaluative advertising content (Salthouse, 1991; Moschis, 1992). This could be considered a social problem when the advertising in question is for pharmaceutical products. Up until now the relationships between aging and the persuasive effects of advertising have been investigated only with cognitive responses, providing for only a limited body of knowledge (Johnson and Cobb-Walgren, 1994; Henderson, 1995).
With these issues in mind, the objective of this research is to investigate the persuasive effects of different advertising content (factual vs. evaluative) on members of different age groups (the elderly vs. young adults). Persuasive effects will be generated by commercials for an analgesic. It has frequently been suggested that advertising is one of the many factors which might explain the over-consumption of drugs by the elderly (Dunnette, 1975; Petersen and al., 1979; Lumpkin and al., 1990), so this research is relevant from a social as well as a behavioural standpoint.
THE RESEARCH
The Conceptual Framework
Given the above stated research objective, the advertising content will be manipulated to be either factual or evaluative. Persuasive effects will be assessed in terms of unaided recall, comprehension-miscomprehension and attitude. The comprehension/comprehension-miscomprehension of an advertising message was initially investigated by Jacoby, Hoyer and Sheluga (1980), but since then has received little attention. Yet, comprehension/miscomprehension is highly relevant to our research because it may vary significantly between the elderly and young adults due to differences in their cognitive skills. Moreover, a high level of miscomprehension may have negative social consequences, especially if it involves a pharmaceutical product. With regards to attitude, we will investigate both attitude towards the advertising message and attitude towards the product.
Several variables may moderate the persuasive effects of an advertising message. First, socio-demographic variables may alter the persuasion process. Smith and Moschis (1984) concluded that not only biological but also cognitive age (the age that I feel) and state of health may intervene as moderators. French and Crask (1977) suggest occupation as a moderator of elderly behavior and their attitudes towards advertising, having an impact greater than that of chronological age. Level of education is another important variable in understanding certain elderly behaviour, such as their media habits (e.g. Dawson and Spangenberg, 1986). Finally, gender must also be taken into account, according to Sherman and Shiffman (1982), because women tend to suffer more than men from mental disorders.
It was decided to include these six variables in the design of this research. In addition, we decided to include involvement with the advertised product and media habits as well. Involvement towards the product has been documented as an important moderator of both attitude formation and persuasion (e.g. Greenwald and Leavitt, 1984; Petty and Cacioppo, 1983). For a pharmaceutical product, such as the analgesic used in this research, involvement may vary significantly between individuals. Finally,
media habits cannot be overlooked in advertising research! And it has been demonstrated that this important variable is subject to some variance depending upon the age of consumers (Burnett, 1991; Schiffman, 1971).
The Design
It was decided to use an experimental design to test the causal relationship between advertising content and its persuasive effects on the elderly and young adults. The elderly were defined as people of age 55 and above, and young adults were defined as people of ages 20 to 40. Advertisements for a fictitious brand of analgesic were designed by a professional team and were used as experimental stimuli. Analgesics are the most widely sold non-prescription pharmaceutical product (used by 92% of the overall population, according to the information we were provided by a professional association of pharmacists). The four leading advertisers who market analgesics (Bristol Myers, American Home Products, Johnson and Johnson, Sterling Drug) allocate over 80% of their media budgets to television so it was decided that the advertisements would be television commercials. A semantic analysis the brand names of analgesics marketed by the four above-mentioned companies led us to develop a brand name which would incorporate two syllabi and five letters and which would have some connotation with aspirin and acetaminophen. Consequently, we branded our analgesic "Cedrin", a name never previously used for an analgesic.
To develop the commercials' content, a content analysis, based on the Resnick and Stern (1977) grid, was conducted on 11 commercials and revealed that the "typical" commercial focused on four points: (1) the product is new, (2) the product contains some specific ingredients, (3) the product works quickly, and (4) a visual demonstration of this. Based on these parameters, two 30 second commercials were produced. The first one was factual whereas the second one was evaluative. The factual commercial was produced first. In a second step, an advertising copy-writer was asked to develop an evaluative version of this factual commercial, with this paper's authors ensuring that the content was fully evaluative. Three iterations were necessary to develop a final version of the evaluative commercial. Two pharmacists and one physician tested and confirmed the plausibility of the two commercials.
The two commercials were inserted into a 13 minute documentary about the city where the experiment took place. Two other commercials were also inserted which were selected at random. One advertised gum whereas the second promoted an insurance company. For validity purposes, the same interviewer conducted all the experimental sessions and the purpose of the experiment was disguised. Participants were told that the objective of the research was to better understand their media habits and their consumption patterns.
The data collection process entailed the following 6 steps:
1) introduction and presentation of the purpose of the experiment,
2) measurement of media habits, involvement towards the product, and socio-demographic characteristics,
3) presentation of the experimental material (length: 15 minutes), 4) measure of unaided recall,
5) forced exposure to the manipulated commercial,
6) measurement of comprehension/miscomprehension, attitude towards the advertisement, and attitude towards the product.
