• Aucun résultat trouvé

Appendix C: Excluded municipalities

I exclude from the sample 24 excluded municipalities with a total stock of housing that does not exceed 50 dwellings. These are small jurisdictions with an average population of 77 inhabitants and an average size of 5 square kilometers. On average, these municipalities are located 52 kilometers away from Paris (with a standard deviation of 21 kilometers).

These jurisdictions have been excluded as they are often characterized by extreme vacancy rates. The latter indeed take values between 0 and 58% in these locations. The following map represents the location of these excluded municipalities. The results are similar when including these outliers in the analysis (results not reported).

Figure 3.12: Location of excluded municipalities (with fewer than 50 dwellings)

App endix D: Correlations b et w een indicators of comm uting cost

Table3.11:Cross-correlationtable Variables1DistancetotheCBD2345678 1DistancetotheCBD1.000 2Directconnection(dummyvar.)-0.355*1.000 3Commutingtime0.836*.1.000 4Nb.oftrainstations-0.266*.-0.273*1.000 5Nb.oftrains-0.480*.-0.522*0.173*1.000 6Commutingcost0.127.0.227*-0.062-0.1171.000 7Dist.tocloseststation0.642*-0.547*0.025-0.060-0.024-0.0011.000 8Totalcommutingtime0.761*-0.532*0.999*-0.270*-0.522*0.227*0.970*1.000 *Significantat1%significancelevel

References

Baum-Snow, Nathaniel (2007). “Did Highways Cause Suburbanization?” In: The Quar-terly Journal of Economics 122.2, pp. 775–805.

Baum-Snow, Nathaniel, Loren Brandt, J Vernon Henderson, Matthew A Turner, and Qinghua Zhang (2014). “Roads, railroads and decentralization of Chinese cities”.

Charlot, Sylvie, Claire Dujardin, and Florence Goffette-Nagot (2014). “Income in French Empowerment Zones: A Panel Data Approach”. In:

Cheshire, P., C. Hilber, and H. Koster (2014). “The Determinants of Housing Vacancy Rates”.

Dow, James P (2005). “Neighborhood Factors Affecting Apartment Vacancy Rates in Los Angeles”. In: Southwestern Economic Review 32, pp. 35–44.

Engle, Robert and Robert Marshall (1982). “A microeconometric analysis of vacant hous-ing units”. In: The urban economy and housing. Lexington: DC Heath and Co.

Gabriel, Stuart and Frank Nothaft (1988). “Rental Housing Markets and the Natural Vacancy Rate”. In: Real Estate Economics 16.4, pp. 419–429.issn: 1540-6229.

— (2001). “Rental housing markets, the incidence and duration of vacancy, and the nat-ural vacancy rate”. In:Journal of Urban Economics 49.1, pp. 121–149.

Garcia-Lopez, Miquel-Angel, C. H´emet, and E. Viladecans-Marsal (2015a). “Urban spatial structure and transportation in Paris: The effects of the Regional Express Rail”. In:

Garcia-Lopez, Miquel-Angel, Adelheid Holl, and Elisabet Viladecans-Marsal (2015b).

“Suburbanization and highways in Spain when the Romans and the Bourbons still shape its cities”. In:Journal of Urban Economics 85, pp. 52–67. issn: 0094-1190.

Glaeser, Edward L., Joseph Gyourko, and Raven E. Saks (2006). “Urban growth and housing supply”. In:Journal of Economic Geography 6.1, pp. 71–89.

Guasch, J.Luis and Robert Marshall (1985). “An analysis of vacancy patterns in the rental housing market”. In:Journal of Urban Economics 17.2, pp. 208–229.issn: 0094-1190.

Gyourko, Joseph and Raven Molloy (2014). “Regulation and housing supply”.

Haurin, Donald (1988). “The duration of marketing time of residential housing”. In: Real Estate Economics 16.4, pp. 396–410.

