A common understanding of key terms and concepts is essential for:
• consistent interpretation and application of the suggested Strategy components;
• efficient and effective information exchange;
• development of indicators to monitor implementation;
• awareness raising and ease of communication on IAS issues.
The starting point for the EU Strategy should be the suite of definitions annexed to the CBD Guiding Principles.158 However, it is recognised that terms vary by instrument and sector.
The EU acquis uses a range of terms and definitions to refer to IAS-related concepts: the same is true for legislation in MS. Table 4-1 therefore presents a compilation of key terms, their CBD definitions and equivalent terms derived from existing EU legislation in order to facilitate use of common criteria and promote a uniform approach.
The study team recognises that certain terms require further clarification. The table is followed by a short discussion of key terms, highlighting the main points of variability or possible difficulty in their interpretation and showing how such terms are used for the purposes of this report.
158 Consistent with the 2008 Communication: see http://www.cbd.int/invasive/terms.shtml .
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Table 4-1Definition of key terms and equivalents in common use TERMCBD DEFINITIONCOMMON SYNONYMSEU EQUIVALENCIES alien species Species, subspecies or lower taxon, introduced outside its natural past or present distribution; includes any part, gametes, seeds, eggs, or propagules of such species that might survive and subsequently reproduce.
exotic species non-native species non-indigenous species
Animal and plant health regimes: Do not distinguish diseases/pests by origin, except for specific management regimes. Aquaculture Regulation: alien species: (a) ‘a species or subspecies of an aquatic organism occurring outside its known natural range and the area of its natural dispersal potential; (b) polyploid organisms (i.e. artificially induced tetraploid organisms (4N)) and fertile artificially hybridised species irrespective of their natural range or dispersal potential’ (Art.3.6.a and b). locally absent species : ‘a species or subspecies of an aquatic organism which is locally absent from a zone within its natural range of distribution for biogeographical reasons’ (Art.3.7). Habitats Directive: any species which is not native to their territory(Art.22b):not further defined. Birds Directive: species of bird which do not occur naturally in the wild state in the European territory of the Member States (Art.11): not further defined. Water Framework Directive: Not defined but CBD definition accepted as starting point. Marine Strategy Framework Directive: non-indigenous species: not defined. invasive alien speciesAn alien species whose introduction and/or spread threaten biological diversity.
invasive non-native species (environmental) pest plant pest marine pest noxious weed injurious wildlife (USA) unwanted organism (New Zealand)
Animal health regime: Various infectious diseases/pathogens: only qualify as IAS to extent non-indigenous. Plant health regime: harmful organism: ‘pests of plants or of plant products, which belong to the animal or plant kingdoms, or which are viruses, mycoplasmas or other pathogens’ (Art.2e): only qualify as IAS to extent non-indigenous. Wildlife Trade Regulation: ‘live specimens of species for which it has been established that their introduction into the natural environment of the Community presents an ecological threat to wild species of fauna and flora indigenous to the Community’ (Art.4(6)). Aquaculture Regulation: Alien/locally absent species that cause ‘adverse effects to biodiversity, and especially to species, habitats and ecosystem functions’ (Art.4). non-target species: ‘any species or subspecies of an aquatic organism likely to be detrimental to the aquatic environment that is moved accidentally together with an aquatic organism that is being introduced or translocated, not including disease- causing organisms which are covered by Directive 2006/88/EC’ (Art.3.8). Habitats Directive: ‘…so as not to prejudice natural habitats within their natural range or the wild native fauna and fora’ (Art.22b). Birds Directive: ‘…does not prejudice the local flora and fauna’ (Art.11): individual termsnot defined. Water and Marine Strategy Framework Directives: Not defined but referenced in terms of anthropogenic impact/biological disturbance in relevant waters. introductionThe movement by human agency, indirect or direct, of an alien species outside of its natural range (past or present). Can be either within a country
entry of a pest resulting in its establishment (IPPC ISPM 5) Plant health regime: Terminology used relates to ‘entry’, ‘establishment’ and ‘spread’, in line with IPPC concepts. Note on the CBD definition: •broad enough to include transport of species through manmade infrastructure e.g. canal systems •excludes natural spread/migration e.g. linked to climate change (see discussion below).
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or between countries or areas beyond national jurisdiction. Aquaculture Regulation: movement:‘introduction or translocation’: (§3.9) intentional introductionThe deliberate movement and/or release by humans of an alien species outside its natural range.