The Experimental Units
180 consumers acted as experimental units: 90 young adults (with ages ranging from 20 to 40, mean = 29) and 90 elderly people (with ages ranging from 55 to 85, mean = 69). Within each of the two groups of consumers (elderly and young adults), participants were randomly assigned to one of the two commercials, resulting in 45 experimental units per cell. Elderly consumers came from a local senior citizen's association which had no other membership restrictions (in terms of religion, past experience, education, sex, etc.). Young adults came from a local college where they were enrolled on a part-time basis. Although experimental units were randomly assigned to experimental manipulations, we also checked for any subsequent statistical differences between manipulation assignments within each of the two groups of consumers (i.e. young adults vs. the elderly). For both age and sex, the random assignment process worked well as no statistical differences were indicated by chi-squared tests.
Measures
Unaided recall was measured with an open question, asking to identify advertised products. Comprehension/miscomprehension measures were based on Jacoby and Hoyer's scale: a set of five "yes or no" questions related to the explicit content of manipulated commercials. For attitude we used a three dimensional model (cognitive/affective/behavioral measures) for attitude towards the product and a two dimensional model (cognitive/affective measures) for attitude towards the advertisement (Aad). A behavioral measure would have been redundant here. Attitudinal items were measured on a seven-point scale, with results also presented on such a scale. Reliability coefficients ranged from 0.76 to 0.95 for the five measures. To measure involvement we used the Personal Involvement Inventory developed by Zaichkowsky (1985). The set of 20 items resulted in a high level of reliability (0.94). To measure media habits, because the experiment involved only television advertising, we used the number of hours per day devoted to watching television. Finally, cognitive age was measured on a "feel age" scale (widely used in gerontology) where participants were asked to report "I feel like someone who is xx years old."
RESULTS
Because the ultimate objective of this research is not to propose nor test a theoretical model but rather to assess differences resulting from two stimuli on two different age groups, we relied on means comparisons.
Effects on Unaided Recall.
Manipulated content of commercials did not significantly influence unaided recall (sum of square = 0, F = 0, p = 1) whereas age group resulted in a significant effect (sum of squares = 5, F = 33.96, p = 0.0001). The magnitude of this effect was strong as it explained 17% of total variance (eta-squared measure). At no surprise, unaided recall was lower among the elderly (mean = 0.61 vs 0.94 for young adults).
Effects on Comprehension/Miscomprehension
Neither the advertising content (factual vs. evaluative) nor the age group (elderly vs. young adults) resulted in significant effects on this dependent variable (content: sum of squares = 2.06, F = 2.46, p = 0.11; age group: sum of squares = 0.99, F = 1.18, p = 0.12). The interaction was significant (sum of squares = 5.71, F = 6.80, p = 0.009) although its magnitude was weak (eta-squared = 4%). Looking at the means by cells provides us with an explanation. For the elderly, comprehension rate (as measured by the number of right answers) increased from 2.26 for the evaluative content to 2.84 for the factual content, whereas it did not change amongst the young adults (evaluative: 2.47; factual: 2.33). The elderly have a better comprehension of a factual message, although the magnitude of this effect tends to be weak.
Effects on Attitude Towards the Message (Aad)
A multivariate analysis of variance was conducted on the two dimensions of Aad (cognitive\affective). Advertising content did not produce any significant effect (Wilk's Lambda = 0.9845, F = 1.37, p = 0.257), nor did the interaction, but age group did result in a significant multivariate effect (Wilk's lambda = 0.94, F = 5.24, p = 0.006). The magnitude of this effect is 6% (1 - 0.94). To better understand this multivariate effect, a stepwise discriminant analysis was conducted, with the two groups as criteria and the two dimensions defined as predictors (the stepwise procedure is intended to control for multicollinearity). Only the cognitive dimension accounted for the observed significant effect (F = 9.12, p = 0.0029). Results were straightforward: regardless of advertisement content, the elderly developed a more positive cognitive reaction to the commercials than the young adults (means of the two groups: elderly = 3.06, young adults = 2.82). This conclusion challenges some previous research which emphasizes the negative attitude of the elderly towards advertising (Burnett, 1991; Burnett and Wilkes, 1986).
Effects on Attitude Towards the Product
Results of the MANOVA conducted on the three dimensions of attitude towards the product were similar to those just presented for attitude towards the message. The overall multivariate effect was significant when age group was the source of variance (Wilk's lambda = 0.9357, F = 3.98, p = 0.0089, magnitude = 6.4%). Neither advertising content (Wilk's lambda = 0.9941, F = 0.341, p = 0.79) nor the interaction (Wilk's lambda = 0.96, F = 2.11, p = 0.10) were significant. Two dimensions of attitude towards the product explained this multivariate effect when a stepwise discriminant analysis was conducted on the two age groups with the cognitive, affective and behavioral dimensions as predictors. First, the cognitive dimension was significantly affected by age (Wilk's lambda = 0.9739, F = 4.77, p = 0.03). Cognition towards the product was higher for young adults (mean = 3.11) than for the elderly (mean = 2.94). However, on the second significant dimension which was the affective reaction to the advertised analgesic (Wilk's lambda = 0.9373, F = 6.91, p = 0.0033), the elderly were more positively inclined than their younger counterparts (means: 2.93 and 2.06 respectively).