Housing Statistics in the European Union (2010). National Board of Housing, Building and Planning, Sweden.

Hwang, Min and John M. Quigley (2006). “Economic Fundamentals In Local Housing Markets: Evidence From U.S. Metropolitan Regions”. In:Journal of Regional Science 46.3, pp. 425–453.

Jud, G. Donald and James Frew (1990). “Atypicality and the Natural Vacancy Rate Hypothesis”. In:Real Estate Economics 18.3, pp. 294–301. issn: 1540-6229.

Mayer, Thierry and Corentin Trevien (2015). “The Impacts of Urban Public Transporta-tion”. In:

Nadalin, Vanessa and Danilo Igliori (2007). “The determinants of Vacancy Rates in the Sao Paulo Metropolitan Area: A spatial Approach”. In: Proceedings of the European Regional Science Association (ERSA) Conference. Cergy-Pontoise.

Pissarides, Christopher A. (2000). Equilibrium Unemployment Theory, 2nd Edition. MIT Press Books. The MIT Press.

Roback, Jennifer (1982). “Wages, Rents, and the Quality of Life”. In: Journal of Political Economy 90.6, pp. 1257–1278.

Rosen, Kenneth and Lawrence Smith (1983). “The price-adjustment process for rental housing and the natural vacancy rate”. In:The American Economic Review, pp. 779–

786.

Rosen, Sherwin (1979). “Wages-based Indexes of Urban Quality of Life”. In: Current Issues in Urban Economics. Ed. by P. Mieszkowski and M. Straszheim. Baltimore:

John Hopkins Univ. Press.

Thalmann, Philippe (2012). “Housing Market Equilibrium (almost) without Vacancies”.

In:Urban Studies 49.8, pp. 1643–1658.

Vakili-Zad, Cyrus and Joris Hoekstra (2011). “High dwelling vacancy rate and high prices of housing in Malta a mediterranean phenomenon”. In: Journal of Housing and the Built Environment 26.4, pp. 441–455.

Wasmer, Etienne and Yves Zenou (2002). “Does City Structure Affect Job Search and Welfare?” In: Journal of Urban Economics 51.3, pp. 515–541.

Wheaton, William C. (1990). “Vacancy, Search, and Prices in a Housing Market Matching Model”. English. In: Journal of Political Economy 98.6, issn: 00223808.

Zheng, Beiyao and Alan Agresti (2000). “Summarizing the predictive power of a general-ized linear model”. In: Statistics in Medicine 19.13, pp. 1771–1781.

This collection of essays explores the determinants and effects of location choices faced by economic agents. It addresses the three following questions: firstly, what are the determinants of a location choice across cities? Secondly, what are the consequences of these individual decisions and the effect of the spatial concentration of workers? Thirdly, once working in a large city, how do individuals allocate themselves within that urban area? This thesis answers these questions by looking at three specific dimensions of these location choices: the role of consumption amenities, the effect on the entry into the working life, and the influence of distance and transport to the center of a city.

Each essay is concerned with the interaction between urban economics and other strands of research. The first essay follows on from Richard Florida’s analysis that de-scribes the emergence of a new socioeconomic class, the so-called creative class. This research has been influential in very different fields, including economics, sociology, re-gional sciences, political sciences and socio-economics. Existing analyses from these vari-ous strands of research have been influential to formulate the research question addressed in this chapter, and to identify the main issues faced by previous empirical works. Besides, this essay indirectly questions the ambition and efficacy of economic policies oriented to-ward the arts. In that respect, it completes other analyses performed in the fields of urban planning and political sciences.

The second chapter is also multidisciplinary as it directly combines two types of anal-yses. Evaluating the sources of agglomeration economies is one of the main questions handled by researchers in the field of urban economics. To approach this question, this chapter uses tools and concepts proposed by researchers in the fields of labor and educa-tions economics. It also directly contributes to these fields but exploring the influence of a new variable that affects young workers’ ability to find jobs related to their field.