Aquaculture Regulation: introduction: ‘the process by which an alien species is intentionally moved to an environment outside its natural range for use in aquaculture’ (Art.3.10). translocation: the process by which a locally absent species is intentionally moved within its natural range for its use in aquaculture to an area where it previously did not exist because of bio-geographical reason (Art.3.11) routine movement: ‘the movement of aquatic organisms from a source which has a low risk of transferring non-target species and which, on account of the characteristics of the aquatic organisms and/or the method of aquaculture to be used (e.g. closed systems), does not give rise to adverse ecological effects’ (Art.3.16) non-routine movement:‘any movement …which does not fulfil the criteria for routine movement’ (§3.17) Habitats Directive: ‘…deliberate introduction into the wild’ (Art.22b):individual termsnot defined. Birds Directive: ‘…any introduction…’ (Art.11): individual termsnot defined. unintentional introductionAll other introductions which are not intentional. Thisdefinitionunder theCBDisbroadenoughtoincludenatural spread/migrationlinkedtoclimatechange(i.e. a contradiction in the definitions). establishmentThe process of an alien species in a new habitat successfully producing viable offspring with the likelihood of continued survival
establishment and spread Plant health regime: Terminology used relates to entry, establishment and spread, in line with IPPC concepts. Other terms Instrument environmental biosecurityProtection of the environment and social amenity from the negative effects associated with invasive species; including weeds, pests and diseases. It occurs across the entire biosecurity continuum: pre-border preparedness, border protection and post-border management and control (interpretation underpinning Australian biosecurity policy) risk assessment WTO-SPS Agreement ‘the evaluation of the likelihood of entry, establishment or spread of a pest or disease within the territory of an importing Member according to the sanitary or phytosanitary measures which might be applied, and of the associated potential biological and economic consequences’. pathwayAny means that allows the entry or spread of a pest (IPPC ISPM 5) European Strategy on Invasive Alien Species (Genovesi and Shine 2004): ‘Pathway means, as applicable: - the geographic route by which a species moves outside its natural range (past or present); - the corridor of introduction (e.g. road, canal, tunnel); or - the human activitiy that gives rise to an intentional or unintentional introduction’. vector European Strategy on Invasive Alien Species (Genovesi and Shine 2004): ‘the physical means or agent (i.e. aeroplane, ship) in or on which a species moves outside its natural range (past or present). tradeWildlife Trade Regulation: ‘the introduction into the Community, including introduction from the sea, and the export and re-export there from, as well as the use, movement and transfer of possession within the Community, including within a Member State, of specimens subject to the provisions of this Regulation’ (art.2(u)). sending MSAquaculture Regulation: ‘the Member State from the territory of which the alien species is introduced or the locally absent species is translocated’ (Art.3.19). receiving MSAquaculture Regulation: ‘the Member State into the territory of which the alien species is introduced or the locally absent species is translocated’ (Art.3.18) facilities Aquaculture Regulation: open aquaculture facility: ‘a facility where aquaculture is conducted in an aquatic medium not separated from the wild aquatic medium by barriers preventing the escape of reared
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specimens or biological material that might survive and subsequently reproduce’ (§3.2) closed aquaculture facility: ‘a facility where aquaculture is conducted in an aquatic medium, which involves recirculation of water and which is separated from the wild aquatic medium by barriers preventing the escape of reared specimens or biological material that might survive and subsequently reproduce’ (Art.3.3) quarantineAquaculture Regulation: quarantine: ‘a process by which aquatic organisms and any of their associated organisms can be maintained in complete isolation from the surrounding environment’ (Art.3.14) quarantine facility: ‘a facility in which aquatic organisms and any of their associated organisms can be maintained in complete isolation from the surrounding environment’ (Art.3.15) pilot releaseAquaculture Regulation: ‘the introduction of alien species or translocation of locally absent species on a limited scale to assess ecological interaction with native species and habitats in order to test the risk assessment assumptions’ (Art.3.12).
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‘Alien species’ and interpretation of natural range
The CBD definition is broadly followed by MS although some MS have no single agreed definition. Species should be interpreted to species, sub-species, populations and genotypes.159 Hybrids may be explicitly referenced.160
The critical point from the EU perspective is that ‘alien’ should be capable of application at the appropriate biogeographic scale (i.e. not limited by political or administrative boundaries). The definition selected will need to explicitly cater for species that are native in part of a country and alien (and potentially invasive) in other terrestrial parts, water catchments or marine areas of that country. This is particularly relevant to larger countries but also to e.g. countries with islands.
Example: The European Eel (Anguilla anguilla) is native to freshwaters draining into the Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea but alien to freshwaters draining into the Black Sea. In Austria and Germany, for example, the species is therefore native to some parts of each country but alien in others. In Austria, such species are known for management purposes as
‘regional aliens’.
‘Native/natural range’161 (distribution) can be interpreted by reference to jurisdictional, historic162 or biological parameters, provided they are ecologically relevant. Casual alien species163 also need to be considered.
A key point for the Strategy is to have a clear line on how to treat the expansion of species ranges within EU territory, including but not necessarily limited to altered distribution linked to climate change. ECOSTAT 2009 noted widespread uncertainty on this, linked to the difficulty in separating (i) climate change from other anthropogenic impacts and (ii) human-mediated introductions from natural expansion in species ranges.