Effects of Covariates
Recall that our set of covariates included six individual characteristics, a measure of involvement towards analgesics, as well as the number of hours spent daily watching television. The impact of this set of covariates was assessed for each of the three persuasive effects individually.
The ANCOVA conducted on recall did not change main effects although "feel age" had a significant impact (sum of squares = 1.63, F = 12.48, p = 0.005). To better understand these effects, correlation coefficients between this covariate and unaided recall was calculated (by definition, a significant covariate is correlated with the criteria). This correlation was high: -.4702 which means the youngest respondents felt, the highest their recall of the advertised product.
The ANCOVA conducted on comprehension did not change the direct effects (age: F = 0.99, p = 0.29; content: F = 2.06, p = 0.12) nor the interaction (F = 6.72, p = 0.01). No individual covariate had a significant effect.
The same conclusion holds true for attitude towards the message (Aad): the commercial content remained non-significant (Wilk's lambda 0.9891, F = 0.93, p = 0.39) as well as the interaction (Wilk's lambda = 0.977, F = 2.05, p = 0.136), and age group still demonstrated the same significant effect (Wilk's lambda = 0.957, F = 3.72, p = 0.02). But two individual covariates had significant effects, although these were insufficient to change either the direct or the interactive effects: involvement towards the advertised product (F = 7.72, p = 0.0006) and perceived health condition (F = 6.78, p = 0.0015). Involvement was significantly correlated with the affective attitudinal response towards the advertisement (r = .2272, p = .0022) whereas perceived health condition was negatively correlated with the cognitive attitudinal response towards the advertisement (r = -0.183, p =0.008). The significant correlation between affective reaction to a commercial and involvement towards the product is proof positive that higher involvement towards advertised products has positive consequences for message evaluation.
With regards to attitude towards the product, involvement played the same role. Indeed, it was the sole covariate which resulted in a significant effect (Wilk's lambda = 0.89, F = 6.45, p= 0.0004). Furthermore, this effect was powerful enough to eliminate the effect of age group (Wilk's lambda = 0.989, F = 0.61, p = 0.60). Both the advertising content factor and the interaction remained insignificant (Wilk's lambda = 0.99, F = 0.20, p = 0.97 and Wilk's lambda = 0.97, F = 1.69, p = 0.17 respectively). To better understand the role of involvement on attitude, once again we relied upon correlation coefficients. Involvement was once again significantly correlated with the affective dimension of attitude towards the product (r = 0.2876, p = 0.0001) and, to a lesser degree, with the behavioral dimension (r = .2025, p = 0.0064). The correlation between involvement and the cognitive dimension was not significant (r = 0.552, p = 0.4618).
CONCLUSION
The main objective of this research was to investigate the impact of age on the persuasive effects of a commercial. On all of (1) unaided recall (2) comprehension/miscomprehension, (3) attitude towards the commercial, and (4) attitude towards the product, this variable had an effect. Interestingly enough, though biological age had an effect, cognitive age as measured by "feel age" did not affect the results, with the exception of recall, which challenges the large body of research emphasizing the predictive power of cognitive age, although this conclusion is constrained by the characteristics of our sample. As stated earlier, we relied on homogenous sub-samples (young adults enrolled in evening courses and members of an senior citizen's association) so their could have been a lower variance of the gap between cognitive age and biological age than in the overall population. This homogeneity was required by the purpose of the investigation as well as our desire to ensure internal validity. Nevertheless, the results still challenge the value of the predictive power of "feel age" measures and the extent to which they provide a more explanatory power than chronological age. Our results suggest that the latter sheds light on differences in the persuasive effects of advertising. When one looks at attitudinal scores, it must be acknowledged that the results coming from the elderly are closer to a neutral position than anything else, a conclusion already reached by Phillips and Sternthal.
The magnitude of the experimental results was in the 4% to 6% range, which is far from being unusual in both consumer research and experimental psychology. So the elderly's higher miscomprehension rate when exposed to an evaluative message as well as their more positive affective reaction towards an advertised pharmaceutical product does raise some ethical as well as social questions. Undoubtedly, there is a need to explore the effects of advertising on the elderly's consumption patterns for pharmaceutical products.
deserves additional investigation: why do the elderly not discriminate between factual and evaluative commercials when they involve a product such as an analgesic? Involvement towards the product plays an important moderating role. It has no impact on miscomprehension, but its impact on the affective attitude towards an advertisement is significant, although not enough to alter the effects of age and advertising content. Its impact is however powerful enough to cancel the effect of age on attitude towards the product. Given these findings, it can be argued that socio-demographic characteristic such as age, although they have some value for explaining behaviour, cannot be used without also taking into account important psychological variables such as involvement. Returning to a point made at the beginning of this paper, the behaviour of a segment cannot be predicted based solely upon its socio-demographic profile. Despite the excitement generated by the size and rate of growth of the elderly segment of the population, advertisers and marketers must also consider psychological features (e.g. involvement) if they are to generate an accurate picture of their behaviour.
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