To finish, the last essay combines elements from the fields of labor economics, real estate and transportation economics. By asking questions related to affordability and accessibility of housing in big cities as well as workers’ commuting behaviors, it also indirectly contributes to recent policy debates. Striking examples include the design of the Grand Paris and the extension of existing transport infrastructures in that area, or recent debates about the requisition of vacant homes in large cities. Both have attracted much attention over the last years.

1.1 Analysis of the wage and rent equations . . . 15

1.2 Wages and rents according to the relative specialization of cities in 2010 . . 19

1.3 Rent regressions . . . 21

1.4 Wages regressions . . . 22

1.5 Alternative measure: access to cultural goods and services . . . 27

1.6 Alternative measure: access to cultural goods and services (with fixed-effects) 28 1.7 Seemingly Unrelated Regressions - cultural employment . . . 30

1.8 Concentration index and location quotients - Rent equation . . . 31

1.9 Concentration index and location quotients - Wage equation . . . 32

1.10 Employment and population growth . . . 35

2.1 Summary statistics . . . 47

2.2 Baseline regressions . . . 54

2.3 Matching: Neutralizing the influence of Paris and the biggest areas . . . . 56

2.4 Robustness check: Highest degrees and agglomeration . . . 58

2.5 Alternative methods of estimation . . . 60

2.6 Instrumental variables . . . 65

2.7 Spatial Sorting: ability . . . 67

2.8 Spatial Sorting: mobility . . . 68

2.9 Spatial Sorting: mobility . . . 69

2.10 Spatial Sorting: mobility . . . 70

2.11 Spatial Sorting: mobility . . . 71

2.12 Wage regressions . . . 73

2.13 Wage regressions - Robustness checks . . . 77

2.14 Wage regressions - Instrumental variables . . . 79

3.1 Stock of housing by occupancy status . . . 92

3.2 Between and within variations of vacancies in Parisian municipalities . . . 94

3.3 Growth rates of housing supply in the Paris metropolitan area (1968 - 2011) 95 3.4 Characteristics of housing units (in %) . . . 95

3.5 Baseline regressions . . . 107

3.6 OLS estimations . . . 110

3.7 Robusteness checks . . . 112

3.8 Neighborhood and Sensitive urban zones . . . 113

3.9 Regression with commuting . . . 117

3.10 Summary statistics . . . 120

3.11 Cross-correlation table . . . 122

1 Rents and population . . . 2

2 Crime rates and population . . . 2

3 Wages and population . . . 3

4 Amenities and population . . . 4

1.1 Local amenities in a spatial equilibrium . . . 14

1.2 Wages, rents and culture (average over 2005-2011) . . . 19

2.1 Employment density in French employment areas . . . 48

2.2 Historical provinces and capitals . . . 61

2.3 Historical remoteness and current employment density . . . 63

2.4 Correlation between employment density and historical population density 63 2.5 Average wage by employment area . . . 72

2.6 Marginal effect of employment density (in log) on wages, conditional on skill match. . . 75

2.7 Marginal effect of skill match on wages, conditional on employment density. 75 3.1 Evolution of housing vacancy rates (1968-2011) . . . 91

3.2 Housing vacancy rates in the Paris area . . . 93

3.3 Evolution of housing vacancy rates in the Paris area (1968-2011) . . . 94

3.4 Equilibrium rent and perceived market tightness in c . . . 100

3.5 Beveridge curve and equilibrium u and v inc. . . 101

3.6 Beveridge curve and equilibrium u and v inc and c0 . . . 102

3.7 Equilibrium rent and market tightness with commuting costs . . . 103

3.8 Commuting patterns in the Paris area . . . 105

3.9 Location of train stations in the Paris area . . . 114

3.10 Commuting modes . . . 115

3.11 Effect of a rise in κ . . . 119

3.12 Location of excluded municipalities (with fewer than 50 dwellings) . . . 121