Consistent with the CBD and pathway definitions in Table 4-1, the concept of ‘alien’ should be explicitly linked to human-mediated movement of a species outside its natural range.
Support for this approach at the European level includes:
• guidance developed under the habitats Directive164 which specifies that ‘individuals or feral populations of an animal species introduced deliberately or accidentally by man to locations where they have never occurred naturally, or where they would not have spread to naturally in the foreseeable future, should be considered to be outside their
159 Consistent with COM(2006)216) and Action Plan (SEC(2006)621).
160 e.g. the draft Scottish legislation defines the native range of a hybrid animal or plant to cover any locality within the native range of both parents of the animal or plant concerned (see footnote 118).
161 Term used in the habitats Directive and aquaculture Regulation.
162 DAISIE uses 1500, representing the discovery of the Americas. In the WFD context, ECOSTAT 2009 indicated that over half of MS do not limit ‘alien’ by reference to date of introduction. It suggests that a historical date should only be used as a criterion if ecologically relevant e.g. opening of the Suez Canal linking the Mediterranean and Red Seas (1869). Although there is scope to use regionally relevant dates, this could make it harder to harmonise approaches across Europe.
163 ‘Alien species that may flourish and even reproduce occasionally in an area, but which do not form self-sustaining populations, and which rely on repeated introductions for their persistence’ (McNeely et al. 2001).
164 Guidance document on the strict protection of animal species of Community interest under the Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC. Prepared by the Environment Directorate-General, European Commission (EC 2007b).
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natural range and consequently not covered by the Directive. Vagrant or occasional occurrences would also not be considered as part of the natural range’;
• the Bern Convention recommendation that the IAS definition should not be interpreted to include native species naturally extending their range in response to climate change.165
The suggested approach for managing IAS dispersal in the EU under the Strategy is discussed in 5.2.4. combinations of four criteria to assess invasiveness: mode of introduction, ability to reproduce in the wild, spatial dispersion and impact.166
For the purposes of the EU Strategy, it is suggested that impact/threat should be the main trigger for policy concern, consistent with the CBD and most national classifications used for management purposes.
Impacts covered by the CBD definition focus on biodiversity and do not explicitly include alien species that negatively affect economies and human health. However, recent CBD decisions including references to ecosystem services are clearly broad enough to imply that the negative effects of IAS on human livelihoods could also be brought into the scope of IAS policies. In practice, there is a clear trend towards more integrated consideration of negative non-biodiversity impacts of IAS.167 Tackling IAS as both a biodiversity and economic issue is fully consistent with the UN- and EU-backed programme on The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB).168
Socio-economic impacts are explicitly covered by the definition of risk assessment under the WTO-SPS Agreement. They have been included in the development of an European indicator for IAS (EEA 2009b) and are relevant for WFD assessments (see further 4.3).
Consistent with the suggested approach to ‘alien species’, the Strategy’s interpretation of IAS should explicitly cover species native in part of the EU that, following introduction in
165 Recommendation No. 142 (2009) of the Standing Committee to the Convention on European Wildlife and Habitats interpreting the CBD definition of invasive alien species to take into account climate change.
166 e.g. Richardson, D., Pysek, P., Rejmánek M., Barbour M., Panetta F. and West, C. 2000. Naturalization and invasion of alien plants:
concepts and definitions in Diversity and Distributions 6: 93-107.
167 See e.g. European Strategy on Invasive Alien Species (Genovesi and Shine 2004); Japan IAS Act 2004; draft Scottish legislation (see footnote 118); the IPPC taking notice of pests’ effects on human and animal health (e.g. ISPM 11); and recent decisions adopted by the CBD Conference of the Parties (e.g. collaborative work with economic sectors potentially affected by stricter IAS pathway measures).
168 See generally www.teebweb.org
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another part of the EU, threaten biodiversity, human health or wellbeing and/or socio-economic interests.
‘Movement’
This term should be interpreted, unlesss the context indicates otherwise, to cover commercial and non-commercial movement of alien species into and/or within EU territory (see also WTR definition of trade in Table 4-1 above).
‘Holding’
This term should be broadly interpreted, unlesss the context indicates otherwise, to cover keeping and possession in containment or captivity, including but not limited to facilities for breeding, propagation, display etc.
‘Release into the natural environment’
The term ‘introduction’ can be applied to a wide range of pathway actions (see Hulme et al.
2008 and Figure 2-1) and be defined in various ways (Table 4-1). It is suggested for the purpose of clarity that the Strategy use the term ‘release’ to cover intentional introduction and ‘natural environment’ (i.e. outside settled areas) in place of ‘the wild’. This should be clearly interpreted to cover the marine environment up to the limits of national sovereignty / jurisdiction.